CHAPTERIII
　　OftheRiseandProgressofCitiesandTownsaftertheFalloftheRomanEmpireTHEinhabitantsofcitiesandtownswere，afterthefalloftheRomanempire，notmorefavouredthanthoseofthecountry。
　　Theyconsisted，indeed，ofaverydifferentorderofpeoplefromthefirstinhabitantsoftheancientrepublicsofGreeceandItaly。Theselastwerecomposedchieflyoftheproprietorsoflands，amongwhomthepublicterritorywasoriginallydivided，andwhofounditconvenienttobuildtheirhousesintheneighbourhoodofoneanother，andtosurroundthemwithawall，forthesakeofcommondefence。AfterthefalloftheRomanempire，onthecontrary，theproprietorsoflandseemgenerallytohavelivedinfortifiedcastlesontheirownestates，andinthemidstoftheirowntenantsanddependants。Thetownswerechieflyinhabitedbytradesmenandmechanics，whoseeminthosedaystohavebeenofservile，orverynearlyofservilecondition。TheprivilegeswhichwefindgrantedbyancientcharterstotheinhabitantsofsomeoftheprincipaltownsinEuropesufficientlyshowwhattheywerebeforethosegrants。Thepeopletowhomitisgrantedasaprivilegethattheymightgiveawaytheirowndaughtersinmarriagewithouttheconsentoftheirlord，thatupontheirdeaththeirownchildren，andnottheirlord，shouldsucceedtotheirgoods，andthattheymightdisposeoftheirowneffectsbywill，must，beforethosegrants，havebeeneitheraltogetherorverynearlyinthesamestateofvillanagewiththeoccupiersoflandinthecountry。
　　Theyseem，indeed，tohavebeenaverypoor，meansetofpeople，whousedtotravelaboutwiththeirgoodsfromplacetoplace，andfromfairtofair，likethehawkersandpedlarsofthepresenttimes。InallthedifferentcountriesofEuropethen，inthesamemannerasinseveraloftheTartargovernmentsofAsiaatpresent，taxesusedtobelevieduponthepersonsandgoodsoftravellerswhentheypassedthroughcertainmanors，whentheywentovercertainbridges，whentheycarriedabouttheirgoodsfromplacetoplaceinafair，whentheyerectedinitaboothorstalltosellthemin。ThesedifferenttaxeswereknowninEnglandbythenamesofpassage，pontage，lastage，andstallage。
　　Sometimestheking，sometimesagreatlord，whohad，itseems，uponsomeoccasions，authoritytodothis，wouldgranttoparticulartraders，tosuchparticularlyaslivedintheirowndemesnes，ageneralexemptionfromsuchtaxes。Suchtraders，thoughinotherrespectsofservile，orverynearlyofservilecondition，wereuponthisaccountcalledfree—traders。Theyinreturnusuallypaidtotheirprotectorasortofannualpoll—tax。
　　Inthosedaysprotectionwasseldomgrantedwithoutavaluableconsideration，andthistaxmight，perhaps，beconsideredascompensationforwhattheirpatronsmightlosebytheirexemptionfromothertaxes。Atfirst，boththosepoll—taxesandthoseexemptionsseemtohavebeenaltogetherpersonal，andtohaveaffectedonlyparticularindividualsduringeithertheirlivesorthepleasureoftheirprotectors。IntheveryimperfectaccountswhichhavebeenpublishedfromDomesdayBookofseveralofthetownsofEngland，mentionisfrequentlymadesometimesofthetaxwhichparticularburgherspaid，eachofthem，eithertothekingortosomeothergreatlordforthissortofprotection;andsometimesofthegeneralamountonlyofallthosetaxes。
　　Buthowservilesoevermayhavebeenoriginallytheconditionoftheinhabitantsofthetowns，itappearsevidentlythattheyarrivedatlibertyandindependencymuchearlierthantheoccupiersoflandinthecountry。Thatpartoftheking’srevenuewhicharosefromsuchpoll—taxesinanyparticulartownusedcommonlytobeletinfarmduringatermofyearsforarentcertain，sometimestothesheriffofthecounty，andsometimestootherpersons。Theburghersthemselvesfrequentlygotcreditenoughtobeadmittedtofarmtherevenuesofthissortwhicharoseoutoftheirowntown，theybecomingjointlyandseverallyanswerableforthewholerent。Toletafarminthismannerwasquiteagreeabletotheusualeconomyof，Ibelieve，thesovereignsofallthedifferentcountriesofEurope，whousedfrequentlytoletwholemanorstoallthetenantsofthosemanors，theybecomingjointlyandseverallyanswerableforthewholerent;butinreturnbeingallowedtocollectitintheirownway，andtopayitintotheking’sexchequerbythehandsoftheirownbailiff，andbeingthusaltogetherfreedfromtheinsolenceoftheking’sofficers—acircumstanceinthosedaysregardedasofthegreatestimportance。
　　Atfirstthefarmofthetownwasprobablylettotheburghers，inthesamemannerasithadbeentootherfarmers，foratermofyearsonly。Inprocessoftime，however，itseemstohavebecomethegeneralpracticetograntittotheminfee，thatisforever，reservingarentcertainneverafterwardstobeaugmented。Thepaymenthavingthusbecomeperpetual，theexemptions，inreturnforwhichitwasmade，naturallybecameperpetualtoo。Thoseexemptions，therefore，ceasedtobepersonal，andcouldnotafterwardsbeconsideredasbelongingtoindividualsasindividuals，butasburghersofaparticularburgh，which，uponthisaccount，wascalledafreeburgh，forthesamereasonthattheyhadbeencalledfreeburghersorfreetraders。
　　Alongwiththisgrant，theimportantprivilegesabovementioned，thattheymightgiveawaytheirowndaughtersinmarriage，thattheirchildrenshouldsucceedtothem，andthattheymightdisposeoftheirowneffectsbywill，weregenerallybestowedupontheburghersofthetowntowhomitwasgiven。
　　Whethersuchprivilegeshadbeforebeenusuallygrantedalongwiththefreedomoftradetoparticularburghers，asindividuals，Iknownot。Ireckonitnotimprobablethattheywere，thoughI
　　cannotproduceanydirectevidenceofit。Buthoweverthismayhavebeen，theprincipalattributesofvillanageandslaverybeingthustakenawayfromthem，theynow，atleast，becamereallyfreeinourpresentsenseofthewordFreedom。
　　Norwasthisall。Theyweregenerallyatthesametimeerectedintoacommonaltyorcorporation，withtheprivilegeofhavingmagistratesandatowncounciloftheirown，ofmakingbye—lawsfortheirowngovernment，ofbuildingwallsfortheirowndefence，andofreducingalltheirinhabitantsunderasortofmilitarydisciplinebyobligingthemtowatchandward，thatis，asancientlyunderstood，toguardanddefendthosewallsagainstallattacksandsurprisesbynightaswellasbyday。InEnglandtheyweregenerallyexemptedfromsuittothehundredandcountycourts;andallsuchpleasasshouldariseamongthem，thepleasofthecrownexcepted，werelefttothedecisionoftheirownmagistrates。Inothercountriesmuchgreaterandmoreextensivejurisdictionswerefrequentlygrantedtothem。
　　Itmight，probably，benecessarytogranttosuchtownsaswereadmittedtofarmtheirownrevenuessomesortofcompulsivejurisdictiontoobligetheirowncitizenstomakepayment。Inthosedisorderlytimesitmighthavebeenextremelyinconvenienttohaveleftthemtoseekthissortofjusticefromanyothertribunal。ButitmustseemextraordinarythatthesovereignsofallthedifferentcountriesofEuropeshouldhaveexchangedinthismannerforarentcertain，nevermoretobeaugmented，thatbranchoftherevenuewhichwas，perhaps，ofallothersthemostlikelytobeimprovedbythenaturalcourseofthings，withouteitherexpenseorattentionoftheirown:andthattheyshould，besides，haveinthismannervoluntarilyerectedasortofindependentrepublicsintheheartoftheirowndominions。
　　Inordertounderstandthis，itmustberememberedthatinthosedaysthesovereignofperhapsnocountryinEuropewasabletoprotect，throughthewholeextentofhisdominions，theweakerpartofhissubjectsfromtheoppressionofthegreatlords。
　　Thosewhomthelawcouldnotprotect，andwhowerenotstrongenoughtodefendthemselves，wereobligedeithertohaverecoursetotheprotectionofsomegreatlord，andinordertoobtainittobecomeeitherhisslavesorvassals;ortoenterintoaleagueofmutualdefenceforthecommonprotectionofoneanother。Theinhabitantsofcitiesandburghs，consideredassingleindividuals，hadnopowertodefendthemselves;butbyenteringintoaleagueofmutualdefencewiththeirneighbours，theywerecapableofmakingnocontemptibleresistance。Thelordsdespisedtheburghers，whomtheyconsiderednotonlyasofadifferentorder，butasaparcelofemancipatedslaves，almostofadifferentspeciesfromthemselves。Thewealthoftheburghersneverfailedtoprovoketheirenvyandindignation，andtheyplunderedthemuponeveryoccasionwithoutmercyorremorse。Theburghersnaturallyhatedandfearedthelords。Thekinghatedandfearedthemtoo;butthoughperhapshemightdespise，hehadnoreasoneithertohateorfeartheburghers。Mutualinterest，therefore，disposedthemtosupporttheking，andthekingtosupportthemagainstthelords。Theyweretheenemiesofhisenemies，anditwashisinteresttorenderthemassecureandindependentofthoseenemiesashecould。Bygrantingthemmagistratesoftheirown，theprivilegeofmakingbye—lawsfortheirowngovernment，thatofbuildingwallsfortheirowndefence，andthatofreducingalltheirinhabitantsunderasortofmilitarydiscipline，hegavethemallthemeansofsecurityandindependencyofthebaronswhichitwasinhispowertobestow。Withouttheestablishmentofsomeregulargovernmentofthiskind，withoutsomeauthoritytocompeltheirinhabitantstoactaccordingtosomecertainplanorsystem，novoluntaryleagueofmutualdefencecouldeitherhaveaffordedthemanypermanentsecurity，orhaveenabledthemtogivethekinganyconsiderablesupport。Bygrantingthemthefarmoftheirtowninfee，hetookawayfromthosewhomhewishedtohaveforhisfriends，and，ifonemaysayso，forhisallies，allgroundofjealousyandsuspicionthathewaseverafterwardstooppressthem，eitherbyraisingthefarmrentoftheirtownorbygrantingittosomeotherfarmer。
　　Theprinceswholivedupontheworsttermswiththeirbaronsseemaccordinglytohavebeenthemostliberalingrantsofthiskindtotheirburghs。KingJohnofEngland，forexample，appearstohavebeenamostmunificentbenefactortohistowns。PhiliptheFirstofFrancelostallauthorityoverhisbarons。Towardstheendofhisreign，hissonLewis，knownafterwardsbythenameofLewistheFat，consulted，accordingtoFatherDaniel，withthebishopsoftheroyaldemesnesconcerningthemostpropermeansofrestrainingtheviolenceofthegreatlords。Theiradviceconsistedoftwodifferentproposals。Onewastoerectaneworderofjurisdiction，byestablishingmagistratesandatowncouncilineveryconsiderabletownofhisdemesnes。Theotherwastoformanewmilitia，bymakingtheinhabitantsofthosetowns，underthecommandoftheirownmagistrates，marchoutuponproperoccasionstotheassistanceoftheking。Itisfromthisperiod，accordingtotheFrenchantiquarians，thatwearetodatetheinstitutionofthemagistratesandcouncilsofcitiesinFrance。
　　ItwasduringtheunprosperousreignsoftheprincesofthehouseofSuabiathatthegreaterpartofthefreetownsofGermanyreceivedthefirstgrantsoftheirprivileges，andthatthefamousHanseaticleaguefirstbecameformidable。
　　Themilitiaofthecitiesseems，inthosetimes，nottohavebeeninferiortothatofthecountry，andastheycouldbemorereadilyassembleduponanysuddenoccasion，theyfrequentlyhadtheadvantageintheirdisputeswiththeneighbouringlords。Incountries，suchasItalyandSwitzerland，inwhich，onaccounteitheroftheirdistancefromtheprincipalseatofgovernment，ofthenaturalstrengthofthecountryitself，orofsomeotherreason，thesovereigncametolosethewholeofhisauthority，thecitiesgenerallybecameindependentrepublics，andconqueredallthenobilityintheirneighbourhood，obligingthemtopulldowntheircastlesinthecountryandtolive，likeotherpeaceableinhabitants，inthecity。ThisistheshorthistoryoftherepublicofBerneaswellasofseveralothercitiesinSwitzerland。IfyouexceptVenice，forofthatcitythehistoryissomewhatdifferent，itisthehistoryofalltheconsiderableItalianrepublics，ofwhichsogreatanumberaroseandperishedbetweentheendofthetwelfthandthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury。
　　IncountriessuchasFranceorEngland，wheretheauthorityofthesovereign，thoughfrequentlyverylow，neverwasdestroyedaltogether，thecitieshadnoopportunityofbecomingentirelyindependent。Theybecame，however，soconsiderablethatthesovereigncouldimposenotaxuponthem，besidesthestatedfarm—rentofthetown，withouttheirownconsent。Theywere，therefore，calledupontosenddeputiestothegeneralassemblyofthestatesofthekingdom，wheretheymightjoinwiththeclergyandthebaronsingranting，uponurgentoccasions，someextraordinaryaidtotheking。Beinggenerally，too，morefavourabletohispower，theirdeputiesseem，sometimes，tohavebeenemployedbyhimasacounterbalanceinthoseassembliestotheauthorityofthegreatlords。Hencetheoriginoftherepresentationofburghsinthestates—generalofallthegreatmonarchiesinEurope。
　　Orderandgoodgovernment，andalongwiththemthelibertyandsecurityofindividuals，were，inthismanner，establishedincitiesatatimewhentheoccupiersoflandinthecountrywereexposedtoeverysortofviolence。Butmeninthisdefencelessstatenaturallycontentthemselveswiththeirnecessarysubsistence，becausetoacquiremoremightonlytempttheinjusticeoftheiroppressors。Onthecontrary，whentheyaresecureofenjoyingthefruitsoftheirindustry，theynaturallyexertittobettertheircondition，andtoacquirenotonlythenecessaries，buttheconveniencesandeleganciesoflife。Thatindustry，therefore，whichaimsatsomethingmorethannecessarysubsistence，wasestablishedincitieslongbeforeitwascommonlypractisedbytheoccupiersoflandinthecountry。Ifinthehandsofapoorcultivator，oppressedwiththeservitudeofvillanage，somelittlestockshouldaccumulate，hewouldnaturallyconcealitwithgreatcarefromhismaster，towhomitwouldotherwisehavebelonged，andtakethefirstopportunityofrunningawaytoatown。Thelawwasatthattimesoindulgenttotheinhabitantsoftowns，andsodesirousofdiminishingtheauthorityofthelordsoverthoseofthecountry，thatifhecouldconcealhimselftherefromthepursuitofhislordforayear，hewasfreeforever。Whateverstock，therefore，accumulatedinthehandsoftheindustriouspartoftheinhabitantsofthecountrynaturallytookrefugeincitiesastheonlysanctuariesinwhichitcouldbesecuretothepersonthatacquiredit。
　　Theinhabitantsofacity，itistrue，mustalwaysultimatelyderivetheirsubsistence，andthewholematerialsandmeansoftheirindustry，fromthecountry。Butthoseofacity，situatedneareithertheseacoastorthebanksofanavigableriver，arenotnecessarilyconfinedtoderivethemfromthecountryintheirneighbourhood。Theyhaveamuchwiderrange，andmaydrawthemfromthemostremotecornersoftheworld，eitherinexchangeforthemanufacturedproduceoftheirownindustry，orbyperformingtheofficeofcarriersbetweendistantcountriesandexchangingtheproduceofoneforthatofanother。Acitymightinthismannergrowuptogreatwealthandsplendour，whilenotonlythecountryinitsneighbourhood，butallthosetowhichittraded，wereinpovertyandwretchedness。Eachofthosecountries，perhaps，takensingly，couldafforditbutasmallparteitherofitssubsistenceorofitsemployment，butallofthemtakentogethercouldafforditbothagreatsubsistenceandagreatemployment。Therewere，however，withinthenarrowcircleofthecommerceofthosetimes，somecountriesthatwereopulentandindustrious。SuchwastheGreekempireaslongasitsubsisted，andthatoftheSaracensduringthereignsoftheAbassides。SuchtoowasEgypttillitwasconqueredbytheTurks，somepartofthecoastofBarbary，andallthoseprovincesofSpainwhichwereunderthegovernmentoftheMoors。
　　ThecitiesofItalyseemtohavebeenthefirstinEuropewhichwereraisedbycommercetoanyconsiderabledegreeofopulence。Italylayinthecentreofwhatwasatthattimetheimprovedandcivilisedpartoftheworld。TheCrusadestoo，thoughbythegreatwasteofstockanddestructionofinhabitantswhichtheyoccasionedtheymustnecessarilyhaveretardedtheprogressofthegreaterpartofEurope，wereextremelyfavourabletothatofsomeItaliancities。ThegreatarmieswhichmarchedfromallpartstotheconquestoftheHolyLandgaveextraordinaryencouragementtotheshippingofVenice，Genoa，andPisa，sometimesintransportingthemthither，andalwaysinsupplyingthemwithprovisions。Theywerethecommissaries，ifonemaysayso，ofthosearmies;andthemostdestructivefrenzythateverbefelltheEuropeannationswasasourceofopulencetothoserepublics。
　　Theinhabitantsoftradingcities，byimportingtheimprovedmanufacturesandexpensiveluxuriesofrichercountries，affordedsomefoodtothevanityofthegreatproprietors，whoeagerlypurchasedthemwithgreatquantitiesoftherudeproduceoftheirownlands。ThecommerceofagreatpartofEuropeinthosetimes，accordingly，consistedchieflyintheexchangeoftheirownrudeforthe，manufacturedproduceofmorecivilisednations。ThusthewoolofEnglandusedtobeexchangedforthewinesofFranceandthefineclothsofFlanders，inthesamemannerasthecorninPolandisatthisdayexchangedforthewinesandbrandiesofFranceandforthesilksandvelvetsofFranceandItaly。
　　Atasteforthefinerandmoreimprovedmanufactureswasinthismannerintroducedbyforeigncommerceintocountrieswherenosuchworkswerecarriedon。Butwhenthistastebecamesogeneralastooccasionaconsiderabledemand，themerchants，inordertosavetheexpenseofcarriage，naturallyendeavouredtoestablishsomemanufacturesofthesamekindintheirowncountry。HencetheoriginofthefirstmanufacturesfordistantsalethatseemtohavebeenestablishedinthewesternprovincesofEuropeafterthefalloftheRomanempire。Nolargecountry，itmustbeobserved，everdidorcouldsubsistwithoutsomesortofmanufacturesbeingcarriedoninit;andwhenitissaidofanysuchcountrythatithasnomanufactures，itmustalwaysbeunderstoodofthefinerandmoreimprovedorofsuchasarefitfordistantsale。Ineverylargecountryboththeclothingandhouseholdfurnitureofthefargreaterpartofthepeoplearetheproduceoftheirownindustry。Thisisevenmoreuniversallythecaseinthosepoorcountrieswhicharecommonlysaidtohavenomanufacturesthaninthoserichonesthataresaidtoaboundinthem。Inthelatter，youwillgenerallyfind，bothintheclothesandhouseholdfurnitureofthelowestrankofpeople，amuchgreaterproportionofforeignproductionsthanintheformer。
　　Thosemanufactureswhicharefitfordistantsaleseemtohavebeenintroducedintodifferentcountriesintwodifferentways。
　　Sometimestheyhavebeenintroduced，inthemannerabovementioned，bytheviolentoperation，ifonemaysayso，ofthestocksofparticularmerchantsandundertakers，whoestablishedtheminimitationofsomeforeignmanufacturesofthesamekind。
　　Suchmanufactures，therefore，aretheoffspringofforeigncommerce，andsuchseemtohavebeentheancientmanufacturesofsilks，velvets，andbrocades，whichflourishedinLuccaduringthethirteenthcentury。TheywerebanishedfromthencebythetyrannyofoneofMachiavel’sheroes，CastruccioCastracani。In1310，ninehundredfamiliesweredrivenoutofLucca，ofwhomthirty—oneretiredtoVeniceandofferedtointroducetherethesilkmanufacture。Theirofferwasaccepted;manyprivilegeswereconferreduponthem，andtheybeganthemanufacturewiththreehundredworkmen。Such，too，seemtohavebeenthemanufacturesoffineclothsthatancientlyflourishedinFlanders，andwhichwereintroducedintoEnglandinthebeginningofthereignofElizabeth;andsucharethepresentsilkmanufacturesofLyonsandSpitalfields。Manufacturesintroducedinthismanneraregenerallyemployeduponforeignmaterials，beingimitationsofforeignmanufactures。WhentheVenetianmanufacturewasfirstestablished，thematerialswereallbroughtfromSicilyandtheLevant。ThemoreancientmanufactureofLuccawaslikewisecarriedonwithforeignmaterials。Thecultivationofmulberrytreesandthebreedingofsilk—wormsseemnottohavebeencommoninthenorthernpartsofItalybeforethesixteenthcentury。
　　ThoseartswerenotintroducedintoFrancetillthereignofCharlesIX。ThemanufacturesofFlanderswerecarriedonchieflywithSpanishandEnglishwool。Spanishwoolwasthematerial，notofthefirstwoollenmanufactureofEngland，butofthefirstthatwasfitfordistantsale。MorethanonehalfthematerialsoftheLyonsmanufactureisatthisday，foreignsilk;whenitwasfirstestablished，thewholeorverynearlythewholewasso。
　　NopartofthematerialsoftheSpitalfieldsmanufactureiseverlikelybetheproduceofEngland。Theseatofsuchmanufactures，astheyaregenerallyintroducedbytheschemeandprojectofafewindividuals，issometimesestablishedinamaritimecity，andsometimesinaninlandtown，accordingastheirinterest，judgment，orcapricehappentodetermine。
　　Atothertimes，manufacturesfordistantsalegroupupnaturally，andasitwereoftheirownaccord，bythegradualrefinementofthosehouseholdandcoarsermanufactureswhichmustatalltimesbecarriedoneveninthepoorestandrudestcountries。Suchmanufacturesaregenerallyemployeduponthematerialswhichthecountryproduces，andtheyseemfrequentlytohavebeenfirstrefinedandimprovedinsuchinlandcountriesaswere，notindeedataverygreat，butataconsiderabledistancefromtheseacoast，andsometimesevenfromallwatercarriage。
　　Aninlandcountry，naturallyfertileandeasilycultivated，producesagreatsurplusofprovisionsbeyondwhatisnecessaryformaintainingthecultivators，andonaccountoftheexpenseoflandcarriage，andinconveniencyofrivernavigation，itmayfrequentlybedifficulttosendthissurplusabroad。Abundance，therefore，rendersprovisionscheap，andencouragesagreatnumberofworkmentosettleintheneighbourhood，whofindthattheirindustrycanthereprocurethemmoreofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifethaninotherplaces。Theyworkupthematerialsofmanufacturewhichthelandproduces，andexchangetheirfinishedwork，orwhatisthesamethingthepriceofit，formorematerialsandprovisions。Theygiveanewvaluetothesurpluspartoftherudeproducebysavingtheexpenseofcarryingittothewatersideortosomedistantmarket;andtheyfurnishthecultivatorswithsomethinginexchangeforitthatiseitherusefuloragreeabletothemuponeasiertermsthantheycouldhaveobtaineditbefore。Thecultivatorsgetabetterpricefortheirsurplusproduce，andcanpurchasecheaperotherconvenienceswhichtheyhaveoccasionfor。Theyarethusbothencouragedandenabledtoincreasethissurplusproducebyafurtherimprovementandbettercultivationoftheland;andasthefertilityofthelandhadgivenbirthtothemanufacture，sotheprogressofthemanufacturereactsuponthelandandincreasesstillfurtheritsfertility。Themanufacturersfirstsupplytheneighbourhood，andafterwards，astheirworkimprovesandrefines，moredistantmarkets。Forthoughneithertherudeproducenoreventhecoarsemanufacturecould，withoutthegreatestdifficulty，supporttheexpenseofaconsiderablelandcarriage，therefinedandimprovedmanufactureeasilymay。Inasmallbulkitfrequentlycontainsthepriceofagreatquantityofrudeproduce。Apieceoffinecloth，forexample，whichweighsonlyeightypounds，containsinit，theprice，notonlyofeightypounds’weightofwool，butsometimesofseveralthousandweightofcorn，themaintenanceofthedifferentworkingpeopleandoftheirimmediateemployers。Thecorn，whichcouldwithdifficultyhavebeencarriedabroadinitsownshape，isinthismannervirtuallyexportedinthatofthecompletemanufacture，andmayeasilybesenttotheremotestcornersoftheworld。Inthismannerhavegrownupnaturally，andasitwereoftheirownaccord，themanufacturesofLeeds，Halifax，Sheffield，Birmingham，andWolverhampton。Suchmanufacturesaretheoffspringofagriculture。InthemodernhistoryofEurope，theirextensionandimprovementhavegenerallybeenposteriortothosewhichweretheoffspringofforeigncommerce。EnglandwasnotedforthemanufactureoffineclothsmadeofSpanishwoolmorethanacenturybeforeanyofthosewhichnowflourishintheplacesabovementionedwerefitforforeignsale。Theextensionandimprovementoftheselastcouldnottakeplacebutinconsequenceoftheextensionandimprovementofagriculturethelastandgreatesteffectofforeigncommerce，andofthemanufacturesimmediatelyintroducedbyit，andwhichIshallnowproceedtoexplain。
　　CHAPTERIV
　　HowtheCommerceoftheTownsContributedtotheImprovementoftheCountryTHEincreaseandrichesofcommercialandmanufacturingtownscontributedtotheimprovementandcultivationofthecountriestowhichtheybelongedinthreedifferentways。
　　First，byaffordingagreatandreadymarketfortherudeproduceofthecountry，theygaveencouragementtoitscultivationandfurtherimprovement。Thisbenefitwasnotevenconfinedtothecountriesinwhichtheyweresituated，butextendedmoreorlesstoallthosewithwhichtheyhadanydealings。Toallofthemtheyaffordedamarketforsomeparteitheroftheirrudeormanufacturedproduce，andconsequentlygavesomeencouragementtotheindustryandimprovementofall。
　　Theirowncountry，however，onaccountofitsneighbourhood，necessarilyderivedthegreatestbenefitfromthismarket。Itsrudeproducebeingchargedwithlesscarriage，thetraderscouldpaythegrowersabetterpriceforit，andyetafforditascheaptotheconsumersasthatofmoredistantcountries。
　　Secondly，thewealthacquiredbytheinhabitantsofcitieswasfrequentlyemployedinpurchasingsuchlandsasweretobesold，ofwhichagreatpartwouldfrequentlybeuncultivated。
　　Merchantsarecommonlyambitiousofbecomingcountrygentlemen，andwhentheydo，theyaregenerallythebestofallimprovers。A
　　merchantisaccustomedtoemployhismoneychieflyinprofitableprojects，whereasamerecountrygentlemanisaccustomedtoemployitchieflyinexpense。Theoneoftenseeshismoneygofromhimandreturntohimagainwithaprofit;theother，whenoncehepartswithit，veryseldomexpectstoseeanymoreofit。
　　Thosedifferenthabitsnaturallyaffecttheirtemperanddispositionineverysortofbusiness。Amerchantiscommonlyabold，acountrygentlemanatimidundertaker。Theoneisnotafraidtolayoutatoncealargecapitalupontheimprovementofhislandwhenhehasaprobableprospectofraisingthevalueofitinproportiontotheexpense。Theother，ifhehasanycapital，whichisnotalwaysthecase，seldomventurestoemployitinthismanner。Ifheimprovesatall，itiscommonlynotwithacapital，butwithwhathecansaveoutofhisannualrevenue。
　　Whoeverhashadthefortunetoliveinamercantiletownsituatedinanunimprovedcountrymusthavefrequentlyobservedhowmuchmorespiritedtheoperationsofmerchantswereinthiswaythanthoseofmerecountrygentlemen。Thehabits，besides，oforder，economy，andattention，towhichmercantilebusinessnaturallyformsamerchant，renderhimmuchfittertoexecute，withprofitandsuccess，anyprojectofimprovement。
　　Thirdly，andlastly，commerceandmanufacturesgraduallyintroducedorderandgoodgovernment，andwiththem，thelibertyandsecurityofindividuals，amongtheinhabitantsofthecountry，whohadbeforelivedalmostinacontinualstateofwarwiththeirneighboursandofserviledependencyupontheirsuperiors。This，thoughithasbeentheleastobserved，isbyfarthemostimportantofalltheireffects。Mr。Humeistheonlywriterwho，sofarasIknow，hashithertotakennoticeofit。
　　Inacountrywhichhasneitherforeigncommerce，noranyofthefinermanufactures，agreatproprietor，havingnothingforwhichhecanexchangethegreaterpartoftheproduceofhislandswhichisoverandabovethemaintenanceofthecultivators，consumesthewholeinrustichospitalityathome。Ifthissurplusproduceissufficienttomaintainahundredorathousandmen，hecanmakeuseofitinnootherwaythanbymaintainingahundredorathousandmen。Heisatalltimes，therefore，surroundedwithamultitudeofretainersanddependants，who，havingnoequivalenttogiveinreturnfortheirmaintenance，butbeingfedentirelybyhisbounty，mustobeyhim，forthesamereasonthatsoldiersmustobeytheprincewhopaysthem。BeforetheextensionofcommerceandmanufactureinEurope，thehospitalityoftherich，andthegreat，fromthesovereigndowntothesmallestbaron，exceededeverythingwhichinthepresenttimeswecaneasilyformanotionof。WestminsterHallwasthedining—roomofWilliamRufus，andmightfrequently，perhaps，notbetoolargeforhiscompany。ItwasreckonedapieceofmagnificenceinThomasBecketthathestrewedthefloorofhishallwithcleanhayorrushesintheseason，inorderthattheknightsandsquireswhocouldnotgetseatsmightnotspoiltheirfineclotheswhentheysatdownonthefloortoeattheirdinner。ThegreatEarlofWarwickissaidtohaveentertainedeverydayathisdifferentmanorsthirtythousandpeople，andthoughthenumberheremayhavebeenexaggerated，itmust，however，havebeenverygreattoadmitofsuchexaggeration。AhospitalitynearlyofthesamekindwasexercisednotmanyyearsagoinmanydifferentpartsofthehighlandsofScotland。Itseemstobecommoninallnationstowhomcommerceandmanufacturesarelittleknown。"Ihaveseen，"saysDoctorPocock，"anArabianchiefdineinthestreetsofatownwherehehadcometosellhiscattle，andinviteallpassengers，evencommonbeggars，tositdownwithhimandpartakeofhisbanquet。"
　　Theoccupiersoflandwereineveryrespectasdependentuponthegreatproprietorashisretainers。Evensuchofthemaswerenotinastateofvillanageweretenantsatwill，whopaidarentinnorespectequivalenttothesubsistencewhichthelandaffordedthem。Acrown，halfacrown，asheep，alamb，wassomeyearsagointhehighlandsofScotlandacommonrentforlandswhichmaintainedafamily。Insomeplacesitissoatthisday;
　　norwillmoneyatpresentpurchaseagreaterquantityofcommoditiestherethaninotherplaces。Inacountrywherethesurplusproduceofalargeestatemustbeconsumedupontheestateitself，itwillfrequentlybemoreconvenientfortheproprietorthatpartofitbeconsumedatadistancefromhisownhouseprovidedtheywhoconsumeitareasdependentuponhimaseitherhisretainersorhismenialservants。Heistherebysavedfromtheembarrassmentofeithertoolargeacompanyortoolargeafamily。Atenantatwill，whopossesseslandsufficienttomaintainhisfamilyforlittlemorethanaquit—rent，isasdependentupontheproprietorasanyservantorretainerwhateverandmustobeyhimwithaslittlereserve。Suchaproprietor，ashefeedshisservantsandretainersathisownhouse，sohefeedshistenantsattheirhouses。Thesubsistenceofbothisderivedfromhisbounty，anditscontinuancedependsuponhisgoodpleasure。
　　Upontheauthoritywhichthegreatproprietornecessarilyhadinsuchastateofthingsovertheirtenantsandretainerswasfoundedthepoweroftheancientbarons。Theynecessarilybecamethejudgesinpeace，andtheleadersinwar，ofallwhodweltupontheirestates。Theycouldmaintainorderandexecutethelawwithintheirrespectivedemesnes，becauseeachofthemcouldthereturnthewholeforceofalltheinhabitantsagainsttheinjusticeofanyone。Nootherpersonshadsufficientauthoritytodothis。Thekinginparticularhadnot。Inthoseancienttimeshewaslittlemorethanthegreatestproprietorinhisdominions，towhom，forthesakeofcommondefenceagainsttheircommonenemies，theothergreatproprietorspaidcertainrespects。Tohaveenforcedpaymentofasmalldebtwithinthelandsofagreatproprietor，wherealltheinhabitantswerearmedandaccustomedtostandbyoneanother，wouldhavecosttheking，hadheattempteditbyhisownauthority，almostthesameeffortastoextinguishacivilwar。Hewas，therefore，obligedtoabandontheadministrationofjusticethroughthegreaterpartofthecountrytothosewhowerecapableofadministeringit;andforthesamereasontoleavethecommandofthecountrymilitiatothosewhomthatmilitiawouldobey。
　　Itisamistaketoimaginethatthoseterritorialjurisdictionstooktheiroriginfromthefeudallaw。Notonlythehighestjurisdictionsbothcivilandcriminal，butthepoweroflevyingtroops，ofcoiningmoney，andeventhatofmakingbye—lawsforthegovernmentoftheirownpeople，wereallrightspossessedallodiallybythegreatproprietorsoflandseveralcenturiesbeforeeventhenameofthefeudallawwasknowninEurope。TheauthorityandjurisdictionoftheSaxonlordsinEnglandappeartohavebeenasgreatbeforetheConquestasthatofanyoftheNormanlordsafterit。ButthefeudallawisnotsupposedtohavebecomethecommonlawofEnglandtillaftertheConquest。ThatthemostextensiveauthorityandjurisdictionswerepossessedbythegreatlordsinFranceallodiallylongbeforethefeudallawwasintroducedintothatcountryisamatteroffactthatadmitsofnodoubt。Thatauthorityandthosejurisdictionsallnecessarilyflowedfromthestateofpropertyandmannersjustnowdescribed。WithoutremountingtotheremoteantiquitiesofeithertheFrenchorEnglishmonarchies，wemayfindinmuchlatertimesmanyproofsthatsucheffectsmustalwaysflowfromsuchcauses。ItisnotthirtyyearsagosinceMr。CameronofLochiel，agentlemanofLochabarinScotland，withoutanylegalwarrantwhatever，notbeingwhatwasthencalledalordofregality，norevenatenantinchief，butavassaloftheDukeofArgyle，andwithoutbeingsomuchasajusticeofpeace，used，notwithstanding，toexercisethehighestcriminaljurisdictionoverhisownpeople。Heissaidtohavedonesowithgreatequity，thoughwithoutanyoftheformalitiesofjustice;anditisnotimprobablethatthestateofthatpartofthecountryatthattimemadeitnecessaryforhimtoassumethisauthorityinordertomaintainthepublicpeace。Thatgentleman，whoserentneverexceededfivehundredpoundsayear，carried，in1745，eighthundredofhisownpeopleintotherebellionwithhim。
　　Theintroductionofthefeudallaw，sofarfromextending，mayberegardedasanattempttomoderatetheauthorityofthegreatallodiallords。Itestablishedaregularsubordination，accompaniedwithalongtrainofservicesandduties，fromthekingdowntothesmallestproprietor。Duringtheminorityoftheproprietor，therent，togetherwiththemanagementofhislands，fellintothehandsofhisimmediatesuperior，and，consequently，thoseofallgreatproprietorsintothehandsoftheking，whowaschargedwiththemaintenanceandeducationofthepupil，andwho，fromhisauthorityasguardian，wassupposedtohavearightofdisposingofhiminmarriage，provideditwasinamannernotunsuitabletohisrank。Butthoughthisinstitutionnecessarilytendedtostrengthentheauthorityoftheking，andtoweakenthatofthegreatproprietors，itcouldnotdoeithersufficientlyforestablishingorderandgoodgovernmentamongtheinhabitantsofthecountry，becauseitcouldnotaltersufficientlythatstateofpropertyandmannersfromwhichthedisordersarose。Theauthorityofgovernmentstillcontinuedtobe，asbefore，tooweakintheheadandtoostrongintheinferiormembers，andtheexcessivestrengthoftheinferiormemberswasthecauseoftheweaknessofthehead。Aftertheinstitutionoffeudalsubordination，thekingwasasincapableofrestrainingtheviolenceofthegreatlordsasbefore。Theystillcontinuedtomakewaraccordingtotheirowndiscretion，almostcontinuallyupononeanother，andveryfrequentlyupontheking;
　　andtheopencountrystillcontinuedtobeasceneofviolence，rapine，anddisorder。