andthemoreextensivethatmarket，itisalwaysthemoreadvantageoustoagreatnumber。Thecornwhichgrowswithinamileofthetownsellsthereforthesamepricewiththatwhichcomesfromtwentymilesdistance。Butthepriceofthelattermustgenerallynotonlypaytheexpenseofraisingandbringingittomarket，butafford，too，theordinaryprofitsofagriculturetothefarmer。Theproprietorsandcultivatorsofthecountry，therefore，whichliesintheneighbourhoodofthetown，overandabovetheordinaryprofitsofagriculture，gain，inthepriceofwhattheysell，thewholevalueofthecarriageofthelikeproducethatisbroughtfrommoredistantparts，andtheyhave，besides，thewholevalueofthiscarriageinthepriceofwhattheybuy。Comparethecultivationofthelandsintheneighbourhoodofanyconsiderabletownwiththatofthosewhichlieatsomedistancefromit，andyouwilleasilysatisfyyourselfhowmuchthecountryisbenefitedbythecommerceofthetown。Amongalltheabsurdspeculationsthathavebeenpropagatedconcerningthebalanceoftrade，ithasneverbeenpretendedthateitherthecountrylosesbyitscommercewiththetown，orthetownbythatwiththecountrywhichmaintainsit。
　　Assubsistenceis，inthenatureofthings，priortoconveniencyandluxury，sotheindustrywhichprocurestheformermustnecessarilybepriortothatwhichministerstothelatter。
　　Thecultivationandimprovementofthecountry，therefore，whichaffordssubsistence，must，necessarily，bepriortotheincreaseofthetown，whichfurnishesonlythemeansofconveniencyandluxury。Itisthesurplusproduceofthecountryonly，orwhatisoverandabovethemaintenanceofthecultivators，thatconstitutesthesubsistenceofthetown，whichcanthereforeincreaseonlywiththeincreaseofthissurplusproduce。Thetown，indeed，maynotalwaysderiveitswholesubsistencefromthecountryinitsneighbourhood，orevenfromtheterritorytowhichitbelongs，butfromverydistantcountries;andthis，thoughitformsnoexceptionfromthegeneralrule，hasoccasionedconsiderablevariationsintheprogressofopulenceindifferentagesandnations。
　　Thatorderofthingswhichnecessityimposesingeneral，thoughnotineveryparticularcountry，is，ineveryparticularcountry，promotedbythenaturalinclinationsofman。Ifhumaninstitutionshadneverthwartedthosenaturalinclinations，thetownscouldnowherehaveincreasedbeyondwhattheimprovementandcultivationoftheterritoryinwhichtheyweresituatedcouldsupport;tillsuchtime，atleast，asthewholeofthatterritorywascompletelycultivatedandimproved。Uponequal，ornearlyequalprofits，mostmenwillchoosetoemploytheircapitalsratherintheimprovementandcultivationoflandthaneitherinmanufacturesorinforeigntrade。Themanwhoemployshiscapitalinlandhasitmoreunderhisviewandcommand，andhisfortuneismuchlessliabletoaccidentsthanthatofthetrader，whoisobligedfrequentlytocommitit，notonlytothewindsandthewaves，buttothemoreuncertainelementsofhumanfollyandinjustice，bygivinggreatcreditsindistantcountriestomenwithwhosecharacterandsituationhecanseldombethoroughlyacquainted。Thecapitalofthelandlord，onthecontrary，whichisfixedintheimprovementofhisland，seemstobeaswellsecuredasthenatureofhumanaffairscanadmitof。
　　Thebeautyofthecountrybesides，thepleasuresofacountrylife，thetranquillityofmindwhichitpromises，andwherevertheinjusticeofhumanlawsdoesnotdisturbit，theindependencywhichitreallyaffords，havecharmsthatmoreorlessattracteverybody;andastocultivatethegroundwastheoriginaldestinationofman，soineverystageofhisexistenceheseemstoretainapredilectionforthisprimitiveemployment。
　　Withouttheassistanceofsomeartificers，indeed，thecultivationoflandcannotbecarriedonbutwithgreatinconveniencyandcontinualinterruption。Smiths，carpenters，wheelwrights，andploughwrights，masons，andbricklayers，tanners，shoemakers，andtailorsarepeoplewhoseservicethefarmerhasfrequentoccasionfor。Suchartificers，too，standoccasionallyinneedoftheassistanceofoneanother;andastheirresidenceisnot，likethatofthefarmer，necessarilytieddowntoaprecisespot，theynaturallysettleintheneighbourhoodofoneanother，andthusformasmalltownorvillage。Thebutcher，thebrewer，andthebakersoonjointhem，togetherwithmanyotherartificersandretailers，necessaryorusefulforsupplyingtheiroccasionalwants，andwhocontributestillfurthertoaugmentthetown。Theinhabitantsofthetownandthoseofthecountryaremutuallytheservantsofoneanother。Thetownisacontinualfairormarket，towhichtheinhabitantsofthecountryresortinordertoexchangetheirrudeformanufacturedproduce。Itisthiscommercewhichsuppliestheinhabitantsofthetownbothwiththematerialsoftheirwork，andthemeansoftheirsubsistence。Thequantityofthefinishedworkwhichtheyselltotheinhabitantsofthecountrynecessarilyregulatesthequantityofthematerialsandprovisionswhichtheybuy。Neithertheiremploymentnorsubsistence，therefore，canaugmentbutinproportiontotheaugmentationofthedemandfromthecountryforfinishedwork;
　　andthisdemandcanaugmentonlyinproportiontotheextensionofimprovementandcultivation。Hadhumaninstitutions，therefore，neverdisturbedthenaturalcourseofthings，theprogressivewealthandincreaseofthetownswould，ineverypoliticalsociety，beconsequential，andinproportiontotheimprovementandcultivationoftheterritoryorcountry。
　　InourNorthAmericancolonies，whereuncultivatedlandisstilltobehaduponeasyterms，nomanufacturesfordistantsalehaveeveryetbeenestablishedinanyoftheirtowns。Whenanartificerhasacquiredalittlemorestockthanisnecessaryforcarryingonhisownbusinessinsupplyingtheneighbouringcountry，hedoesnot，inNorthAmerica，attempttoestablishwithitamanufactureformoredistantsale，butemploysitinthepurchaseandimprovementofuncultivatedland。Fromartificerhebecomesplanter，andneitherthelargewagesnortheeasysubsistencewhichthatcountryaffordstoartificerscanbribehimrathertoworkforotherpeoplethanforhimself。Hefeelsthatanartificeristheservantofhiscustomers，fromwhomhederiveshissubsistence;butthataplanterwhocultivateshisownland，andderiveshisnecessarysubsistencefromthelabourofhisownfamily，isreallyamaster，andindependentofalltheworld。
　　Incountries，onthecontrary，wherethereiseithernouncultivatedland，ornonethatcanbehaduponeasyterms，everyartificerwhohasacquiredmorestockthanhecanemployintheoccasionaljobsoftheneighbourhoodendeavourstoprepareworkformoredistantsale。Thesmitherectssomesortofiron，theweaversomesortoflinenorwoollenmanufactory。Thosedifferentmanufacturescome，inprocessoftime，tobegraduallysubdivided，andtherebyimprovedandrefinedinagreatvarietyofways，whichmayeasilybeconceived，andwhichitisthereforeunnecessarytoexplainanyfurther。
　　Inseekingforemploymenttoacapital，manufacturesare，uponequalornearlyequalprofits，naturallypreferredtoforeigncommerce，forthesamereasonthatagricultureisnaturallypreferredtomanufactures。Asthecapitalofthelandlordorfarmerismoresecurethanthatofthemanufacturer，sothecapitalofthemanufacturer，beingatalltimesmorewithinhisviewandcommand，ismoresecurethanthatoftheforeignmerchant。Ineveryperiod，indeed，ofeverysociety，thesurpluspartbothoftherudeandmanufacturedproduce，orthatforwhichthereisnodemandathome，mustbesentabroadinordertobeexchangedforsomethingforwhichthereissomedemandathome。Butwhetherthecapital，whichcarriesthissurplusproduceabroad，beaforeignoradomesticoneisofverylittleimportance。Ifthesocietyhasnotacquiredsufficientcapitalbothtocultivateallitslands，andtomanufactureinthecompletestmannerthewholeofitsrudeproduce，thereisevenaconsiderableadvantagethatrudeproduceshouldbeexportedbyaforeigncapital，inorderthatthewholestockofthesocietymaybeemployedinmoreusefulpurposes。ThewealthofancientEgypt，thatofChinaandIndostan，sufficientlydemonstratethatanationmayattainaveryhighdegreeofopulencethoughthegreaterpartofitsexportationtradebecarriedonbyforeigners。TheprogressofourNorthAmericanandWestIndiancolonieswouldhavebeenmuchlessrapidhadnocapitalbutwhatbelongedtothemselvesbeenemployedinexportingtheirsurplusproduce。
　　Accordingtothenaturalcourseofthings，therefore，thegreaterpartofthecapitalofeverygrowingsocietyis，first，directedtoagriculture，afterwardstomanufactures，andlastofalltoforeigncommerce。Thisorderofthingsissoverynaturalthatineverysocietythathadanyterritoryithasalways，I
　　believe，beeninsomedegreeobserved。Someoftheirlandsmusthavebeencultivatedbeforeanyconsiderabletownscouldbeestablished，andsomesortofcoarseindustryofthemanufacturingkindmusthavebeencarriedoninthosetowns，beforetheycouldwellthinkofemployingthemselvesinforeigncommerce。
　　Butthoughthisnaturalorderofthingsmusthavetakenplaceinsomedegreeineverysuchsociety，ithas，inallthemodernstatesofEurope，been，inmanyrespects，entirelyinverted。Theforeigncommerceofsomeoftheircitieshasintroducedalltheirfinermanufactures，orsuchaswerefitfordistantsale;andmanufacturesandforeigncommercetogetherhavegivenbirthtotheprincipalimprovementsofagriculture。Themannersandcustomswhichthenatureoftheiroriginalgovernmentintroduced，andwhichremainedafterthatgovernmentwasgreatlyaltered，necessarilyforcedthemintothisunnaturalandretrogradeorder。
　　CHAPTERII
　　OftheDiscouragementofAgricultureintheancientStateofEuropeaftertheFalloftheRomanEmpireWHENtheGermanandScythiannationsoverranthewesternprovincesoftheRomanempire，theconfusionswhichfollowedsogreatarevolutionlastedforseveralcenturies。Therapineandviolencewhichthebarbariansexercisedagainsttheancientinhabitantsinterruptedthecommercebetweenthetownsandthecountry。Thetownsweredeserted，andthecountrywasleftuncultivated，andthewesternprovincesofEurope，whichhadenjoyedaconsiderabledegreeofopulenceundertheRomanempire，sunkintotheloweststateofpovertyandbarbarism。Duringthecontinuanceofthoseconfusions，thechiefsandprincipalleadersofthosenationsacquiredorusurpedtothemselvesthegreaterpartofthelandsofthosecountries。Agreatpartofthemwasuncultivated;butnopartofthem，whethercultivatedoruncultivated，wasleftwithoutaproprietor。Allofthemwereengrossed，andthegreaterpartbyafewgreatproprietors。
　　Thisoriginalengrossingofuncultivatedlands，thoughagreat，mighthavebeenbutatransitoryevil。Theymightsoonhavebeendividedagain，andbrokeintosmallparcelseitherbysuccessionorbyalienation。Thelawofprimogeniturehinderedthemfrombeingdividedbysuccession:theintroductionofentailspreventedtheirbeingbrokeintosmallparcelsbyalienation。
　　Whenland，likemovables，isconsideredasthemeansonlyofsubsistenceandenjoyment，thenaturallawofsuccessiondividesit，likethem，amongallthechildrenofthefamily;ofanofwhomthesubsistenceandenjoymentmaybesupposedequallydeartothefather。ThisnaturallawofsuccessionaccordinglytookplaceamongtheRomans，whomadenomoredistinctionbetweenelderandyounger，betweenmaleandfemale，intheinheritanceoflandsthanwedointhedistributionofmovables。Butwhenlandwasconsideredasthemeans，notofsubsistencemerely，butofpowerandprotection，itwasthoughtbetterthatitshoulddescendundividedtoone。Inthosedisorderlytimeseverygreatlandlordwasasortofpettyprince。Histenantswerehissubjects。Hewastheirjudge，andinsomerespectstheirlegislatorinpeace，andtheirleaderinwar。Hemadewaraccordingtohisowndiscretion，frequentlyagainsthisneighbours，andsometimesagainsthissovereign。Thesecurityofalandedestate，therefore，theprotectionwhichitsownercouldaffordtothosewhodweltonit，dependeduponitsgreatness。Todivideitwastoruinit，andtoexposeeverypartofittobeoppressedandswallowedupbytheincursionsofitsneighbours。
　　Thelawofprimogeniture，therefore，cametotakeplace，notimmediately，indeed，butinprocessoftime，inthesuccessionoflandedestates，forthesamereasonthatithasgenerallytakenplaceinthatofmonarchies，thoughnotalwaysattheirfirstinstitution。Thatthepower，andconsequentlythesecurityofthemonarchy，maynotbeweakenedbydivision，itmustdescendentiretooneofthechildren。Towhichofthemsoimportantapreferenceshallbegivenmustbedeterminedbysomegeneralrule，foundednotuponthedoubtfuldistinctionsofpersonalmerit，butuponsomeplainandevidentdifferencewhichcanadmitofnodispute。Amongthechildrenofthesamefamily，therecanbenoindisputabledifferencebutthatofsex，andthatofage。
　　Themalesexisuniversallypreferredtothefemale;andwhenallotherthingsareequal，theeldereverywheretakesplaceoftheyounger。Hencetheoriginoftherightofprimogeniture，andofwhatiscalledlinealsuccession。
　　Lawsfrequentlycontinueinforcelongafterthecircumstanceswhichfirstgaveoccasiontothem，andwhichcouldalonerenderthemreasonable，arenomore。InthepresentstateofEurope，theproprietorofasingleacreoflandisasperfectlysecureofhispossessionastheproprietorofahundredthousand。Therightofprimogeniture，however，stillcontinuestoberespected，andasofallinstitutionsitisthefittesttosupporttheprideoffamilydistinctions，itisstilllikelytoendureformanycenturies。Ineveryotherrespect，nothingcanbemorecontrarytotherealinterestofanumerousfamilythanarightwhich，inordertoenrichone，beggarsalltherestofthechildren。
　　Entailsarethenaturalconsequencesofthelawofprimogeniture。Theywereintroducedtopreserveacertainlinealsuccession，ofwhichthelawofprimogeniturefirstgavetheidea，andtohinderanypartoftheoriginalestatefrombeingcarriedoutoftheproposedlineeitherbygift，ordevise，oralienation;eitherbythefolly，orbythemisfortuneofanyofitssuccessiveowners。TheywerealtogetherunknowntotheRomans。Neithertheirsubstitutionsnorfideicommissesbearanyresemblancetoentails，thoughsomeFrenchlawyershavethoughtpropertodressthemoderninstitutioninthelanguageandgarbofthoseancientones。
　　Whengreatlandedestateswereasortofprincipalities，entailsmightnotbeunreasonable。Likewhatarecalledthefundamentallawsofsomemonarchies，theymightfrequentlyhinderthesecurityofthousandsfrombeingendangeredbythecapriceorextravaganceofoneman。ButinthepresentstateofEurope，whensmallaswellasgreatestatesderivetheirsecurityfromthelawsoftheircountry，nothingcanbemorecompletelyabsurd。
　　Theyarefoundeduponthemostabsurdofallsuppositions，thesuppositionthateverysuccessivegenerationofmenhavenotanequalrighttotheearth，andtoallthatitpossesses;butthatthepropertyofthepresentgenerationshouldberestrainedandregulatedaccordingtothefancyofthosewhodiedperhapsfivehundredyearsago。Entails，however，arestillrespectedthroughthegreaterpartofEurope，inthosecountriesparticularlyinwhichnoblebirthisanecessaryqualificationfortheenjoymenteitherofcivilormilitaryhonours。Entailsarethoughtnecessaryformaintainingthisexclusiveprivilegeofthenobilitytothegreatofficesandhonoursoftheircountry;andthatorderhavingusurpedoneunjustadvantageovertherestoftheirfellowcitizens，lesttheirpovertyshouldrenderitridiculous，itisthoughtreasonablethattheyshouldhaveanother。ThecommonlawofEngland，indeed，issaidtoabhorperpetuities，andtheyareaccordinglymorerestrictedtherethaninanyotherEuropeanmonarchy;thoughevenEnglandisnotaltogetherwithoutthem。InScotlandmorethanone—fifth，perhapsmorethanone—third，partofthewholelandsofthecountryareatpresentsupposedtobeunderstrictentail。
　　Greattractsofuncultivatedlandwere，inthismanner，notonlyengrossedbyparticularfamilies，butthepossibilityoftheirbeingdividedagainwasasmuchaspossibleprecludedforever。Itseldomhappens，however，thatagreatproprietorisagreatimprover。Inthedisorderlytimeswhichgavebirthtothosebarbarousinstitutions，thegreatproprietorwassufficientlyemployedindefendinghisownterritories，orinextendinghisjurisdictionandauthorityoverthoseofhisneighbours。Hehadnoleisuretoattendtothecultivationandimprovementofland。
　　Whentheestablishmentoflawandorderaffordedhimthisleisure，heoftenwantedtheinclination，andalmostalwaystherequisiteabilities。Iftheexpenseofhishouseandpersoneitherequalledorexceededhisrevenue，asitdidveryfrequently，hehadnostocktoemployinthismanner。Ifhewasaneconomist，hegenerallyfounditmoreprofitabletoemployhisannualsavingsinnewpurchasesthanintheimprovementofhisoldestate。Toimprovelandwithprofit，likeallothercommercialprojects，requiresanexactattentiontosmallsavingsandsmallgains，ofwhichamanborntoagreatfortune，eventhoughnaturallyfrugal，isveryseldomcapable。Thesituationofsuchapersonnaturallydisposeshimtoattendrathertoornamentwhichpleaseshisfancythantoprofitforwhichhehassolittleoccasion。Theeleganceofhisdress，ofhisequipage，ofhishouse，andhouseholdfurniture，areobjectswhichfromhisinfancyhehasbeenaccustomedtohavesomeanxietyabout。Theturnofmindwhichthishabitnaturallyformsfollowshimwhenhecomestothinkoftheimprovementofland。Heembellishesperhapsfourorfivehundredacresintheneighbourhoodofhishouse，attentimestheexpensewhichthelandisworthafterallhisimprovements;andfindsthatifhewastoimprovehiswholeestateinthesamemanner，andhehaslittletasteforanyother，hewouldbeabankruptbeforehehadfinishedthetenthpartofit。TherestillremaininbothpartsoftheUnitedKingdomsomegreatestateswhichhavecontinuedwithoutinterruptioninthehandsofthesamefamilysincethetimesoffeudalanarchy。
　　Comparethepresentconditionofthoseestateswiththepossessionsofthesmallproprietorsintheirneighbourhood，andyouwillrequirenootherargumenttoconvinceyouhowunfavourablesuchextensivepropertyistoimprovement。
　　Iflittleimprovementwastobeexpectedfromsuchgreatproprietors，stilllesswastobehopedforfromthosewhooccupiedthelandunderthem。IntheancientstateofEurope，theoccupiersoflandwerealltenantsatwill。Theywerealloralmostallslaves;buttheirslaverywasofamilderkindthanthatknownamongtheancientGreeksandRomans，oreveninourWestIndiancolonies。Theyweresupposedtobelongmoredirectlytothelandthantotheirmaster。Theycould，therefore，besoldwithit，butnotseparately。Theycouldmarry，provideditwaswiththeconsentoftheirmaster;andhecouldnotafterwardsdissolvethemarriagebysellingthemanandwifetodifferentpersons。Ifhemaimedormurderedanyofthem，hewasliabletosomepenalty，thoughgenerallybuttoasmallone。Theywerenot，however，capableofacquiringproperty。Whatevertheyacquiredwasacquiredtotheirmaster，andhecouldtakeitfromthematpleasure。Whatevercultivationandimprovementcouldbecarriedonbymeansofsuchslaveswasproperlycarriedonbytheirmaster。Itwasathisexpense。Theseed，thecattle，andtheinstrumentsofhusbandrywereallhis。Itwasforhisbenefit。
　　Suchslavescouldacquirenothingbuttheirdailymaintenance。Itwasproperlytheproprietorhimself，therefore，that，inthiscase，occupiedhisownlands，andcultivatedthembyhisownbondmen。ThisspeciesofslaverystillsubsistsinRussia，Poland，Hungary，Bohemia，Moravia，andotherpartsofGermany。ItisonlyinthewesternandsouthwesternprovincesofEuropethatithasgraduallybeenabolishedaltogether。
　　Butifgreatimprovementsareseldomtobeexpectedfromgreatproprietors，theyareleastofalltobeexpectedwhentheyemployslavesfortheirworkmen。Theexperienceofallagesandnations，Ibelieve，demonstratesthattheworkdonebyslaves，thoughitappearstocostonlytheirmaintenance，isintheendthedearestofany。Apersonwhocanacquirenoproperty，canhavenootherinterestbuttoeatasmuch，andtolabouraslittleaspossible。Whateverworkhedoesbeyondwhatissufficienttopurchasehisownmaintenancecanbesqueezedoutofhimbyviolenceonly，andnotbyanyinterestofhisown。InancientItaly，howmuchthecultivationofcorndegenerated，howunprofitableitbecametothemasterwhenitfellunderthemanagementofslaves，isremarkedbybothPlinyandColumella。InthetimeofAristotleithadnotbeenmuchbetterinancientGreece。SpeakingoftheidealrepublicdescribedinthelawsofPlato，tomaintainfivethousandidlemen（thenumberofwarriorssupposednecessaryforitsdefence）togetherwiththeirwomenandservants，wouldrequire，hesays，aterritoryofboundlessextentandfertility，liketheplainsofBabylon。
　　Theprideofmanmakeshimlovetodomineer，andnothingmortifieshimsomuchastobeobligedtocondescendtopersuadehisinferiors。Whereverthelawallowsit，andthenatureoftheworkcanaffordit，therefore，hewillgenerallyprefertheserviceofslavestothatoffreemen。Theplantingofsugarandtobaccocanaffordtheexpenseofslave—cultivation。Theraisingofcorn，itseems，inthepresenttimes，cannot。IntheEnglishcolonies，ofwhichtheprincipalproduceiscorn，thefargreaterpartoftheworkisdonebyfreemen。ThelateresolutionoftheQuakersinPennsylvaniatosetatlibertyalltheirnegroslavesmaysatisfyusthattheirnumbercannotbeverygreat。Hadtheymadeanyconsiderablepartoftheirproperty，sucharesolutioncouldneverhavebeenagreedto。Inoursugarcolonies，onthecontrary，thewholeworkisdonebyslaves，andinourtobaccocoloniesaverygreatpartofit。Theprofitsofasugar—plantationinanyofourWestIndiancoloniesaregenerallymuchgreaterthanthoseofanyothercultivationthatisknowneitherinEuropeorAmerica;andtheprofitsofatobaccoplantation，thoughinferiortothoseofsugar，aresuperiortothoseofcorn，ashasalreadybeenobserved。Bothcanaffordtheexpenseofslave—cultivation，butsugarcanafforditstillbetterthantobacco。Thenumberofnegroesaccordinglyismuchgreater，inproportiontothatofwhites，inoursugarthaninourtobaccocolonies。
　　TotheslavecultivatorsofancienttimesgraduallysucceededaspeciesoffarmersknownatpresentinFrancebythenameofmetayers。TheyarecalledinLatin，Colonipartiarii。
　　TheyhavebeensolongindisuseinEnglandthatatpresentI
　　knownoEnglishnameforthem。Theproprietorfurnishedthemwiththeseed，cattle，andinstrumentsofhusbandry，thewholestock，inshort，necessaryforcultivatingthefarm。Theproducewasdividedequallybetweentheproprietorandthefarmer，aftersettingasidewhatwasjudgednecessaryforkeepingupthestock，whichwasrestoredtotheproprietorwhenthefarmereitherquitted，orwasturnedoutofthefarm。
　　Landoccupiedbysuchtenantsisproperlycultivatedattheexpenseoftheproprietorasmuchasthatoccupiedbyslaves。
　　Thereis，however，oneveryessentialdifferencebetweenthem。
　　Suchtenants，beingfreemen，arecapableofacquiringproperty，andhavingacertainproportionoftheproduceoftheland，theyhaveaplaininterestthatthewholeproduceshouldbeasgreataspossible，inorderthattheirownproportionmaybeso。A
　　slave，onthecontrary，whocanacquirenothingbuthismaintenance，consultshisowneasebymakingthelandproduceaslittleaspossibleoverandabovethatmaintenance。Itisprobablethatitwaspartlyuponaccountofthisadvantage，andpartlyuponaccountoftheencroachmentswhichthesovereign，alwaysjealousofthegreatlords，graduallyencouragedtheirvillainstomakeupontheirauthority，andwhichseematlasttohavebeensuchasrenderedthisspeciesofservitudealtogetherinconvenient，thattenureinvillanagegraduallyworeoutthroughthegreaterpartofEurope。Thetimeandmanner，however，inwhichsoimportantarevolutionwasbroughtaboutisoneofthemostobscurepointsinmodernhistory。TheChurchofRomeclaimsgreatmeritinit;anditiscertainthatsoearlyasthetwelfthcentury，AlexanderIIIpublishedabullforthegeneralemancipationofslaves。Itseems，however，tohavebeenratherapiousexhortationthanalawtowhichexactobediencewasrequiredfromthefaithful。Slaverycontinuedtotakeplacealmostuniversallyforseveralcenturiesafterwards，tillitwasgraduallyabolishedbythejointoperationofthetwointerestsabovementioned，thatoftheproprietorontheonehand，andthatofthesovereignontheother。Avillainenfranchised，andatthesametimeallowedtocontinueinpossessionoftheland，havingnostockofhisown，couldcultivateitonlybymeansofwhatthelandlordadvancedtohim，andmust，therefore，havebeenwhattheFrenchcalledametayer。
　　Itcouldnever，however，betheinterestevenofthislastspeciesofcultivatorstolayout，inthefurtherimprovementoftheland，anypartofthelittlestockwhichtheymightsavefromtheirownshareoftheproduce，becausethelord，wholaidoutnothing，wastogetonehalfofwhateveritproduced。Thetithe，whichisbutatenthoftheproduce，isfoundtobeaverygreathindrancetoimprovement。Atax，therefore，whichamountedtoonehalfmusthavebeenaneffectualbartoit。Itmightbetheinterestofametayertomakethelandproduceasmuchascouldbebroughtoutofitbymeansofthestockfurnishedbytheproprietor;butitcouldneverbehisinteresttomixanypartofhisownwithit。InFrance，wherefivepartsoutofsixofthewholekingdomaresaidtobestilloccupiedbythisspeciesofcultivators，theproprietorscomplainthattheirmetayerstakeeveryopportunityofemployingthemaster’scattleratherincarriagethanincultivation;becauseintheonecasetheygetthewholeprofitstothemselves，intheothertheysharethemwiththeirlandlord。ThisspeciesoftenantsstillsubsistsinsomepartsofScotland。Theyarecalledsteel—bowtenants。ThoseancientEnglishtenants，whoaresaidbyChiefBaronGilbertandDoctorBlackstonetohavebeenratherbailiffsofthelandlordthanfarmersproperlysocalled，wereprobablyofthesamekind。
　　Tothisspeciesoftenancysucceeded，thoughbyveryslowdegrees，farmersproperlysocalled，whocultivatedthelandwiththeirownstock，payingarentcertaintothelandlord。Whensuchfarmershavealeaseforatermofyears，theymaysometimesfinditfortheirinteresttolayoutpartoftheircapitalinthefurtherimprovementofthefarm;becausetheymaysometimesexpecttorecoverit，withalargeprofit，beforetheexpirationofthelease。Thepossessionevenofsuchfarmers，however，waslongextremelyprecarious，andstillissoinmanypartsofEurope。Theycouldbeforetheexpirationoftheirtermbelegallyoutedoftheirleasebyanewpurchaser;inEngland，evenbythefictitiousactionofacommonrecovery。Iftheywereturnedoutillegallybytheviolenceoftheirmaster，theactionbywhichtheyobtainedredresswasextremelyimperfect。Itdidnotalwaysreinstatetheminthepossessionoftheland，butgavethemdamageswhichneveramountedtotherealloss。EveninEngland，thecountryperhapsofEuropewheretheyeomanryhasalwaysbeenmostrespected，itwasnottillaboutthe14thofHenryVIIthattheactionofejectmentwasinvented，bywhichthetenantrecovers，notdamagesonlybutpossession，andinwhichhisclaimisnotnecessarilyconcludedbytheuncertaindecisionofasingleassize。Thisactionhasbeenfoundsoeffectualaremedythat，inthemodernpractice，whenthelandlordhasoccasiontosueforthepossessionoftheland，heseldommakesuseoftheactionswhichproperlybelongtohimaslandlord，theWritofRightortheWritofEntry，butsuesinthenameofhistenantbytheWritofEjectment。InEngland，therefore，thesecurityofthetenantisequaltothatoftheproprietor。InEngland，besides，aleaseforlifeoffortyshillingsayearvalueisafreehold，andentitlesthelesseetovoteforaMemberofParliament;andasagreatpartoftheyeomanryhavefreeholdsofthiskind，thewholeorderbecomesrespectabletotheirlandlordsonaccountofthepoliticalconsiderationwhichthisgivesthem。Thereis，I
　　believe，nowhereinEurope，exceptinEngland，anyinstanceofthetenantbuildinguponthelandofwhichhehadnolease，andtrustingthatthehonourofhislandlordwouldtakenoadvantageofsoimportantanimprovement。ThoselawsandcustomssofavourabletotheyeomanryhaveperhapscontributedmoretothepresentgrandeurofEnglandthanalltheirboastedregulationsofcommercetakentogether。
　　Thelawwhichsecuresthelongestleasesagainstsuccessorsofeverykindis，sofarasIknow，peculiartoGreatBritain。ItwasintroducedintoScotlandsoearlyas1449，alawofJamesII。
　　Itsbeneficialinfluence，however，hasbeenmuchobstructedbyentails;theheirsofentailbeinggenerallyrestrainedfromlettingleasesforanylongtermofyears，frequentlyformorethanoneyear。AlateActofParliamenthas，inthisrespect，somewhatslackenedtheirfetters，thoughtheyarestillbymuchtoostrait。InScotland，besides，asnoleaseholdgivesavoteforaMemberofParliament，theyeomanryareuponthisaccountlessrespectabletotheirlandlordsthaninEngland。
　　InotherpartsofEurope，afteritwasfoundconvenienttosecuretenantsbothagainstheirsandpurchasers，thetermoftheirsecuritywasstilllimitedtoaveryshortperiod;inFrance，forexample，tonineyearsfromthecommencementofthelease。Ithasinthatcountry，indeed，beenlatelyextendedtotwenty—seven，aperiodstilltooshorttoencouragethetenanttomakethemostimportantimprovements。TheproprietorsoflandwereancientlythelegislatorsofeverypartofEurope。Thelawsrelatingtoland，therefore，wereallcalculatedforwhattheysupposedtheinterestoftheproprietor。Itwasforhisinterest，theyhadimagined，thatnoleasegrantedbyanyofhispredecessorsshouldhinderhimfromenjoying，duringalongtermofyears，thefullvalueofhisland。Avariceandinjusticearealwaysshort—sighted，andtheydidnotforeseehowmuchthisregulationmustobstructimprovement，andtherebyhurtinthelong—runtherealinterestofthelandlord。
　　Thefarmerstoo，besidespayingtherent，wereanciently，itwassupposed，boundtoperformagreatnumberofservicestothelandlord，whichwereseldomeitherspecifiedinthelease，orregulatedbyanypreciserule，butbytheuseandwontofthemanororbarony。Theseservices，therefore，beingalmostentirelyarbitrary，subjectedthetenanttomanyvexations。InScotlandtheabolitionofallservicesnotpreciselystipulatedintheleasehasinthecourseofafewyearsverymuchalteredforthebettertheconditionoftheyeomanryofthatcountry。
　　Thepublicservicestowhichtheyeomanrywereboundwerenotlessarbitrarythantheprivateones。Tomakeandmaintainthehighroads，aservitudewhichstillsubsists，Ibelieve，everywhere，thoughwithdifferentdegreesofoppressionindifferentcountries，wasnottheonlyone。Whentheking’stroops，whenhishouseholdorhisofficersofanykindpassedthroughanypartofthecountry，theyeomanrywereboundtoprovidethemwithhorses，carriages，andprovisions，atapriceregulatedbythepurveyor。GreatBritainis，Ibelieve，theonlymonarchyinEuropewheretheoppressionofpurveyancehasbeenentirelyabolished。ItstillsubsistsinFranceandGermany。
　　Thepublictaxestowhichtheyweresubjectwereasirregularandoppressiveastheservices。Theancientlords，thoughextremelyunwillingtograntthemselvesanypecuniaryaidtotheirsovereign，easilyallowedhimtotallage，astheycalledittheirtenants，andhadnotknowledgeenoughtoforeseehowmuchthismustintheendaffecttheirownrevenue。Thetaille，asitstillsubsistsinFrance，mayserveasanexampleofthoseancienttallages。Itisataxuponthesupposedprofitsofthefarmer，whichtheyestimatebythestockthathehasuponthefarm。Itishisinterest，therefore，toappeartohaveaslittleaspossible，andconsequentlytoemployaslittleaspossibleinitscultivation，andnoneinitsimprovement。ShouldanystockhappentoaccumulateinthehandsofaFrenchfarmer，thetailleisalmostequaltoaprohibitionofitseverbeingemployedupontheland。Thistax，besides，issupposedtodishonourwhoeverissubjecttoit，andtodegradehimbelow，notonlytherankofagentleman，butthatofaburgher，andwhoeverrentsthelandsofanotherbecomessubjecttoit。Nogentleman，norevenanyburgherwhohasstock，willsubmittothisdegradation。Thistax，therefore，notonlyhindersthestockwhichaccumulatesuponthelandfrombeingemployedinitsimprovement，butdrivesawayanotherstockfromit。Theancienttenthsandfifteenths，sousualinEnglandinformertimes，seem，sofarastheyaffectedtheland，tohavebeentaxesofthesamenaturewiththetaille。
　　Underallthesediscouragements，littleimprovementcouldbeexpectedfromtheoccupiersofland。Thatorderofpeople，withallthelibertyandsecuritywhichlawcangive，mustalwaysimproveundergreatdisadvantages。Thefarmer，comparedwiththeproprietor，isasamerchantwhotradeswithborrowedmoneycomparedwithonewhotradeswithhisown。Thestockofbothmayimprove，butthatoftheone，withonlyequalgoodconduct，mustalwaysimprovemoreslowlythanthatoftheother，onaccountofthelargeshareoftheprofitswhichisconsumedbytheinterestoftheloan。Thelandscultivatedbythefarmermust，inthesamemanner，withonlyequalgoodconduct，beimprovedmoreslowlythanthosecultivatedbytheproprietor，onaccountofthelargeshareoftheproducewhichisconsumedintherent，andwhich，hadthefarmerbeenproprietor，hemighthaveemployedinthefurtherimprovementoftheland。Thestationofafarmerbesidesis，fromthenatureofthings，inferiortothatofaproprietor。
　　ThroughthegreaterpartofEuropetheyeomanryareregardedasaninferiorrankofpeople，eventothebettersortoftradesmenandmechanics，andinallpartsofEuropetothegreatmerchantsandmastermanufacturers。Itcanseldomhappen，therefore，thatamanofanyconsiderablestockshouldquitthesuperiorinordertoplacehimselfinaninferiorstation。EveninthepresentstateofEurope，therefore，littlestockislikelytogofromanyotherprofessiontotheimprovementoflandinthewayoffarming。MoredoesperhapsinGreatBritainthaninanyothercountry，thougheventherethegreatstockswhichare，insomeplaces，employedinfarminghavegenerallybeenacquiredbyfarming，thetrade，perhaps，inwhichofallothersstockiscommonlyacquiredmostslowly。Aftersmallproprietors，however，richandgreatfarmersare，ineverycountry，theprincipalimprovers。TherearemoresuchperhapsinEnglandthaninanyotherEuropeanmonarchy。IntherepublicangovernmentsofHollandandofBerneinSwitzerland，thefarmersaresaidtobenotinferiortothoseofEngland。
　　TheancientpolicyofEuropewas，overandaboveallthis，unfavourabletotheimprovementandcultivationofland，whethercarriedonbytheproprietororbythefarmer;first，bythegeneralprohibitionoftheexportationofcornwithoutaspeciallicence，whichseemstohavebeenaveryuniversalregulation;
　　andsecondly，bytherestraintswhichwerelaidupontheinlandcommerce，notonlyofcorn，butofalmosteveryotherpartoftheproduceofthefarmbytheabsurdlawsagainstengrossers，regrators，andforestallers，andbytheprivilegesoffairsandmarkets。Ithasalreadybeenobservedinwhatmannertheprohibitionoftheexportationofcorn，togetherwithsomeencouragementgiventotheimportationofforeigncorn，obstructedthecultivationofancientItaly，naturallythemostfertilecountryinEurope，andatthattimetheseatofthegreatestempireintheworld。Towhatdegreesuchrestraintsupontheinlandcommerceofthiscommodity，joinedtothegeneralprohibitionofexportation，musthavediscouragedthecultivationofcountrieslessfertileandlessfavourablycircumstanced，itisnotperhapsveryeasytoimagine。