Themasterswhoinstructedtheyoungpeople，eitherinmusicorinmilitaryexercises，donotseemtohavebeenpaid，orevenappointedbythestate，eitherinRomeoreveninAthens，theGreekrepublicofwhoselawsandcustomswearethebestinformed。Thestaterequiredthateveryfreecitizenshouldfithimselffordefendingitinwar，andshould，uponthataccount，learnhismilitaryexercises。Butitlefthimtolearnthemofsuchmastersashecouldfind，anditseemstohaveadvancednothingforthispurposebutapublicfieldorplaceofexerciseinwhichheshouldpractiseandperformthem。
　　IntheearlyagesbothoftheGreekandRomanrepublics，theotherpartsofeducationseemtohaveconsistedinlearningtoread，write，andaccountaccordingtothearithmeticofthetimes。Theseaccomplishmentstherichercitizensseemfrequentlytohaveacquiredathomebytheassistanceofsomedomesticpedagogue，whowasgenerallyeitheraslaveorafreed—man;andthepoorercitizens，intheschoolsofsuchmastersasmadeatradeofteachingforhire。Suchpartsofeducation，however，wereabandonedaltogethertothecareoftheparentsorguardiansofeachindividual。Itdoesnotappearthatthestateeverassumedanyinspectionordirectionofthem。ByalawofSolon，indeed，thechildrenwereacquittedfrommaintainingthoseparentsintheiroldagewhohadneglectedtoinstructtheminsomeprofitabletradeorbusiness。
　　Intheprogressofrefinement，whenphilosophyandrhetoriccameintofashion，thebettersortofpeopleusedtosendtheirchildrentotheschoolsofphilosophersandrhetoricians，inordertobeinstructedinthesefashionablesciences。Butthoseschoolswerenotsupportedbythepublic。Theywereforalongtimebarelytoleratedbyit。Thedemandforphilosophyandrhetoricwasforalongtimesosmallthatthefirstprofessedteachersofeithercouldnotfindconstantemploymentinanyonecity，butwereobligedtotravelaboutfromplacetoplace。InthismannerlivedZenoofElea，Protagoras，Gorgias，Hippias，andmanyothers。Asthedemandincreased，theschoolsbothofphilosophyandrhetoricbecamestationary;firstinAthens，andafterwardsinseveralothercities。Thestate，however，seemsnevertohaveencouragedthemfurtherthanbyassigningsomeofthemaparticularplacetoteachin，whichwassometimesdone，too，byprivatedonors。ThestateseemstohaveassignedtheAcademytoPlato，theLyceumtoAristotle，andthePorticotoZenoofCitta，thefounderoftheStoics。ButEpicurusbequeathedhisgardenstohisownschool。TillaboutthetimeofMarcusAntonius，however，noteacherappearstohavehadanysalaryfromthepublic，ortohavehadanyotheremolumentsbutwhatarosefromthehonorariesorfeesofhisscholars。Thebountywhichthatphilosophicalemperor，aswelearnfromLucian，bestowedupononeoftheteachersofphilosophy，probablylastednolongerthanhisownlife。Therewasnothingequivalenttotheprivilegesofgraduation，andtohaveattendedanyofthoseschoolswasnotnecessary，inordertobepermittedtopractiseanyparticulartradeorprofession。Iftheopinionoftheirownutilitycouldnotdrawscholarstothem，thelawneitherforcedanybodytogotothemnorrewardedanybodyforhavinggonetothem。Theteachershadnojurisdictionovertheirpupils，noranyotherauthoritybesidesthatnaturalauthority，whichsuperiorvirtueandabilitiesneverfailtoprocurefromyoungpeopletowardsthosewhoareentrustedwithanypartoftheireducation。
　　AtRome，thestudyofthecivillawmadeapartoftheeducation，notofthegreaterpartofthecitizens，butofsomeparticularfamilies。Theyoungpeople，however，whowishedtoacquireknowledgeinthelaw，hadnopublicschooltogoto，andhadnoothermethodofstudyingitthanbyfrequentingthecompanyofsuchoftheirrelationsandfriendsasweresupposedtounderstandit。Itisperhapsworthwhiletoremark，thatthoughtheLawsoftheTwelveTableswere，manyofthem，copiedfromthoseofsomeancientGreekrepublics，yetlawneverseemstohavegrownuptobeascienceinanyrepublicofancientGreece。InRomeitbecameascienceveryearly，andgaveaconsiderabledegreeofillustrationtothosecitizenswhohadthereputationofunderstandingit。IntherepublicsofancientGreece，particularlyinAthens，theordinarycourtsofjusticeconsistedofnumerous，andthereforedisorderly，bodiesofpeople，whofrequentlydecidedalmostatrandom，orasclamour，faction，andpartyspirithappenedtodetermine。Theignominyofanunjustdecision，whenitwastobedividedamongfivehundred，athousand，orfifteenhundredpeople（forsomeoftheircourtsweresoverynumerous），couldnotfallveryheavyuponanyindividual。AtRome，onthecontrary，theprincipalcourtsofjusticeconsistedeitherofasinglejudgeorofasmallnumberofjudges，whosecharacters，especiallyastheydeliberatedalwaysinpublic，couldnotfailtobeverymuchaffectedbyanyrashorunjustdecision。Indoubtfulcasessuchcourts，fromtheiranxietytoavoidblame，wouldnaturallyendeavourtoshelterthemselvesundertheexampleorprecedentofthejudgeswhohadsatbeforethem，eitherinthesameorinsomeothercourt。ThisattentiontopracticeandprecedentnecessarilyformedtheRomanlawintothatregularandorderlysysteminwhichithasbeendelivereddowntous;andthelikeattentionhashadthelikeeffectsuponthelawsofeveryothercountrywheresuchattentionhastakenplace。ThesuperiorityofcharacterintheRomansoverthatoftheGreeks，somuchremarkedbyPolybiusandDionysiusofHalicarnassus，wasprobablymoreowingtothebetterconstitutionoftheircourtsofjusticethantoanyofthecircumstancestowhichthoseauthorsascribeit。
　　TheRomansaresaidtohavebeenparticularlydistinguishedfortheirsuperiorrespecttoanoath。Butthepeoplewhowereaccustomedtomakeoathonlybeforesomediligentandwell—informedcourtofjusticewouldnaturallybemuchmoreattentivetowhattheysworethantheywhowereaccustomedtodothesamethingbeforemobbishanddisorderlyassemblies。
　　Theabilities，bothcivilandmilitary，oftheGreeksandRomanswillreadilybeallowedtohavebeenatleastequaltothoseofanymodernnation。Ourprejudiceisperhapsrathertooverratethem。Butexceptinwhatrelatedtomilitaryexercises，thestateseemstohavebeenatnopainstoformthosegreatabilities，forIcannotbeinducedtobelievethatthemusicaleducationoftheGreekscouldbeofmuchconsequenceinformingthem。Masters，however，hadbeenfound，itseems，forinstructingthebettersortofpeopleamongthosenationsineveryartandscienceinwhichthecircumstancesoftheirsocietyrendereditnecessaryorconvenientforthemtobeinstructed。Thedemandforsuchinstructionproducedwhatitalwaysproduces—thetalentforgivingit;andtheemulationwhichanunrestrainedcompetitionneverfailstoexcite，appearstohavebroughtthattalenttoaveryhighdegreeofperfection。Intheattentionwhichtheancientphilosophersexcited，intheempirewhichtheyacquiredovertheopinionsandprinciplesoftheirauditors，inthefacultywhichtheypossessedofgivingacertaintoneandcharactertotheconductandconversationofthoseauditors，theyappeartohavebeenmuchsuperiortoanymodernteachers。Inmoderntimes，thediligenceofpublicteachersismoreorlesscorruptedbythecircumstanceswhichrenderthemmoreorlessindependentoftheirsuccessandreputationintheirparticularprofessions。Theirsalaries，too，puttheprivateteacher，whowouldpretendtocomeintocompetitionwiththem，inthesamestatewithamerchantwhoattemptstotradewithoutabountyincompetitionwiththosewhotradewithaconsiderableone。Ifhesellshisgoodsatnearlythesameprice，hecannothavethesameprofit，andatleast，ifnotbankruptcyandruin，willinfalliblybehislot。Ifheattemptstosellthemmuchdearer，heislikelytohavesofewcustomersthathiscircumstanceswillnotbemuchmended。Theprivilegesofgraduation，besides，areinmanycountriesnecessary，oratleastextremelyconvenient，tomostmenoflearnedprofessions，thatis，tothefargreaterpartofthosewhohaveoccasionforalearnededucation。Butthoseprivilegescanbeobtainedonlybyattendingthelecturesofthepublicteachers。Themostcarefulattendanceupontheablestinstructionsofanyprivateteachercannotalwaysgiveanytitletodemandthem。Itisfromthesedifferentcausesthattheprivateteacherofanyofthescienceswhicharecommonlytaughtinuniversitiesisinmoderntimesgenerallyconsideredasintheverylowestorderofmenofletters。Amanofrealabilitiescanscarcefindoutamorehumiliatingoramoreunprofitableemploymenttoturnthemto。Theendowmentofschoolsandcollegeshave，inthismanner，notonlycorruptedthediligenceofpublicteachers，buthaverendereditalmostimpossibletohaveanygoodprivateones。
　　Weretherenopublicinstitutionsforeducation，nosystem，nosciencewouldbetaughtforwhichtherewasnotsomedemand，orwhichthecircumstancesofthetimesdidnotrenderiteithernecessary，orconvenient，oratleastfashionable，tolearn。A
　　privateteachercouldneverfindhisaccountinteachingeitheranexplodedandantiquatedsystemofascienceacknowledgedtobeuseful，orascienceuniversallybelievedtobeamereuselessandpedanticheapofsophistryandnonsense。Suchsystems，suchsciences，cansubsistnowhere，butinthoseincorporatedsocietiesforeducationwhoseprosperityandrevenueareinagreatmeasureindependentoftheirreputationandaltogetherindependentoftheirindustry。Weretherenopublicinstitutionsforeducation，agentleman，aftergoingthroughwithapplicationandabilitiesthemostcompletecourseofeducationwhichthecircumstancesofthetimesweresupposedtoafford，couldnotcomeintotheworldcompletelyignorantofeverythingwhichisthecommonsubjectofconversationamonggentlemenandmenoftheworld。
　　Therearenopublicinstitutionsfortheeducationofwomen，andthereisaccordinglynothinguseless，absurd，orfantasticalinthecommoncourseoftheireducation。Theyaretaughtwhattheirparentsorguardiansjudgeitnecessaryorusefulforthemtolearn，andtheyaretaughtnothingelse。Everypartoftheireducationtendsevidentlytosomeusefulpurpose;eithertoimprovethenaturalattractionsoftheirperson，ortoformtheirmindtoreserve，tomodesty，tochastity，andtoeconomy;torenderthembothlikelytobecomethemistressesofafamily，andtobehaveproperlywhentheyhavebecomesuch。Ineverypartofherlifeawomanfeelssomeconveniencyoradvantagefromeverypartofhereducation。Itseldomhappensthataman，inanypartofhislife，derivesanyconveniencyoradvantagefromsomeofthemostlaboriousandtroublesomepartsofhiseducation。
　　Oughtthepublic，therefore，togivenoattention，itmaybeasked，totheeducationofthepeople？Orifitoughttogiveany，whatarethedifferentpartsofeducationwhichitoughttoattendtointhedifferentordersofthepeople？andinwhatmanneroughtittoattendtothem？
　　Insomecasesthestateofthesocietynecessarilyplacesthegreaterpartofindividualsinsuchsituationsasnaturallyforminthem，withoutanyattentionofgovernment，almostalltheabilitiesandvirtueswhichthatstaterequires，orperhapscanadmitof。Inothercasesthestateofthesocietydoesnotplacethepartofindividualsinsuchsituations，andsomeattentionofgovernmentisnecessaryinordertopreventthealmostentirecorruptionanddegeneracyofthegreatbodyofthepeople。
　　Intheprogressofthedivisionoflabour，theemploymentofthefargreaterpartofthosewholivebylabour，thatis，ofthegreatbodyofthepeople，comestobeconfinedtoafewverysimpleoperations，frequentlytooneortwo。Buttheunderstandingsofthegreaterpartofmenarenecessarilyformedbytheirordinaryemployments。Themanwhosewholelifeisspentinperformingafewsimpleoperations，ofwhichtheeffectsareperhapsalwaysthesame，orverynearlythesame，hasnooccasiontoexerthisunderstandingortoexercisehisinventioninfindingoutexpedientsforremovingdifficultieswhichneveroccur。Henaturallyloses，therefore，thehabitofsuchexertion，andgenerallybecomesasstupidandignorantasitispossibleforahumancreaturetobecome。Thetorporofhismindrendershimnotonlyincapableofrelishingorbearingapartinanyrationalconversation，butofconceivinganygenerous，noble，ortendersentiment，andconsequentlyofforminganyjustjudgmentconcerningmanyevenoftheordinarydutiesofprivatelife。Ofthegreatandextensiveinterestsofhiscountryheisaltogetherincapableofjudging，andunlessveryparticularpainshavebeentakentorenderhimotherwise，heisequallyincapableofdefendinghiscountryinwar。Theuniformityofhisstationarylifenaturallycorruptsthecourageofhismind，andmakeshimregardwithabhorrencetheirregular，uncertain，andadventurouslifeofasoldier。Itcorruptseventheactivityofhisbody，andrendershimincapableofexertinghisstrengthwithvigourandperseveranceinanyotheremploymentthanthattowhichhehasbeenbred。Hisdexterityathisownparticulartradeseems，inthismanner，tobeacquiredattheexpenseofhisintellectual，social，andmartialvirtues。Butineveryimprovedandcivilisedsocietythisisthestateintowhichthelabouringpoor，thatis，thegreatbodyofthepeople，mustnecessarilyfall，unlessgovernmenttakessomepainstopreventit。
　　Itisotherwiseinthebarbaroussocieties，astheyarecommonlycalled，ofhunters，ofshepherds，andevenofhusbandmeninthatrudestateofhusbandrywhichprecedestheimprovementofmanufacturesandtheextensionofforeigncommerce。Insuchsocietiesthevariedoccupationsofeverymanobligeeverymantoexerthiscapacityandtoinventexpedientsforremovingdifficultieswhicharecontinuallyoccurring。Inventioniskeptalive，andthemindisnotsufferedtofallintothatdrowsystupiditywhich，inacivilisedsociety，seemstobenumbtheunderstandingofalmostalltheinferiorranksofpeople。Inthosebarbaroussocieties，astheyarecalled，everyman，ithasalreadybeenobserved，isawarrior。Everyman，too，isinsomemeasureastatesman，andcanformatolerablejudgmentconcerningtheinterestofthesocietyandtheconductofthosewhogovernit。Howfartheirchiefsaregoodjudgesinpeace，orgoodleadersinwar，isobvioustotheobservationofalmosteverysinglemanamongthem。Insuchasociety，indeed，nomancanwellacquirethatimprovedandrefinedunderstandingwhichafewmensometimespossessinamorecivilisedstate。Thoughinarudesocietythereisagooddealofvarietyintheoccupationsofeveryindividual，thereisnotagreatdealinthoseofthewholesociety。Everymandoes，oriscapableofdoing，almosteverythingwhichanyothermandoes，oriscapableofdoing。Everymanhasaconsiderabledegreeofknowledge，ingenuity，andinvention:
　　butscarceanymanhasagreatdegree。Thedegree，however，whichiscommonlypossessed，isgenerallysufficientforconductingthewholesimplebusinessofthesociety。Inacivilisedstate，onthecontrary，thoughthereislittlevarietyintheoccupationsofthegreaterpartofindividuals，thereisanalmostinfinitevarietyinthoseofthewholesociety。Thesevariedoccupationspresentanalmostinfinitevarietyofobjectstothecontemplationofthosefew，who，beingattachedtonoparticularoccupationthemselves，haveleisureandinclinationtoexaminetheoccupationsofotherpeople。Thecontemplationofsogreatavarietyofobjectsnecessarilyexercisestheirmindsinendlesscomparisonsandcombinations，andrenderstheirunderstandings，inanextraordinarydegree，bothacuteandcomprehensive。Unlessthosefew，however，happentobeplacedinsomeveryparticularsituations，theirgreatabilities，thoughhonourabletothemselves，maycontributeverylittletothegoodgovernmentorhappinessoftheirsociety。Notwithstandingthegreatabilitiesofthosefew，allthenoblerpartsofthehumancharactermaybe，inagreatmeasure，obliteratedandextinguishedinthegreatbodyofthepeople。
　　Theeducationofthecommonpeoplerequires，perhaps，inacivilisedandcommercialsocietytheattentionofthepublicmorethanthatofpeopleofsomerankandfortune。Peopleofsomerankandfortunearegenerallyeighteenornineteenyearsofagebeforetheyenteruponthatparticularbusiness，profession，ortrade，bywhichtheyproposetodistinguishthemselvesintheworld。Theyhavebeforethatfulltimetoacquire，oratleasttofitthemselvesforafterwardsacquiring，everyaccomplishmentwhichcanrecommendthemtothepublicesteem，orrenderthemworthyofit。Theirparentsorguardiansaregenerallysufficientlyanxiousthattheyshouldbesoaccomplished，andare，inmostcases，willingenoughtolayouttheexpensewhichisnecessaryforthatpurpose。Iftheyarenotalwaysproperlyeducated，itisseldomfromthewantofexpenselaidoutupontheireducation，butfromtheimproperapplicationofthatexpense。Itisseldomfromthewantofmasters，butfromthenegligenceandincapacityofthemasterswhoaretobehad，andfromthedifficulty，orratherfromtheimpossibility，whichthereisinthepresentstateofthingsoffindinganybetter。
　　Theemployments，too，inwhichpeopleofsomerankorfortunespendthegreaterpartoftheirlivesarenot，likethoseofthecommonpeople，simpleanduniform。Theyarealmostallofthemextremelycomplicated，andsuchasexercisetheheadmorethanthehands。Theunderstandingsofthosewhoareengagedinsuchemploymentscanseldomgrowtorpidforwantofexercise。Theemploymentsofpeopleofsomerankandfortune，besides，areseldomsuchasharassthemfrommorningtonight。Theygenerallyhaveagooddealofleisure，duringwhichtheymayperfectthemselvesineverybrancheitherofusefulorornamentalknowledgeofwhichtheymayhavelaidthefoundation，orforwhichtheymayhaveacquiredsometasteintheearlierpartoflife。
　　Itisotherwisewiththecommonpeople。Theyhavelittletimetospareforeducation。Theirparentscanscarceaffordtomaintainthemevenininfancy。Assoonastheyareabletoworktheymustapplytosometradebywhichtheycanearntheirsubsistence。Thattrade，too，isgenerallysosimpleanduniformastogivelittleexercisetotheunderstanding，while，atthesametime，theirlabourisbothsoconstantandsosevere，thatitleavesthemlittleleisureandlessinclinationtoapplyto，oreventothinkof，anythingelse。
　　Butthoughthecommonpeoplecannot，inanycivilisedsociety，besowellinstructedaspeopleofsomerankandfortune，themostessentialpartsofeducation，however，toread，write，andaccount，canbeacquiredatsoearlyaperiodoflifethatthegreaterpartevenofthosewhoaretobebredtothelowestoccupationshavetimetoacquirethembeforetheycanbeemployedinthoseoccupations。Foraverysmallexpensethepubliccanfacilitate，canencourage，andcanevenimposeuponalmostthewholebodyofthepeoplethenecessityofacquiringthosemostessentialpartsofeducation。
　　Thepubliccanfacilitatethisacquisitionbyestablishingineveryparishordistrictalittleschool，wherechildrenmaybetaughtforarewardsomoderatethatevenacommonlabourermayaffordit;themasterbeingpartly，butnotwholly，paidbythepublic，because，ifhewaswholly，orevenprincipally，paidbyit，hewouldsoonlearntoneglecthisbusiness。InScotlandtheestablishmentofsuchparishschoolshastaughtalmostthewholecommonpeopletoread，andaverygreatproportionofthemtowriteandaccount。InEnglandtheestablishmentofcharityschoolshashadaneffectofthesamekind，thoughnotsouniversally，becausetheestablishmentisnotsouniversal。Ifinthoselittleschoolsthebooks，bywhichthechildrenaretaughttoread，werealittlemoreinstructivethantheycommonlyare，andif，insteadofalittlesmatteringofLatin，whichthechildrenofthecommonpeoplearesometimestaughtthere，andwhichcanscarceeverbeofanyusetothem，theywereinstructedintheelementarypartsofgeometryandmechanics，theliteraryeducationofthisrankofpeoplewouldperhapsbeascompleteasitcanbe。Thereisscarceacommontradewhichdoesnotaffordsomeopportunitiesofapplyingtoittheprinciplesofgeometryandmechanics，andwhichwouldnotthereforegraduallyexerciseandimprovethecommonpeopleinthoseprinciples，thenecessaryintroductiontothemostsublimeaswellastothemostusefulsciences。
　　Thepubliccanencouragetheacquisitionofthosemostessentialpartsofeducationbygivingsmallpremiums，andlittlebadgesofdistinction，tothechildrenofthecommonpeoplewhoexcelinthem。
　　Thepubliccanimposeuponalmostthewholebodyofthepeoplethenecessityofacquiringthosemostessentialpartsofeducation，byobligingeverymantoundergoanexaminationorprobationinthembeforehecanobtainthefreedominanycorporation，orbeallowedtosetupanytradeeitherinavillageortowncorporate。
　　Itwasinthismanner，byfacilitatingtheacquisitionoftheirmilitaryandgymnasticexercises，byencouragingit，andevenbyimposinguponthewholebodyofthepeoplethenecessityoflearningthoseexercises，thattheGreekandRomanrepublicsmaintainedthemartialspiritoftheirrespectivecitizens。Theyfacilitatedtheacquisitionofthoseexercisesbyappointingacertainplaceforlearningandpractisingthem，andbygrantingtocertainmasterstheprivilegeofteachinginthatplace。Thosemastersdonotappeartohavehadeithersalariesorexclusiveprivilegesofanykind。Theirrewardconsistedaltogetherinwhattheygotfromtheirscholars;andacitizenwhohadlearnthisexercisesinthepublicgymnasiahadnosortoflegaladvantageoveronewhohadlearntthemprivately，providedthelatterhadlearntthemequallywell。Thoserepublicsencouragedtheacquisitionofthoseexercisesbybestowinglittlepremiumsandbadgesofdistinctionupon:thosewhoexcelledinthem。TohavegainedaprizeintheOlympic，Isthmian，orNemaeangames，gaveillustration，notonlytothepersonwhogainedit，buttohiswholefamilyandkindred。Theobligationwhicheverycitizenwasundertoserveacertainnumberofyears，ifcalledupon，inthearmiesoftherepublic，sufficientlyimposedthenecessityoflearningthoseexercises，withoutwhichhecouldnotbefitforthatservice。
　　Thatintheprogressofimprovementthepracticeofmilitaryexercises，unlessgovernmenttakesproperpainstosupportit，goesgraduallytodecay，and，togetherwithit，themartialspiritofthegreatbodyofthepeople，theexampleofmodernEuropesufficientlydemonstrates。Butthesecurityofeverysocietymustalwaysdepend，moreorless，uponthemartialspiritofthegreatbodyofthepeople。Inthepresenttimes，indeed，thatmartialspiritalone，andunsupportedbyawell—disciplinedstandingarmy，wouldnotperhapsbesufficientforthedefenceandsecurityofanysociety。Butwhereeverycitizenhadthespiritofasoldier，asmallerstandingarmywouldsurelyberequisite。Thatspirit，besides，wouldnecessarilydiminishverymuchthedangerstoliberty，whetherrealorimaginary，whicharecommonlyapprehendedfromastandingarmy。Asitwouldverymuchfacilitatetheoperationsofthatarmyagainstaforeigninvader，soitwouldobstructthemasmuchif，unfortunately，theyshouldeverbedirectedagainsttheconstitutionofthestate。
　　TheancientinstitutionsofGreeceandRomeseemtohavebeenmuchmoreeffectualformaintainingthemartialspiritofthegreatbodyofthepeoplethantheestablishmentofwhatarecalledthemilitiasofmoderntimes。Theyweremuchmoresimple。
　　Whentheywereonceestablishedtheyexecutedthemselves，anditrequiredlittleornoattentionfromgovernmenttomaintaintheminthemostperfectvigour。Whereastomaintain，evenintolerableexecution，thecomplexregulationsofanymodernmilitia，requiresthecontinualandpainfulattentionofgovernment，withoutwhichtheyareconstantlyfallingintototalneglectanddisuse。Theinfluence，besides，oftheancientinstitutionswasmuchmoreuniversal。Bymeansofthemthewholebodyofthepeoplewascompletelyinstructedintheuseofarms。
　　Whereasitisbutaverysmallpartofthemwhocaneverbesoinstructedbytheregulationsofanymodernmilitia，except，perhaps，thatofSwitzerland。Butacoward，amanincapableeitherofdefendingorofrevenginghimself，evidentlywantsoneofthemostessentialpartsofthecharacterofaman。Heisasmuchmutilatedanddeformedinhismindasanotherisinhisbody，whoiseitherdeprivedofsomeofitsmostessentialmembers，orhaslosttheuseofthem。Heisevidentlythemorewretchedandmiserableofthetwo;becausehappinessandmisery，whichresidealtogetherinthemind，mustnecessarilydependmoreuponthehealthfulorunhealthful，themutilatedorentirestateofthemind，thanuponthatofthebody。Eventhoughthemartialspiritofthepeoplewereofnousetowardsthedefenceofthesociety，yettopreventthatsortofmentalmutilation，deformity，andwretchedness，whichcowardicenecessarilyinvolvesinit，fromspreadingthemselvesthroughthegreatbodyofthepeople，wouldstilldeservethemostseriousattentionofgovernment，inthesamemannerasitwoulddeserveitsmostseriousattentiontopreventaleprosyoranyotherloathsomeandoffensivedisease，thoughneithermortalnordangerous，fromspreadingitselfamongthem，thoughperhapsnootherpublicgoodmightresultfromsuchattentionbesidesthepreventionofsogreatapublicevil。
　　Thesamethingmaybesaidofthegrossignoranceandstupiditywhich，inacivilisedsociety，seemsofrequentlytobenumbtheunderstandingsofalltheinferiorranksofpeople。A
　　manwithouttheproperuseoftheintellectualfacultiesofaman，is，ifpossible，morecontemptiblethanevenacoward，andseemstobemutilatedanddeformedinastillmoreessentialpartofthecharacterofhumannature。Thoughthestatewastoderivenoadvantagefromtheinstructionoftheinferiorranksofpeople，itwouldstilldeserveitsattentionthattheyshouldnotbealtogetheruninstructed。Thestate，however，derivesnoinconsiderableadvantagefromtheirinstruction。Themoretheyareinstructedthelessliabletheyaretothedelusionsofenthusiasmandsuperstition，which，amongignorantnations，frequentlyoccasionthemostdreadfuldisorders。Aninstructedandintelligentpeople，besides，arealwaysmoredecentandorderlythananignorantandstupidone。Theyfeelthemselves，eachindividually，morerespectableandmorelikelytoobtaintherespectoftheirlawfulsuperiors，andtheyarethereforemoredisposedtorespectthosesuperiors。Theyaremoredisposedtoexamine，andmorecapableofseeingthrough，theinterestedcomplaintsoffactionandsedition，andtheyare，uponthataccount，lessapttobemisledintoanywantonorunnecessaryoppositiontothemeasuresofgovernment。Infreecountries，wherethesafetyofgovernmentdependsverymuchuponthefavourablejudgmentwhichthepeoplemayformofitsconduct，itmustsurelybeofthehighestimportancethattheyshouldnotbedisposedtojudgerashlyorcapriciouslyconcerningit。
　　ARTICLEIIIOftheExpenseoftheInstitutionsfortheInstructionofPeopleofallAgesTheinstitutionsfortheinstructionofpeopleofallagesarechieflythoseforreligiousinstruction。Thisisaspeciesofinstructionofwhichtheobjectisnotsomuchtorenderthepeoplegoodcitizensinthisworld，astopreparethemforanotherandabetterworldinalifetocome。Theteachersofthedoctrinewhichcontainsthisinstruction，inthesamemannerasotherteachers，mayeitherdependaltogetherfortheirsubsistenceuponthevoluntarycontributionsoftheirhearers，ortheymayderiveitfromsomeotherfundtowhichthelawoftheircountrymayentitlethem;suchasalandedestate，atitheorlandtax，anestablishedsalaryorstipend。Theirexertion，theirzealandindustry，arelikelytobemuchgreaterintheformersituationthaninthelatter。Inthisrespecttheteachersofnewreligionshavealwayshadaconsiderableadvantageinattackingthoseancientandestablishedsystemsofwhichtheclergy，reposingthemselvesupontheirbenefices，hadneglectedtokeepupthefervouroffaithanddevotioninthegreatbodyofthepeople，andhavinggiventhemselvesuptoindolence，werebecomealtogetherincapableofmakinganyvigorousexertionindefenceevenoftheirownestablishment。Theclergyofanestablishedandwell—endowedreligionfrequentlybecomemenoflearningandelegance，whopossessallthevirtuesofgentlemen，orwhichcanrecommendthemtotheesteemofgentlemen:buttheyareaptgraduallytolosethequalities，bothgoodandbad，whichgavethemauthorityandinfluencewiththeinferiorranksofpeople，andwhichhadperhapsbeentheoriginalcausesofthesuccessandestablishmentoftheirreligion。Suchaclergy，whenattackedbyasetofpopularandbold，thoughperhapsstupidandignorantenthusiasts，feelthemselvesasperfectlydefencelessastheindolent，effeminate，andfull—fednationsofthesouthernpartsofAsiawhentheywereinvadedbytheactive，hardy，andhungryTartarsoftheNorth。Suchaclergy，uponsuchanemergency，havecommonlynootherresourcethantocalluponthecivilmagistratetopersecute，destroyordriveouttheiradversaries，asdisturbersofthepublicpeace。ItwasthusthattheRomanCatholicclergycalleduponthecivilmagistratestopersecutetheProtestants，andtheChurchofEnglandtopersecutetheDissenters;andthatingeneraleveryreligioussect，whenithasonceenjoyedforacenturyortwothesecurityofalegalestablishment，hasfounditselfincapableofmakinganyvigorousdefenceagainstanynewsectwhichchosetoattackitsdoctrineordiscipline。Uponsuchoccasionstheadvantageinpointoflearningandgoodwritingmaysometimesbeonthesideoftheestablishedchurch。Buttheartsofpopularity，alltheartsofgainingproselytes，areconstantlyonthesideofitsadversaries。InEnglandthoseartshavebeenlongneglectedbythewell—endowedclergyoftheestablishedchurch，andareatpresentchieflycultivatedbytheDissentersandbytheMethodists。Theindependentprovisions，however，whichinmanyplaceshavebeenmadefordissentingteachersbymeansofvoluntarysubscriptions，oftrustrights，andotherevasionsofthelaw，seemverymuchtohaveabatedthezealandactivityofthoseteachers。Theyhavemanyofthembecomeverylearned，ingenious，andrespectablemen;buttheyhaveingeneralceasedtobeverypopularpreachers。TheMethodists，withouthalfthelearningoftheDissenters，aremuchmoreinvogue。
　　IntheChurchofRome，theindustryandzealoftheinferiorclergyarekeptmorealivebythepowerfulmotiveofself—interestthanperhapsinanyestablishedProtestantchurch。
　　Theparochialclergyderive，manyofthem，averyconsiderablepartoftheirsubsistencefromthevoluntaryoblationsofthepeople;asourceofrevenuewhichconfessiongivesthemmanyopportunitiesofimproving。Themendicantordersderivetheirwholesubsistencefromsuchoblations。Itiswiththemaswiththehussarsandlightinfantryofsomearmies;noplunder，nopay。Theparochialclergyarelikethoseteacherswhoserewarddependspartlyupontheirsalary，andpartlyuponthefeesorhonorarieswhichtheygetfromtheirpupils，andthesemustalwaysdependmoreorlessupontheirindustryandreputation。
　　Themendicantordersarelikethoseteacherswhosesubsistencedependsaltogetherupontheindustry。Theyareobliged，therefore，touseeveryartwhichcananimatethedevotionofthecommonpeople。TheestablishmentofthetwogreatmendicantordersofSt。DominicandSt。Francis，itisobservedbyMachiavel，revived，inthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies，thelanguishingfaithanddevotionoftheCatholicChurch。InRomanCatholiccountriesthespiritofdevotionissupportedaltogetherbythemonksandbythepoorerparochialclergy。Thegreatdignitariesofthechurch，withalltheaccomplishmentsofgentlemenandmenoftheworld，andsometimeswiththoseofmenoflearning，arecarefulenoughtomaintainthenecessarydisciplineovertheirinferiors，butseldomgivethemselvesanytroubleabouttheinstructionofthepeople。
　　"Mostoftheartsandprofessionsinastate，"saysbyfarthemostillustriousphilosopherandhistorianofthepresentage，"areofsuchanaturethat，whiletheypromotetheinterestsofthesociety，theyarealsousefuloragreeabletosomeindividuals;andinthatcase，theconstantruleofthemagistrate，exceptperhapsonthefirstintroductionofanyart，istoleavetheprofessiontoitself，andtrustitsencouragementtotheindividualswhoreapthebenefitofit。Theartisans，findingtheirprofitstorisebythefavouroftheircustomers，increaseasmuchaspossibletheirskillandindustry;andasmattersarenotdisturbedbyanyinjudicioustampering，thecommodityisalwayssuretobeatalltimesnearlyproportionedtothedemand。
　　"Buttherearealsosomecallings，which，thoughusefulandevennecessaryinastate，bringnoadvantageorpleasuretoanyindividual，andthesupremepowerisobligedtoalteritsconductwithregardtotheretainersofthoseprofessions。Itmustgivethempublicencouragementinordertotheirsubsistence，anditmustprovideagainstthatnegligencetowhichtheywillnaturallybesubject，eitherbyannexingparticularhonourstotheprofession，byestablishingalongsubordinationofranksandastrictdependence，orbysomeotherexpedient。Thepersonsemployedinthefinances，fleets，andmagistracy，areinstancesofthisorderofmen。
　　"Itmaynaturallybethought，atfirstsight，thattheecclesiasticsbelongtothefirstclass，andthattheirencouragement，aswellasthatoflawyersandphysicians，maysafelybeentrustedtotheliberalityofindividuals，whoareattachedtotheirdoctrines，andwhofindbenefitorconsolationfromtheirspiritualministryandassistance。Theirindustryandvigilancewill，nodoubt，bewhettedbysuchanadditionalmotive;andtheirskillintheprofession，aswellastheiraddressingoverningthemindsofthepeople，mustreceivedailyincreasefromtheirincreasingpractice，study，andattention。
　　"Butifweconsiderthemattermoreclosely，weshallfindthatthisinteresteddiligenceoftheclergyiswhateverywiselegislatorwillstudytoprevent;becauseineveryreligionexceptthetrueitishighlypernicious，andithasevenanaturaltendencytopervertthetrue，byinfusingintoitastrongmixtureofsuperstition，folly，anddelusion。Eachghostlypractitioner，inordertorenderhimselfmorepreciousandsacredintheeyesofhisretainers，willinspirethemwiththemostviolentabhorrenceofallothersects，andcontinuallyendeavour，bysomenovelty，toexcitethelanguiddevotionofhisaudience。
　　Noregardwillbepaidtotruth，morals，ordecencyinthedoctrinesinculcated。Everytenetwillbeadoptedthatbestsuitsthedisorderlyaffectionsofthehumanframe。Customerswillbedrawntoeachconventiclebynewindustryandaddressinpractisingonthepassionsandcredulityofthepopulace。Andintheend，thecivilmagistratewillfindthathehasdearlypaidforhispretendedfrugality，insavingafixedestablishmentforthepriests;andthatinrealitythemostdecentandadvantageouscompositionwhichhecanmakewiththespiritualguides，istobribetheirindolencebyassigningstatedsalariestotheirprofession，andrenderingitsuperfluousforthemtobefartheractivethanmerelytopreventtheirflockfromstrayinginquestofnewpastures。Andinthismannerecclesiasticalestablishments，thoughcommonlytheyaroseatfirstfromreligiousviews，proveintheendadvantageoustothepoliticalinterestsofsociety。"
　　Butwhatevermayhavebeenthegoodorbadeffectsoftheindependentprovisionoftheclergy，ithas，perhaps，beenveryseldombestoweduponthemfromanyviewtothoseeffects。Timesofviolentreligiouscontroversyhavegenerallybeentimesofequallyviolentpoliticalfaction。Uponsuchoccasions，eachpoliticalpartyhaseitherfoundit，orimaginedit，foritsinteresttoleagueitselfwithsomeoneorotherofthecontendingreligioussects。Butthiscouldbedoneonlybyadopting，oratleastbyfavouring，thetenetsofthatparticularsect。Thesectwhichhadthegoodfortunetobeleaguedwiththeconqueringpartynecessarilysharedinthevictoryofitsally，bywhosefavourandprotectionitwassoonenabledinsomedegreetosilenceandsubdueallitsadversaries。Thoseadversarieshadgenerallyleaguedthemselveswiththeenemiesoftheconqueringparty，andwerethereforetheenemiesofthatparty。Theclergyofthisparticularsecthavingthusbecomecompletemastersofthefield，andtheirinfluenceandauthoritywiththegreatbodyofthepeoplebeinginitshighestvigour，theywerepowerfulenoughtooverawethechiefsandleadersoftheirownparty，andtoobligethecivilmagistratetorespecttheiropinionsandinclinations。Theirfirstdemandwasgenerallythatheshouldsilenceandsubdueantheiradversaries:andtheirsecond，thatheshouldbestowanindependentprovisiononthemselves。Astheyhadgenerallycontributedagooddealtothevictory，itseemednotunreasonablethattheyshouldhavesomeshareinthespoil。