ARTICLEII
　　OftheExpenseoftheInstitutionsfortheEducationofYouthTheinstitutionsfortheeducationoftheyouthmay，inthesamemanner，furnisharevenuesufficientfordefrayingtheirownexpense。Thefeeorhonorarywhichthescholarpaystothemasternaturallyconstitutesarevenueofthiskind。
　　Evenwheretherewardofthemasterdoesnotarisealtogetherfromthisnaturalrevenue，itstillisnotnecessarythatitshouldbederivedfromthatgeneralrevenueofthesociety，ofwhichthecollectionandapplicationis，inmostcountries，assignedtotheexecutivepower。ThroughthegreaterpartofEurope，accordingly，theendowmentofschoolsandcollegesmakeseithernochargeuponthatgeneralrevenue，orbutaverysmallone。Iteverywhereariseschieflyfromsomelocalorprovincialrevenue，fromtherentofsomelandedestate，orfromtheinterestofsomesumofmoneyallottedandputunderthemanagementoftrusteesforthisparticularpurpose，sometimesbythesovereignhimself，andsometimesbysomeprivatedonor。
　　Havethosepublicendowmentscontributedingeneraltopromotetheendoftheirinstitution？Havetheycontributedtoencouragethediligenceandtoimprovetheabilitiesoftheteachers？Havetheydirectedthecourseofeducationtowardsobjectsmoreuseful，bothtotheindividualandtothepublic，thanthosetowhichitwouldnaturallyhavegoneofitsownaccord？Itshouldnotseemverydifficulttogiveatleastaprobableanswertoeachofthosequestions。
　　Ineveryprofession，theexertionofthegreaterpartofthosewhoexerciseitisalwaysinproportiontothenecessitytheyareunderofmakingthatexertion。Thisnecessityisgreatestwiththosetowhomtheemolumentsoftheirprofessionaretheonlysourcefromwhichtheyexpecttheirfortune，oreventheirordinaryrevenueandsubsistence。Inordertoacquirethisfortune，oreventogetthissubsistence，theymust，inthecourseofayear，executeacertainquantityofworkofaknownvalue;and，wherethecompetitionisfree，therivalshipofcompetitors，whoareallendeavouringtojustleoneanotheroutofemployment，obligeseverymantoendeavourtoexecutehisworkwithacertaindegreeofexactness。Thegreatnessoftheobjectswhicharetobeacquiredbysuccessinsomeparticularprofessionsmay，nodoubt，sometimesanimatetheexertionofafewmenofextraordinaryspiritandambition。Greatobjects，however，areevidentlynotnecessaryinordertooccasionthegreatestexertions。Rivalshipandemulationrenderexcellency，eveninmeanprofessions，anobjectofambition，andfrequentlyoccasiontheverygreatestexertions。Greatobjects，onthecontrary，aloneandunsupportedbythenecessityofapplication，haveseldombeensufficienttooccasionanyconsiderableexertion。InEngland，successintheprofessionofthelawleadstosomeverygreatobjectsofambition;andyethowfewmen，borntoeasyfortunes，haveeverinthiscountrybeeneminentinthatprofession！
　　Theendowmentsofschoolsandcollegeshavenecessarilydiminishedmoreorlessthenecessityofapplicationintheteachers。Theirsubsistence，sofarasitarisesfromtheirsalaries，isevidentlyderivedfromafundaltogetherindependentoftheirsuccessandreputationintheirparticularprofessions。
　　Insomeuniversitiesthesalarymakesbutapart，andfrequentlybutasmallpart，oftheemolumentsoftheteacher，ofwhichthegreaterpartarisesfromthehonorariesorfeesofhispupils。Thenecessityofapplication，thoughalwaysmoreorlessdiminished，isnotinthiscaseentirelytakenaway。Reputationinhisprofessionisstillofsomeimportancetohim，andhestillhassomedependencyupontheaffection，gratitude，andfavourablereportofthosewhohaveattendeduponhisinstructions;andthesefavourablesentimentsheislikelytogaininnowaysowellasbydeservingthem，thatis，bytheabilitiesanddiligencewithwhichhedischargeseverypartofhisduty。
　　Inotheruniversitiestheteacherisprohibitedfromreceivinganyhonoraryorfeefromhispupils，andhissalaryconstitutesthewholeoftherevenuewhichhederivesfromhisoffice。Hisinterestis，inthiscase，setasdirectlyinoppositiontohisdutyasitispossibletosetit。Itistheinterestofeverymantoliveasmuchathiseaseashecan;andifhisemolumentsaretobepreciselythesame，whetherhedoesordoesnotperformsomeverylaboriousduty，itiscertainlyhisinterest，atleastasinterestisvulgarlyunderstood，eithertoneglectitaltogether，or，ifheissubjecttosomeauthoritywhichwillnotsufferhimtodothis，toperformitinascarelessandslovenlyamannerasthatauthoritywillpermit。Ifheisnaturallyactiveandaloveroflabour，itishisinteresttoemploythatactivityinanywayfromwhichhecanderivesomeadvantage，ratherthanintheperformanceofhisduty，fromwhichhecanderivenone。
　　Iftheauthoritytowhichheissubjectresidesinthebodycorporate，thecollege，oruniversity，ofwhichhehimselfisamember，andwhichthegreaterpartoftheothermembersare，likehimself，personswhoeitherareoroughttobeteachers，theyarelikelytomakeacommoncause，tobeallveryindulgenttooneanother，andeverymantoconsentthathisneighbourmayneglecthisduty，providedhehimselfisallowedtoneglecthisown。IntheuniversityofOxford，thegreaterpartofthepublicprofessorshave，forthesemanyyears，givenupaltogethereventhepretenceofteaching。
　　Iftheauthoritytowhichheissubjectresides，notsomuchinthebodycorporateofwhichheisamember，asinsomeotherextraneouspersons—inthebishopofthediocese，forexample;inthegovernoroftheprovince;or，perhaps，insomeministerofstateitisnotindeedinthiscaseverylikelythathewillbesufferedtoneglecthisdutyaltogether。Allthatsuchsuperiors，however，canforcehimtodo，istoattenduponhispupilsacertainnumberofhours，thatis，togiveacertainnumberoflecturesintheweekorintheyear。Whatthoselecturesshallbemuststilldependuponthediligenceoftheteacher;andthatdiligenceislikelytobeproportionedtothemotiveswhichhehasforexertingit。Anextraneousjurisdictionofthiskind，besides，isliabletobeexercisedbothignorantlyandcapriciously。Initsnatureitisarbitraryanddiscretionary，andthepersonswhoexerciseit，neitherattendinguponthelecturesoftheteacherthemselves，norperhapsunderstandingthescienceswhichitishisbusinesstoteach，areseldomcapableofexercisingitwithjudgment。Fromtheinsolenceofoffice，too，theyarefrequentlyindifferenthowtheyexerciseit，andareveryapttocensureordeprivehimofhisofficewantonly，andwithoutanyjustcause。Thepersonsubjecttosuchjurisdictionisnecessarilydegradedbyit，and，insteadofbeingoneofthemostrespectable，isrenderedoneofthemeanestandmostcontemptiblepersonsinthesociety。Itisbypowerfulprotectiononlythathecaneffectuallyguardhimselfagainstthebadusagetowhichheisatalltimesexposed;andthisprotectionheismostlikelytogain，notbyabilityordiligenceinhisprofession，butbyobsequiousnesstothewillofhissuperiors，andbybeingready，atalltimes，tosacrificetothatwilltherights，theinterest，andthehonourofthebodycorporateofwhichheisamember。WhoeverhasattendedforanyconsiderabletimetotheadministrationofaFrenchuniversitymusthavehadoccasiontoremarktheeffectswhichnaturallyresultfromanarbitraryandextraneousjurisdictionofthiskind。
　　Whateverforcesacertainnumberofstudentstoanycollegeoruniversity，independentofthemeritorreputationoftheteachers，tendsmoreorlesstodiminishthenecessityofthatmeritorreputation。
　　Theprivilegesofgraduatesinarts，inlaw，physic，anddivinity，whentheycanbeobtainedonlybyresidingacertainnumberofyearsincertainuniversities，necessarilyforceacertainnumberofstudentstosuchuniversities，independentofthemeritorreputationoftheteachers。Theprivilegesofgraduatesareasortofstatutesofapprenticeship，whichhavecontributedtotheimprovementofeducation，justastheotherstatutesofapprenticeshiphavetothatofarts，andmanufactures。
　　Thecharitablefoundationsofscholarships，exhibitions，bursaries，etc。，necessarilyattachacertainnumberofstudentstocertaincolleges，independentaltogetherofthemeritofthoseparticularcolleges。Werethestudentsuponsuchcharitablefoundationsleftfreetochoosewhatcollegetheylikedbest，suchlibertymightperhapscontributetoexcitesomeemulationamongdifferentcolleges。Aregulation，onthecontrary，whichprohibitedeventheindependentmembersofeveryparticularcollegefromleavingitandgoingtoanyother，withoutleavefirstaskedandobtainedofthatwhichtheymeanttoabandon，wouldtendverymuchtoextinguishthatemulation。
　　Ifineachcollegethetutororteacher，whowastoinstructeachstudentinallartsandsciences，shouldnotbevoluntarilychosenbythestudent，butappointedbytheheadofthecollege;
　　andif，incaseofneglect，inability，orbadusage，thestudentshouldnotbeallowedtochangehimforanother，withoutleavefirstaskedandobtained，sucharegulationwouldnotonlytendverymuchtoextinguishallemulationamongthedifferenttutorsofthesamecollege，buttodiminishverymuchinallofthemthenecessityofdiligenceandofattentiontotheirrespectivepupils。Suchteachers，thoughverywellpaidbytheirstudents，mightbeasmuchdisposedtoneglectthemasthosewhoarenotpaidbythematall，orwhohavenootherrecompensebuttheirsalary。
　　Iftheteacherhappenstobeamanofsense，itmustbeanunpleasantthingtohimtobeconscious，whileheislecturinghisstudents，thatheiseitherspeakingorreadingnonsense，orwhatisverylittlebetterthannonsense。Itmust，too，beunpleasanttohimtoobservethatthegreaterpartofhisstudentsdeserthislectures，orperhapsattenduponthemwithplainenoughmarksofneglect，contempt，andderision。Ifheisobliged，therefore，togiveacertainnumberoflectures，thesemotivesalone，withoutanyotherinterest，mightdisposehimtotakesomepainstogivetolerablygoodones。Severaldifferentexpedients，however，maybefallenuponwhichwilleffectuallyblunttheedgeofallthoseincitementstodiligence。Theteacher，insteadofexplainingtohispupilshimselfthescienceinwhichheproposestoinstructthem，mayreadsomebookuponit;andifthisbookiswritteninaforeignanddeadlanguage，byinterpretingittothemintotheirown;or，whatwouldgivehimstilllesstrouble，bymakingtheminterpretittohim，andbynowandthenmakinganoccasionalremarkuponit，hemayflatterhimselfthatheisgivingalecture。Theslightestdegreeofknowledgeandapplicationwillenablehimtodothiswithoutexposinghimselftocontemptorderision，orsayinganythingthatisreallyfoolish，absurd，orridiculous。Thedisciplineofthecollege，atthesametime，mayenablehimtoforceallhispupilstothemostregularattendanceuponthisshamlecture，andtomaintainthemostdecentandrespectfulbehaviourduringthewholetimeoftheperformance。
　　Thedisciplineofcollegesanduniversitiesisingeneralcontrived，notforthebenefitofthestudents，butfortheinterest，ormoreproperlyspeaking，fortheeaseofthemasters。
　　Itsobjectis，inallcases，tomaintaintheauthorityofthemaster，andwhetherheneglectsorperformshisduty，toobligethestudentsinallcasestobehavetohim，asifheperformeditwiththegreatestdiligenceandability。Itseemstopresumeperfectwisdomandvirtueintheoneorder，andthegreatestweaknessandfollyintheother。Wherethemasters，however，reallyperformtheirduty，therearenoexamples，Ibelieve，thatthegreaterpartofthestudentseverneglecttheirs。Nodisciplineiseverrequisitetoforceattendanceuponlectureswhicharereallyworththeattending，asiswellknownwhereveranysuchlecturesaregiven。Forceandrestraintmay，nodoubt，beinsomedegreerequisiteinordertoobligechildren，orveryyoungboys，toattendtothosepartsofeducationwhichitisthoughtnecessaryforthemtoacquireduringthatearlyperiodoflife;butaftertwelveorthirteenyearsofage，providedthemasterdoeshisduty，forceorrestraintcanscarceeverbenecessarytocarryonanypartofeducation。Suchisthegenerosityofthegreaterpartofyoungmen，that，sofarfrombeingdisposedtoneglectordespisetheinstructionsoftheirmaster，providedheshowssomeseriousintentionofbeingofusetothem，theyaregenerallyinclinedtopardonagreatdealofincorrectnessintheperformanceofhisduty，andsometimeseventoconcealfromthepublicagooddealofgrossnegligence。
　　Thosepartsofeducation，itistobeobserved，fortheteachingofwhichtherearenopublicinstitutions，aregenerallythebesttaught。Whenayoungmangoestoafencingoradancingschool，hedoesnotindeedalwayslearntofenceortodanceverywell;butheseldomfailsoflearningtofenceortodance。Thegoodeffectsoftheridingschoolarenotcommonlysoevident。
　　Theexpenseofaridingschoolissogreat，thatinmostplacesitisapublicinstitution。Thethreemostessentialpartsofliteraryeducation，toread，write，andaccount，itstillcontinuestobemorecommontoacquireinprivatethaninpublicschools;anditveryseldomhappensthatanybodyfailsofacquiringthemtothedegreeinwhichitisnecessarytoacquirethem。
　　InEnglandthepublicschoolsaremuchlesscorruptedthantheuniversities。Intheschoolstheyoutharetaught，oratleastmaybetaught，GreekandLatin;thatis，everythingwhichthemasterspretendtoteach，orwhich，itisexpected，theyshouldteach。Intheuniversitiestheyouthneitheraretaught，noralwayscanfindanypropermeansofbeingtaught，thescienceswhichitisthebusinessofthoseincorporatedbodiestoteach。Therewardoftheschoolmasterinmostcasesdependsprincipally，insomecasesalmostentirely，uponthefeesorhonorariesofhisscholars。Schoolshavenoexclusiveprivileges。
　　Inordertoobtainthehonoursofgraduation，itisnotnecessarythatapersonshouldbringacertificateofhishavingstudiedacertainnumberofyearsatapublicschool。Ifuponexaminationheappearstounderstandwhatistaughtthere，noquestionsareaskedabouttheplacewherehelearntit。
　　Thepartsofeducationwhicharecommonlytaughtinuniversities，itmay，perhaps，besaidarenotverywelltaught。
　　Buthaditnotbeenforthoseinstitutionstheywouldnothavebeencommonlytaughtatall，andboththeindividualandthepublicwouldhavesufferedagooddealfromthewantofthoseimportantpartsofeducation。
　　ThepresentuniversitiesofEuropewereoriginally，thegreaterpartofthem，ecclesiasticalcorporations，institutedfortheeducationofchurchmen。TheywerefoundedbytheauthorityofthePope，andweresoentirelyunderhisimmediateprotection，thattheirmembers，whethermastersorstudents，hadallofthemwhatwasthencalledthebenefitofclergy，thatis，wereexemptedfromtheciviljurisdictionofthecountriesinwhichtheirrespectiveuniversitiesweresituated，andwereamenableonlytotheecclesiasticaltribunals。Whatwastaughtinthegreaterpartofthoseuniversitieswassuitabletotheendoftheirinstitution，eithertheology，orsomethingthatwasmerelypreparatorytotheology。
　　WhenChristianitywasfirstestablishedbylaw，acorruptedLatinhadbecomethecommonlanguageofallthewesternpartsofEurope。Theserviceofthechurchaccordingly，andthetranslationoftheBiblewhichwasreadinchurches，werebothinthatcorruptedLatin;thatis，inthecommonlanguageofthecountry。AftertheirruptionofthebarbarousnationswhooverturnedtheRomanempire，LatingraduallyceasedtobethelanguageofanypartofEurope。Butthereverenceofthepeoplenaturallypreservestheestablishedformsandceremoniesofreligionlongafterthecircumstanceswhichfirstintroducedandrenderedthemreasonablearenomore。ThoughLatin，therefore，wasnolongerunderstoodanywherebythegreatbodyofthepeople，thewholeserviceofthechurchstillcontinuedtobeperformedinthatlanguage。TwodifferentlanguageswerethusestablishedinEurope，inthesamemannerasinancientEgypt;alanguageofthepriests，andalanguageofthepeople;asacredandaprofane;alearnedandanunlearnedlanguage。Butitwasnecessarythatthepriestsshouldunderstandsomethingofthatsacredandlearnedlanguageinwhichtheyweretoofficiate;andthestudyoftheLatinlanguagethereforemade，fromthebeginning，anessentialpartofuniversityeducation。
　　ItwasnotsowiththateitheroftheGreekoroftheHebrewlanguage。TheinfallibledecreesofthechurchhadpronouncedtheLatintranslationoftheBible，commonlycalledtheLatinVulgate，tohavebeenequallydictatedbydivineinspiration，andthereforeofequalauthoritywiththeGreekandHebreworiginals。
　　Theknowledgeofthosetwolanguages，therefore，notbeingindispensablyrequisitetoachurchman，thestudyofthemdidnotforalongtimemakeanecessarypartofthecommoncourseofuniversityeducation。TherearesomeSpanishuniversities，Iamassured，inwhichthestudyoftheGreeklanguagehasneveryetmadeanypartofthatcourse。ThefirstreformersfoundtheGreektextoftheNewTestament，andeventheHebrewtextoftheOld，morefavorabletotheiropinionsthantheVulgatetranslation，which，asmightnaturallybesupposed，hadbeengraduallyaccommodatedtosupportthedoctrinesoftheCatholicChurch。
　　Theysetthemselves，therefore，toexposethemanyerrorsofthattranslation，whichtheRomanCatholicclergywerethusputunderthenecessityofdefendingorexplaining。Butthiscouldnotwellbedonewithoutsomeknowledgeoftheoriginallanguages，ofwhichthestudywasthereforegraduallyintroducedintothegreaterpartofuniversities，bothofthosewhichembraced，andofthosewhichrejected，thedoctrinesoftheReformation。TheGreeklanguagewasconnectedwitheverypartofthatclassicallearningwhich，thoughatfirstprincipallycultivatedbyCatholicsandItalians，happenedtocomeintofashionmuchaboutthesametimethatthedoctrinesoftheReformationweresetonfoot。Inthegreaterpartofuniversities，therefore，thatlanguagewastaughtprevioustothestudyofphilosophy，andassoonasthestudenthadmadesomeprogressintheLatin。TheHebrewlanguagehavingnoconnectionwithclassicallearning，and，excepttheHolyScriptures，beingthelanguageofnotasinglebookinanyesteem，thestudyofitdidnotcommonlycommencetillafterthatofphilosophy，andwhenthestudenthadentereduponthestudyoftheology。
　　OriginallythefirstrudimentsbothoftheGreekandLatinlanguagesweretaughtinuniversities，andinsomeuniversitiestheystillcontinuetobeso。Inothersitisexpectedthatthestudentshouldhavepreviouslyacquiredatleasttherudimentsofoneorbothofthoselanguages，ofwhichthestudycontinuestomakeeverywhereaveryconsiderablepartofuniversityeducation。
　　TheancientGreekphilosophywasdividedintothreegreatbranches;physics，ornaturalphilosophy;ethics，ormoralphilosophy;andlogic。Thisgeneraldivisionseemsperfectlyagreeabletothenatureofthings。
　　Thegreatphenomenaofnature—therevolutionsoftheheavenlybodies，eclipses，comets;thunder，lightning，andotherextraordinarymeteors;thegeneration，thelife，growth，anddissolutionofplantsandanimals—areobjectswhich，astheynecessarilyexcitethewonder，sotheynaturallycallforththecuriosity，ofmankindtoinquireintotheircauses。Superstitionfirstattemptedtosatisfythiscuriosity，byreferringallthosewonderfulappearancestotheimmediateagencyofthegods。
　　Philosophyafterwardsendeavouredtoaccountforthemfrommorefamiliarcauses，orfromsuchasmankindwerebetteracquaintedwith，thantheagencyofthegods。Asthosegreatphenomenaarethefirstobjectsofhumancuriosity，sothesciencewhichpretendstoexplainthemmustnaturallyhavebeenthefirstbranchofphilosophythatwascultivated。Thefirstphilosophers，accordingly，ofwhomhistoryhaspreservedanyaccount，appeartohavebeennaturalphilosophers。
　　Ineveryageandcountryoftheworldmenmusthaveattendedtothecharacters，designs，andactionsofoneanother，andmanyreputablerulesandmaximsfortheconductofhumanlifemusthavebeenlaiddownandapprovedofbycommonconsent。Assoonaswritingcameintofashion，wisemen，orthosewhofanciedthemselvessuch，wouldnaturallyendeavourtoincreasethenumberofthoseestablishedandrespectedmaxims，andtoexpresstheirownsenseofwhatwaseitherproperorimproperconduct，sometimesinthemoreartificialformofapologues，likewhatarecalledthefablesofAesop;andsometimesinthemoresimpleoneofapophthegms，orwisesayings，liketheProverbsofSolomon，theversesofTheognisandPhocyllides，andsomepartoftheworksofHesiod。Theymightcontinueinthismannerforalongtimemerelytomultiplythenumberofthosemaximsofprudenceandmorality，withoutevenattemptingtoarrangetheminanyverydistinctormethodicalorder，muchlesstoconnectthemtogetherbyoneormoregeneralprinciplesfromwhichtheywerealldeducible，likeeffectsfromtheirnaturalcauses。Thebeautyofasystematicalarrangementofdifferentobservationsconnectedbyafewcommonprincipleswasfirstseenintherudeessaysofthoseancienttimestowardsasystemofnaturalphilosophy。
　　Somethingofthesamekindwasafterwardsattemptedinmorals。
　　Themaximsofcommonlifewerearrangedinsomemethodicalorder，andconnectedtogetherbyafewcommonprinciples，inthesamemannerastheyhadattemptedtoarrangeandconnectthephenomenaofnature。Thesciencewhichpretendstoinvestigateandexplainthoseconnectingprinciplesiswhatisproperlycalledmoralphilosophy。
　　Differentauthorsgavedifferentsystemsbothofnaturalandmoralphilosophy。Buttheargumentsbywhichtheysupportedthosedifferentsystems，forfrombeingalwaysdemonstrations，werefrequentlyatbestbutveryslenderprobabilities，andsometimesmeresophisms，whichhadnootherfoundationbuttheinaccuracyandambiguityofcommonlanguage。Speculativesystemshaveinallagesoftheworldbeenadoptedforreasonstoofrivoloustohavedeterminedthejudgmentofanymanofcommonsenseinamatterofthesmallestpecuniaryinterest。Grosssophistryhasscarceeverhadanyinfluenceupontheopinionsofmankind，exceptinmattersofphilosophyandspeculation;andintheseithasfrequentlyhadthegreatest。Thepatronsofeachsystemofnaturalandmoralphilosophynaturallyendeavouredtoexposetheweaknessoftheargumentsadducedtosupportthesystemswhichwereoppositetotheirown。Inexaminingthosearguments，theywerenecessarilyledtoconsiderthedifferencebetweenaprobableandademonstrativeargument，betweenafallaciousandaconclusiveone:andLogic，orthescienceofthegeneralprinciplesofgoodandbadreasoning，necessarilyaroseoutoftheobservationswhichascrutinyofthiskindgaveoccasionto。Thoughinitsoriginposteriorbothtophysicsandtoethics，itwascommonlytaught，notindeedinall，butinthegreaterpartoftheancientschoolsofphilosophy，previouslytoeitherofthosesciences。
　　Thestudent，itseemstohavebeenthought，tounderstandwellthedifferencebetweengoodandbadreasoningbeforehewasledtoreasonuponsubjectsofsogreatimportance。
　　ThisancientdivisionofphilosophyintothreepartswasinthegreaterpartoftheuniversitiesofEuropechangedforanotherintofive。
　　Intheancientphilosophy，whateverwastaughtconcerningthenatureeitherofthehumanmindoroftheDeity，madeapartofthesystemofphysics。Thosebeings，inwhatevertheiressencemightbesupposedtoconsist，werepartsofthegreatsystemoftheuniverse，andparts，too，productiveofthemostimportanteffects。Whateverhumanreasoncouldeitherconcludeorconjectureconcerningthem，made，asitwere，twochapters，thoughnodoubttwoveryimportantones，ofthesciencewhichpretendedtogiveanaccountoftheoriginandrevolutionsofthegreatsystemoftheuniverse。ButintheuniversitiesofEurope，wherephilosophywastaughtonlyassubservienttotheology，itwasnaturaltodwelllongeruponthesetwochaptersthanuponanyotherofthescience。Theyweregraduallymoreandmoreextended，andweredividedintomanyinferiorchapters，tillatlastthedoctrineofspirits，ofwhichsolittlecanbeknown，cametotakeupasmuchroominthesystemofphilosophyasthedoctrineofbodies，ofwhichsomuchcanbeknown。Thedoctrinesconcerningthosetwosubjectswereconsideredasmakingtwodistinctsciences。WhatarecalledMetaphysicsorPneumaticsweresetinoppositiontoPhysics，andwerecultivatednotonlyasthemoresublime，but，forthepurposesofaparticularprofession，asthemoreusefulscienceofthetwo。Thepropersubjectofexperimentandobservation，asubjectinwhichacarefulattentioniscapableofmakingsomanyusefuldiscoveries，wasalmostentirelyneglected。Thesubjectinwhich，afterafewverysimpleandalmostobvioustruths，themostcarefulattentioncandiscovernothingbutobscurityanduncertainty，andcanconsequentlyproducenothingbutsubtletiesandsophisms，wasgreatlycultivated。
　　Whenthosetwoscienceshadthusbeensetinoppositiontooneanother，thecomparisonbetweenthemnaturallygavebirthtoathird，towhatwascalledOntology，orthesciencewhichtreatedofthequalitiesandattributeswhichwerecommontoboththesubjectsoftheothertwosciences。ButifsubtletiesandsophismscomposedthegreaterpartoftheMetaphysicsorPneumaticsoftheschools，theycomposedthewholeofthiscobwebscienceofOntology，whichwaslikewisesometimescalledMetaphysics。
　　Whereinconsistedthehappinessandperfectionofaman，considerednotonlyasanindividual，butasthememberofafamily，ofastate，andofthegreatsocietyofmankind，wastheobjectwhichtheancientmoralphilosophyproposedtoinvestigate。Inthatphilosophythedutiesofhumanlifeweretreatedassubservienttothehappinessandperfectionofhumanlife。Butwhenmoral，aswellasnaturalphilosophy，cametobetaughtonlyassubservienttotheology，thedutiesofhumanlifeweretreatedofaschieflysubservienttothehappinessofalifetocome。Intheancientphilosophytheperfectionofvirtuewasrepresentedasnecessarilyproductive，tothepersonwhopossessedit，ofthemostperfecthappinessinthislife。Inthemodernphilosophyitwasfrequentlyrepresentedasgenerally，orratherasalmostalways，inconsistentwithanydegreeofhappinessinthislife;andheavenwastobeearnedonlybypenanceandmortification，bytheausteritiesandabasementofamonk;notbytheliberal，generous，andspiritedconductofaman。Casuistryandanasceticmoralitymadeup，inmostcases，thegreaterpartofthemoralphilosophyoftheschools。Byfarthemostimportantofallthedifferentbranchesofphilosophybecameinthismannerbyfarthemostcorrupted。
　　Such，therefore，wasthecommoncourseofphilosophicaleducationinthegreaterpartoftheuniversitiesinEurope。
　　Logicwastaughtfirst:Ontologycameinthesecondplace:
　　Pneumatology，comprehendingthedoctrineconcerningthenatureofthehumansoulandoftheDeity，inthethird:inthefourthfollowedadebasedsystemofmoralphilosophywhichwasconsideredasimmediatelyconnectedwiththedoctrinesofPneumatology，withtheimmortalityofthehumansoul，andwiththerewardsandpunishmentswhich，fromthejusticeoftheDeity，weretobeexpectedinalifetocome:ashortandsuperficialsystemofPhysicsusuallyconcludedthecourse。
　　ThealterationswhichtheuniversitiesofEuropethusintroducedintotheancientcourseofphilosophywereallmeantfortheeducationofecclesiastics，andtorenderitamoreproperintroductiontothestudyoftheology。Buttheadditionalquantityofsubtletyandsophistry，thecasuistryandtheasceticmoralitywhichthosealterationsintroducedintoit，certainlydidnotrenderitmoreproperfortheeducationofgentlemenormenoftheworld，ormorelikelyeithertoimprovetheunderstanding，ortomendtheheart。
　　ThiscourseofphilosophyiswhatstillcontinuestobetaughtinthegreaterpartoftheuniversitiesofEurope，withmoreorlessdiligence，accordingastheconstitutionofeachparticularuniversityhappenstorenderdiligencemoreorlessnecessarytotheteachers。Insomeoftherichestandbestendoweduniversities，thetutorscontentthemselveswithteachingafewunconnectedshredsandparcelsofthiscorruptedcourse;
　　andeventhesetheycommonlyteachverynegligentlyandsuperficially。
　　Theimprovementswhich，inmoderntimes，havebeenmadeinseveraldifferentbranchesofphilosophyhavenot，thegreaterpartofthem，beenmadeinuniversities，thoughsomenodoubthave。Thegreaterpartofuniversitieshavenotevenbeenveryforwardtoadoptthoseimprovementsaftertheyweremade;andseveralofthoselearnedsocietieshavechosentoremain，foralongtime，thesanctuariesinwhichexplodedsystemsandobsoleteprejudicesfoundshelterandprotectionaftertheyhadbeenhuntedoutofeveryothercorneroftheworld。Ingeneral，therichestandbestendoweduniversitieshavebeentheslowestinadoptingthoseimprovements，andthemostaversetopermitanyconsiderablechangeintheestablishedplanofeducation。Thoseimprovementsweremoreeasilyintroducedintosomeofthepooreruniversities，inwhichtheteachers，dependingupontheirreputationforthegreaterpartoftheirsubsistence，wereobligedtopaymoreattentiontothecurrentopinionsoftheworld。
　　ButthoughthepublicschoolsanduniversitiesofEuropewereoriginallyintendedonlyfortheeducationofaparticularprofession，thatofchurchmen;andthoughtheywerenotalwaysverydiligentininstructingtheirpupilseveninthescienceswhichweresupposednecessaryforthatprofession，yettheygraduallydrewtothemselvestheeducationofalmostallotherpeople，particularlyofalmostallgentlemenandmenoffortune。
　　Nobettermethod，itseems，couldbefallenuponofspending，withanyadvantage，thelongintervalbetweeninfancyandthatperiodoflifeatwhichmenbegintoapplyingoodearnesttotherealbusinessoftheworld，thebusinesswhichistoemploythemduringtheremainderoftheirdays。Thegreaterpartofwhatistaughtinschoolsanduniversities，however，doesnotseemtobethemostproperpreparationforthatbusiness。
　　InEnglanditbecomeseverydaymoreandmorethecustomtosendyoungpeopletotravelinforeigncountriesimmediatelyupontheirleavingschool，andwithoutsendingthemtoanyuniversity。
　　Ouryoungpeople，itissaid，generallyreturnhomemuchimprovedbytheirtravels。Ayoungmanwhogoesabroadatseventeenoreighteen，andreturnshomeatoneandtwenty，returnsthreeorfouryearsolderthanhewaswhenhewentabroad;andatthatageitisverydifficultnottoimproveagooddealinthreeorfouryears。Inthecourseofhistravelshegenerallyacquiressomeknowledgeofoneortwoforeignlanguages;aknowledge，however，whichisseldomsufficienttoenablehimeithertospeakorwritethemwithpropriety。Inotherrespectshecommonlyreturnshomemoreconceited，moreunprincipled，moredissipated，andmoreincapableofanyseriousapplicationeithertostudyortobusinessthanhecouldwellhavebecomeinsoshortatimehadhelivedathome。Bytravellingsoveryyoung，byspendinginthemostfrivolousdissipationthemostpreciousyearsofhislife，atadistancefromtheinspectionandcontrolofhisparentsandrelations，everyusefulhabitwhichtheearlierpartsofhiseducationmighthavehadsometendencytoforminhim，insteadofbeingrivetedandconfirmed，isalmostnecessarilyeitherweakenedoreffaced。Nothingbutthediscreditintowhichtheuniversitiesareallowingthemselvestofallcouldeverhavebroughtintoreputesoveryabsurdapracticeasthatoftravellingatthisearlyperiodoflife。Bysendinghissonabroad，afatherdelivershimselfatleastforsometime，fromsodisagreeableanobjectasthatofasonunemployed，neglected，andgoingtoruinbeforehiseyes。
　　Suchhavebeentheeffectsofsomeofthemoderninstitutionsforeducation。
　　Differentplansanddifferentinstitutionsforeducationseemtohavetakenplaceinotheragesandnations。
　　IntherepublicsofancientGreece，everyfreecitizenwasinstructed，underthedirectionofthepublicmagistrate，ingymnasticexercisesandinmusic。Bygymnasticexercisesitwasintendedtohardenhisbody，tosharpenhiscourage，andtopreparehimforthefatiguesanddangersofwar;andastheGreekmilitiawas，byallaccounts，oneofthebestthateverwasintheworld，thispartoftheirpubliceducationmusthaveansweredcompletelythepurposeforwhichitwasintended。Bytheotherpart，music，itwasproposed，atleastbythephilosophersandhistorianswhohavegivenusanaccountofthoseinstitutions，tohumanizethemind，tosoftenthetemper，andtodisposeitforperformingallthesocialandmoraldutiesbothofpublicandprivatelife。
　　InancientRometheexercisesoftheCampusMartiusansweredthepurposeasthoseoftheGymnasiuminancientGreece，andtheyseemtohaveanswereditequallywell。ButamongtheRomanstherewasnothingwhichcorrespondedtothemusicaleducationoftheGreeks。ThemoralsoftheRomans，however，bothinprivateandpubliclife，seemtohavebeennotonlyequal，but，uponthewhole，agooddealsuperiortothoseoftheGreeks。Thattheyweresuperiorinprivatelife，wehavetheexpresstestimonyofPolybiusandofDionysiusofHalicarnassus，twoauthorswellacquaintedwithbothnations;andthewholetenoriftheGreekandRomanhistorybearswitnesstothesuperiorityofthepublicmoralsoftheRomans。Thegoodtemperandmoderationofcontendingfactionsseemstobethemostessentialcircumstancesinthepublicmoralsofafreepeople。ButthefactionsoftheGreekswerealmostalwaysviolentandsanguinary;whereas，tillthetimeoftheGracchi，nobloodhadeverbeenshedinanyRomanfaction;andfromthetimeoftheGracchitheRomanrepublicmaybeconsideredasinrealitydissolved。Notwithstanding，therefore，theveryrespectableauthorityofPlato，Aristotle，andPolybius，andnotwithstandingtheveryingeniousreasonsbywhichMr。Montesquieuendeavourstosupportthatauthority，itseemsprobablethatthemusicaleducationoftheGreekshadnogreateffectinmendingtheirmorals，since，withoutanysucheducation，thoseoftheRomanswereuponthewholesuperior。Therespectofthoseancientsagesfortheinstitutionsoftheirancestorshadprobablydisposedthemtofindmuchpoliticalwisdominwhatwas，perhaps，merelyanancientcustom，continuedwithoutinterruptionfromtheearliestperiodofthosesocietiestothetimesinwhichtheyhadarrivedataconsiderabledegreeofrefinement。Musicanddancingarethegreatamusementsofalmostallbarbarousnations，andthegreataccomplishmentswhicharesupposedtofitanymanforentertaininghissociety。ItissoatthisdayamongthenegroesonthecoastofAfrica。ItwassoamongtheancientCelts，amongtheancientScandinavians，and，aswemaylearnfromHomer，amongtheancientGreeksinthetimesprecedingtheTrojanwar。WhentheGreektribeshadformedthemselvesintolittlerepublics，itwasnaturalthatthestudyofthoseaccomplishmentsshould，foralongtime，makeapartofthepublicandcommoneducationofthepeople。