Butapeoplewhohaveonceadoptedthelargesystemofproduction，eitherinmanufacturesorinagriculture，arenotlikelytorecedefromit;andwhenpopulationiskeptindueproportiontothemeansofsupport，itisnotdesirablethattheyshould。Labourisunquestionablymoreproductiveonthesystemoflargeindustrialenterprises;theproduce，ifnotgreaterabsolutely，isgreaterinproportiontothelabouremployed:thesamenumberofpersonscanbesupportedequallywellwithlesstoilandgreaterleisure;whichwillbewhollyanadvantage，assoonascivilizationandimprovementhavesofaradvanced，thatwhatisabenefittothewholeshallbeabenefittoeachindividualcomposingit。Andinthemoralaspectofthequestion，whichisstillmoreimportantthantheeconomical，somethingbettershouldbeaimedatasthegoalofindustrialimprovement，thantodispersemankindovertheearthinsinglefamilies，eachruledinternally，asfamiliesnoware，byapatriarchaldespot，andhavingscarcelyanycommunityofinterest，ornecessarymentalcommunion，withotherhumanbeings。Thedominationoftheheadofthefamilyovertheothermembers，inthisstateofthings，isabsolute;whiletheeffectonhisownmindtendstowardsconcentrationofallinterestsinthefamily，consideredasanexpansionofself，andabsorptionofallpassionsinthatofexclusivepossession，ofallcaresinthoseofpreservationandacquisition。Asastepoutofthemerelyanimalstateintothehuman，outofrecklessabandonmenttobruteinstinctsintoprudentialforesightandself—government，thismoralconditionmaybeseenwithoutdispleasure。Butifpublicspirit，generoussentiments，ortruejusticeandequalityaredesired，association，notisolation，ofinterests，istheschoolinwhichtheseexcellencesarenurtured。Theaimofimprovementshouldbenotsolelytoplacehumanbeingsinaconditioninwhichtheywillbeabletodowithoutoneanother，buttoenablethemtoworkwithorforoneanotherinrelationsnotinvolvingdependence。Hithertotherehasbeennoalternativeforthosewholivedbytheirlabour，butthatoflabouringeithereachforhimselfalone，orforamaster。Butthecivilizingandimprovinginfluencesofassociation，andtheefficiencyandeconomyofproductiononalargescale，maybeobtainedwithoutdividingtheproducersintotwopartieswithhostileinterestsandfeelings，themanywhodotheworkbeingmereservantsunderthecommandoftheonewhosuppliesthefunds，andhavingnointerestoftheirownintheenterpriseexcepttoearntheirwageswithaslittlelabouraspossible。Thespeculationsanddiscussionsofthelastfiftyyears，andtheeventsofthelastthirty，areabundantlyconclusiveonthispoint。Iftheimprovementwhicheventriumphantmilitarydespotismhasonlyretarded，notstopped，shallcontinueitscourse，therecanbelittledoubtthatthestatusofhiredlabourerswillgraduallytendtoconfineitselftothedescriptionofwork—peoplewhoselowmoralqualitiesrenderthemunfitforanythingmoreindependent:andthattherelationofmastersandwork—peoplewillbegraduallysupersededbypartnership，inoneoftwoforms:insomecases，associationofthelabourerswiththecapitalist;inothers，andperhapsfinallyinall，associationoflabourersamongthemselves。
　　5。Thefirstoftheseformsofassociationhaslongbeenpractised，notindeedasarule，butasanexception。Inseveraldepartmentsofindustrytherearealreadycasesinwhicheveryonewhocontributestothework，eitherbylabourorbypecuniaryresources，hasapartner’sinterestinit，proportionaltothevalueofhiscontribution。Itisalreadyacommonpracticetoremuneratethoseinwhompeculiartrustisreposed，bymeansofapercentageontheprofits:andcasesexistinwhichtheprincipleis，withexcellentsuccess，carrieddowntotheclassofmeremanuallabourers。IntheAmericanshipstradingtoChina，ithaslongbeenthecustomforeverysailortohaveaninterestintheprofitsofthevoyage;andtothishasbeenascribedthegeneralgoodconductofthoseseamen，andtheextremerarityofanycollisionbetweenthemandthegovernmentorpeopleofthecountry。AninstanceinEngland，notsowellknownasitdeservestobe，isthatoftheCornishminers。’InCornwalltheminesareworkedstrictlyonthesystemofjointadventure;gangsofminerscontractingwiththeagent，whorepresentstheownerofthemine，toexecuteacertainportionofaveinandfittheoreformarket，atthepriceofsomuchinthepoundofthesumforwhichtheoreissold。Thesecontractsareputupatcertainregularperiods，generallyeverytwomonths，andtakenbyavoluntarypartnershipofmenaccustomedtothemine。Thissystemhasitsdisadvantages，inconsequenceoftheuncertaintyandirregularityoftheearnings，andconsequentnecessityoflivingforlongperiodsoncredit;butithasadvantageswhichmorethancounterbalancethesedrawbacks。Itproducesadegreeofintelligence，independence，andmoralelevation，whichraisetheconditionandcharacteroftheCornishminerfarabovethatofthegeneralityofthelabouringclass。WearetoldbyDrCarham，that"theyarenotonly，asaclass，intelligentforlabourers，butmenofconsiderableknowledge"。Also，that"theyhaveacharacterofindependence，some。thingAmerican，thesystembywhichthecontractsareletgivingthetakersentirefreedomtomakearrangementsamongthemselves;sothateachmanfeels，asapartnerinhislittlefirm，thathemeetshisemployersonnearlyequalterms"……Withthisbasisofintelligenceandindependenceintheircharacter，wearenotsurprisedwhenwehearthat"averygreatnumberofminersarenowlocatedonpossessionsoftheirown，leasedforthreelivesorninety—nineyears，onwhichtheyhavebuilthouses";orthat"281，541l。aredepositedinsavingbanksinCornwall，ofwhichtwo—thirdsareestimatedtobelongtominers"。’（1*）
　　MrBabbage，whoalsogivesanaccountofthissystem，observesthatthepaymenttothecrewsofwhalingshipsisgovernedbyasimilarprinciple;andthat’theprofitsarisingfromfishingwithnetsonthesouthcoastofEnglandarethusdivided:one—halftheproducebelongstotheowneroftheboatandnet;theotherhalfisdividedinequalportionsbetweenthepersonsusingit，whoarealsoboundtoassistinrepairingthenetwhenrequired。’MrBabbagehasthegreatmeritofhavingpointedoutthepracticability，andtheadvantage，ofextendingtheprincipletomanufacturingindustrygenerally。（2*）
　　Someattentionhasbeenexcitedbyanexperimentofthisnature，commencedabovethirtyyearsagobyaParistradesman，ahouse—painter，M。Leclaire，（3*）anddescribedbyhiminapamphletpublishedintheyear1842。M。Leclaire，accordingtohisstatement，employsonanaveragetwohundredworkmen，whomhepaysintheusualmanner，byfixedwagesorsalaries。Heassignstohimself，besidesinterestforhiscapital，afixedallowanceforhislabourandresponsibilityasmanager。Attheendoftheyear，thesurplusprofitsaredividedamongthebody，himselfincluded，intheproportionoftheirsalaries。（4*）ThereasonsbywhichM。Leclairewasledtoadoptthissystemarehighlyinstructive。Findingtheconductofhisworkmenunsatisfactory，hefirsttriedtheeffectofgivinghigherwages，andbythishemanagedtoobtainabodyofexcellentworkmen，whowouldnotquithisserviceforanyother。’Havingthussucceeded’（IquotefromanabstractofthepamphletinChambers’Journal，（5*））’inproducingsomesortofstabilityinthearrangementofhisestablishment，M。Leclaireexpected，hesays，toenjoygreaterpeaceofmind。Inthis，however，hewasdisappointed。Solongashewasabletosuperintendeverythinghimself，fromthegeneralconcernsofhisbusinessdowntoitsminutestdetails，hedidenjoyacertainsatisfaction;butfromthemomentthat，owingtotheincreaseofhisbusiness，hefoundthathecouldbenothingmorethanthecentrefromwhichorderswereissued，andtowhichreportswerebroughtin，hisformeranxietyanddiscomfortreturneduponhim。’Hespeakslightlyoftheothersourcesofanxietytowhichatradesmanissubject，butdescribesasanincessantcauseofvexationthelossesarisingfromthemisconductofworkmen。Anemployer’willfindworkmenwhoseindifferencetohisinterestsissuchthattheydonotperformtwo—thirdsoftheamountofworkwhichtheyarecapableof;hencethecontinualfrettingofmasters，who，seeingtheirinterestsneglected，believethemselvesentitledtosupposethatworkmenareconstantlyconspiringtoruinthosefromwhomtheyderivetheirlivelihood。Ifthejourneymanweresureofconstantemployment，hispositionwouldinsomerespectsbemoreenviablethanthatofthemaster，becauseheisassuredofacertainamountofday’swages，whichhewillgetwhetherheworksmuchorlittle。Herunsnorisk，andhasnoothermotivetostimulatehimtodohisbestthanhisownsenseofduty。Themaster，ontheotherhand，dependsgreatlyonchanceforhisreturns:hispositionisoneofcontinualirritationandanxiety。Thiswouldnolongerbethecasetothesameextent，iftheinterestsofthemasterandthoseoftheworkmenwereboundupwitheachother，connectedbysomebondofmutualsecurity，suchasthatwhichwouldbeobtainedbytheplanofayearlydivisionofprofits。’
　　UntilthepassingoftheLimitedLiabilityAct，itwasheldthatanarrangementsimilartoM。Leclaire’swouldhavebeenimpossibleinEngland，astheworkmencouldnot，inthepreviousstateofthelaw，havebeenassociatedintheprofits，withoutbeingliableforlosses。Oneofthemanybenefitsofthatgreatlegislativeimprovementhasbeentorenderpartnershipsofthisdescriptionpossible，andwemaynowexpecttoseethemcarriedintopractice。MessrsBriggs，oftheWhitwoodandMethleycollieries，nearNormantoninYorkshire，havetakenthefirststep。Theynowworktheseminesbyacompany，two—thirdsofthecapitalofwhichtheythemselvescontinuetohold，butundertake，intheallotmentoftheremainingthird，togivethepreferencetothe’officialsandoperativesemployedintheconcern’;and，whatisofstillgreaterimportance，whenevertheannualprofitexceeds10percent，one—halftheexcessisdividedamongthework—peopleandemployes，whethershareholdersornot，inproportiontotheirearningsduringtheyear。Itishighlyhonourabletotheseimportantemployersoflabourtohaveinitiatedasystemsofullofbenefitbothtotheoperativesemployedandtothegeneralinterestofsocialimprovement:andtheyexpressnomorethanajustconfidenceintheprinciplewhentheysay，that’theadoptionofthemodeofappropriationthusrecommendedwould，itisbelieved，addsogreatanelementofsuccesstotheundertakingastoincreaseratherthandiminishthedividendtotheshareholders。’
　　6。Theformofassociation，however，whichifmankindcontinuetoimprove，mustbeexpectedintheendtopredominate，isnotthatwhichcanexistbetweenacapitalistaschief，andwork。peoplewithoutavoiceinthemanagement，buttheassociationofthelabourersthemselvesontermsofequality，collectivelyowningthecapitalwithwhichtheycarryontheiroperations，andworkingundermanagerselectedandremovablebythemselves。Solongasthisidearemainedinastateoftheory，inthewritingsofOwenorofLouisBlanc，itmayhaveappeared，tothecommonmodesofjudgment，incapableofbeingrealized，andnotlikelytobetriedunlessbyseizingontheexistingcapital，andconfiscatingitforthebenefitofthelabourers;whichisevennowimaginedbymanypersons，andpretendedbymore，bothinEnglandandontheContinent，tobethemeaningandpurposeofSocialism。Butthereisacapacityofexertionandself—denialinthemassesofmankind，whichisneverknownbutontherareoccasionsonwhichitisappealedtointhenameofsomegreatideaorelevatedsentiment。SuchanappealwasmadebytheFrenchRevolutionof1848。Forthefirsttimeitthenseemedtotheintelligentandgenerousoftheworkingclassesofagreatnation，thattheyhadobtainedagovernmentwhosincerelydesiredthefreedomanddignityofthemany，andwhodidnotlookuponitastheirnaturalandlegitimatestatetobeinstrumentsofproduction，workedforthebenefitofthepossessorsofcapital。
　　Underthisencouragement，theideassownbySocialistwriters，ofanemancipationoflabourtobeeffectedbymeansofassociation，throveandfructified;andmanyworkingpeoplecametotheresolution，notonlythattheywouldworkforoneanother，insteadofworkingforamastertradesmanormanufacturer，butthattheywouldalsofreethemselves，atwhatevercostoflabourorprivation，fromthenecessityofpaying，outoftheproduceoftheirindustry，aheavytributefortheuseofcapital;thattheywouldextinguishthistax，notbyrobbingthecapitalistsofwhattheyortheirpredecessorshadacquiredbylabourandpreservedbyeconomy，butbyhonestlyacquiringcapitalforthemselves。Ifonlyafewoperativeshadattemptedthisarduoustask，orif，whilemanyattemptedit，afewonlyhadsucceeded，theirsuccessmighthavebeendeemedtofurnishnoargumentfortheirsystemasapermanentmodeofindustrialorganization。But，excludingalltheinstancesoffailure，thereexist，orexistedashorttimeago，upwardsofahundredsuccessful，andmanyeminentlyprosperous，associationsofoperativesinParisalone，besidesaconsiderablenumberinthedepartments。
　　Thesameadmirablequalitiesbywhichtheassociationswerecarriedthroughtheirearlystruggles，maintainedthemintheirincreasingprosperity。Theirrulesofdiscipline，insteadofbeingmorelax，arestricterthanthoseofordinaryworkshops;
　　butbeingrulesself。imposed，forthemanifestgoodofthecommunity，andnotfortheconvenienceofanemployerregardedashavinganoppositeinterest，theyarefarmorescrupulouslyobeyed，andthevoluntaryobediencecarrieswithitasenseofpersonalworthanddignity。Withwonderfulrapiditytheassociatedworkpeoplehavelearnttocorrectthoseoftheideastheysetoutwith，whichareinoppositiontotheteachingofreasonandexperience。Almostalltheassociations，atfirst，excludedpiece—work，andgaveequalwageswhethertheworkdonewasmoreorless。Almostallhaveabandonedthissystem，andafterallowingtoeveryoneafixedminimum，sufficientforsubsistence，theyapportionallfurtherremunerationaccordingtotheworkdone:mostofthemevendividingtheprofitsattheendoftheyear，inthesameproportionastheearnings。
　　Itisthedeclaredprincipleofmostoftheseassociations，thattheydonotexistforthemereprivatebenefitoftheindividualmembers，butforthepromotionoftheco—operativecause。Witheveryextension，therefore，oftheirbusiness，theytakeinadditionalmembers，not（whentheyremainfaithfultotheiroriginalplan）toreceivewagesfromthemashiredlabourers，buttoenteratonceintothefullbenefitsoftheassociation，withoutbeingrequiredtobringanythingin，excepttheirlabour:theonlyconditionimposedisthatofreceivingduringafewyearsasmallershareintheannualdivisionofprofits，assomeequivalentforthesacrificesofthefounders。
　　Whenmembersquittheassociation，whichtheyarealwaysatlibertytodo，theycarrynoneofthecapitalwiththem:itremainsanindivisibleproperty，ofwhichthemembersforthetimebeinghavetheuse，butnotthearbitrarydisposal:bythestipulationsofmostofthecontracts，eveniftheassociationbreaksup，thecapitalcannotbedivided，butmustbedevotedentiretosomeworkofbeneficenceorofpublicutility。Afixed，andgenerallyaconsiderable，proportionoftheannualprofitsisnotsharedamongthemembers，butaddedtothecapitaloftheassociation，ordevotedtotherepaymentofadvancespreviouslymadetoit:anotherportionissetasidetoprovideforthesickanddisabled，andanothertoformafundforextendingthepracticeofassociation，oraidingotherassociationsintheirneed。Themanagersarepaid，likeothermembers，forthetimewhichisoccupiedinmanagement，usuallyattherateofthehighestpaidlabour:buttheruleisadheredto，thattheexerciseofpowershallneverbeanoccasionofprofit。
　　Oftheabilityoftheassociationstocompetesuccessfullywithindividualcapitalists，evenatanearlyperiodoftheirexistence，M。Feugueray（6*）said，’Lesassociationsquiontetefondeesdepuisdeuxannees，avaientbiendesobstaclesavaincre;
　　laplupartmanquaientpresqueabsolumentdecapital;toutesmarchaientdansunevoieencoreinexploree;ellesbravaientlesperilsquimenacenttoujourslesnovateursetlesdebutants。Etneanmoins，dansbeaucoupd’industriesouellessesontetablies，ellesconstituentdejapourlesanciennesmaisonsunerivaliteredoutable，quisuscitememedesplaintesnombreusesdansunepartiedelabourgeoisie，nonpasseulementchezlestraiteurs，leslimonadiersetlescoiffeurs，c’est—a—diredanslesindustriesoulanaturedesproduitspermetauxassociationsdecomptersurlaclienteledemocratique，maisdansd’autresindustriesouellesn’ontpaslesmemesavantages。Onn’aqu’aconsulterparexemplelesfabricantsdefauteuils，dechaises，delimes，etl’onsaurad’euxsilesetablissementslesplusimportantsenleursgenresdefabricationnesontpaslesetablissementsdesassocies。’Thevitalityoftheseassociationsmustindeedbegreat，tohaveenabledabouttwentyofthemtosurvivenotonlytheanti—socialistreaction，whichforthetimediscreditedallattemptstoenableworkpeopletobetheirownemployers——notonlythetracasseriesofthepolice，andthehostilepolicyofthegovernmentsincetheusurpation——butinadditiontotheseobstacles，allthedifficultiesarisingfromthetryingconditionoffinancialandcommercialaffairsfrom1854to1858。Oftheprosperityattainedbysomeofthemevenwhilepassingthroughthisdifficultperiod，Ihavegivenexampleswhichmustbeconclusivetoallmindsastothebrilliantfuturereservedfortheprincipleofcooperation。
　　ItisnotinFrancealonethattheseassociationshavecommencedacareerofprosperity。TosaynothingatpresentofGermany，Piedmont，andSwitzerland（wheretheKonsum—VereinofZurichisoneofthemostprosperouscooperativeassociationsinEurope），EnglandcanproducecasesofsuccessrivallingeventhosewhichIhavecitedfromFrance。UndertheimpulsecommencedbyMrOwen，andmorerecentlypropagatedbythewritingsandpersonaleffortsofabandoffriends，chieflyclergymenandbarristers，towhosenobleexertionstoomuchpraisecanscarcelybegiven，thegoodseedwaswidelysown;thenecessaryalterationsintheEnglishlawofpartnershipwereobtainedfromParliament，onthebenevolentandpublic。spiritedinitiativeofMrSlaney;manyindustrialassociations，andastillgreaternumberofcooperativestoresforretailpurchases，werefounded。
　　Amongthesearealreadymanyinstancesofremarkableprosperity，themostsignalofwhicharetheLeedsFlourMill，andtheRochdaleSocietyofEquitablePioneers。Ofthislastassociation，themostsuccessfulofall，thehistoryhasbeenwritteninaveryinterestingmannerbyMrHolyoake;（7*）andthenotorietywhichbythisandothermeanshasbeengiventofactssoencouraging，iscausingarapidextensionofassociationswithsimilarobjectsinLancashire，Yorkshire，London，andelsewhere。
　　Itisnotnecessarytoenterintoanydetailsrespectingthesub。
　　sequenthistoryofEnglishCo—operation;thelessso，asitisnowoneoftherecognizedelementsintheprogressivemovementoftheage，and，assuch，haslatterlybeenthesubjectofelaboratearticlesinmostofourleadingperiodicals，oneofthemostrecentandbestofwhichwasintheEdinburghReviewforOctober1864:andtheprogressofCooperationfrommonthtomonthisregularlychronicledintheCo—operator。Imustnot，however，omittomentionthelastgreatstepinadvanceinreferencetotheCooperativeStores，theformationintheNorthofEngland（andanotherisincourseofformationinLondon）ofaWholesaleSociety，todispensewiththeservicesofthewholesalemerchantaswellasoftheretaildealer，andextendtotheSocietiestheadvantagewhicheachsocietygivestoitsownmembers，byanagencyforcooperativepurchases，offoreignaswellasdomesticcommodities，directfromtheproducers。
　　Itishardlypossibletotakeanybutahopefulviewoftheprospectsofmankind，when，intwoleadingcountriesoftheworld，theobscuredepthsofsocietycontainsimpleworkingmenwhoseintegrity，goodsense，self—command，andhonourableconfidenceinoneanother，haveenabledthemtocarrythesenobleexperimentstothetriumphantissuewhichthefactsrecordedintheprecedingpagesattest。Fromtheprogressiveadvanceoftheco—operativemovement，agreatincreasemaybelookedforevenintheaggregateproductivenessofindustry。Thesourcesoftheincreasearetwofold。Inthefirstplace，theclassofmeredistributors，whoarenotproducersbutauxiliariesofproduction，andwhoseinordinatenumbers，farmorethanthegainsofcapitalists，arethecausewhysogreataportionofthewealthproduceddoesnotreachtheproducers——willbereducedtomoremodestdimensions。Distributorsdifferfromproducersinthis，thatwhenproducersincrease，eventhoughinanygivendepartmentofindustrytheymaybetoonumerous，theyactuallyproducemore:butthemultiplicationofdistributorsdoesnotmakemoredistributiontobedone，morewealthtobedistributed;
　　itdoesbutdividethesameworkamongagreaternumberofpersons，seldomevencheapeningtheprocess。Bylimitingthedistributorstothenumberreallyrequiredformakingthecommoditiesaccessibletotheconsumerswhichisthedirecteffectofthecooperativesystem——avastnumberofhandswillbesetfreeforproduction，andthecapitalwhichfeedsandthegainswhichremuneratethemwillbeappliedtofeedandremunerateproducers。Thisgreateconomyoftheworld’sresourceswouldberealizedevenifco—operationstoppedatassociationsforpurchaseandconsumption，withoutextendingtoproduction。
　　Theothermodeinwhichcooperationtends，stillmoreefficaciously，toincreasetheproductivenessoflabour，consistsinthevaststimulusgiventoproductiveenergies，byplacingthelabourers，asamass，inarelationtotheirworkwhichwouldmakeittheirprincipleandtheirinterest——atpresentitisneither——todotheutmost，insteadoftheleastpossible，inexchangefortheirremuneration。Itisscarcelypossibletoratetoohighlythismaterialbenefit，whichyetisasnothingcomparedwiththemoralrevolutioninsocietythatwouldaccompanyit:thehealingofthestandingfeudbetweencapitalandlabour;thetransformationofhumanlife，fromaconflictofclassesstrugglingforoppositeinterests，toafriendlyrivalryinthepursuitofagoodcommontoall;theelevationofthedignityoflabour;anewsenseofsecurityandindependenceinthelabouringclass;andtheconversionofeachhumanbeing’sdailyoccupationintoaschoolofthesocialsympathiesandthepracticalintelligence。
　　SuchisthenobleideawhichthepromotersofCo—operationshouldhavebeforethem。Buttoattain，inanydegree，theseobjects，itisindispensablethatall，andnotsomeonly，ofthosewhodotheworkshouldbeidentifiedininterestwiththeprosperityoftheundertaking。Associationswhich，whentheyhavebeensuccessful，renouncetheessentialprincipleofthesystem，andbecomejoint—stockcompaniesofalimitednumberofshareholders，whodifferfromthoseofothercompaniesonlyinbeingworkingmen;associationswhichemployhiredlabourerswithoutanyinterestintheprofits（andIgrievetosaythattheManufacturingSocietyevenofRochdalehasthusdegenerated）are，nodoubt，exercisingalawfulrightinhonestlyemployingtheexistingsystemofsocietytoimprovetheirpositionasindividuals，butitisnotfromthemthatanythingneedbeexpectedtowardsreplacingthatsystembyabetter。Neitherwillsuchsocieties，inthelongrun，succeedinkeepingtheirgroundagainstindividualcompetition。Individualmanagement，bytheonepersonprincipallyinterested，hasgreatadvantagesovereverydescriptionofcollectivemanagement。Co—operationhasbutonethingtoopposetothoseadvantages——thecommoninterestofalltheworkersinthework。Whenindividualcapitalists，astheywillcertainlydo，addthistotheirotherpointsofadvantage;
　　when，evenifonlytoincreasetheirgains，theytakeupthepracticewhichthesecooperativesocietieshavedropped，andconnectthepecuniaryinterestofeverypersonintheiremploymentwiththemostefficientandmosteconomicalmanagementoftheconcern;theyarelikelytogainaneasyvictoryoversocietieswhichretainthedefects，whiletheycannotpossessthefulladvantages，oftheoldsystem。
　　Underthemostfavourablesupposition，itwillbedesirable，andperhapsforaconsiderablelengthoftime，thatindividualcapitalists，associatingtheirwork—peopleintheprofits，shouldcoexistwitheventhosecooperativesocietieswhicharefaithfultothecooperativeprinciple。Unityofauthoritymakesmanythingspossible，whichcouldnotorwouldnotbeundertakensubjecttothechanceofdividedcouncilsorchangesinthemanagement。Aprivatecapitalist，exemptfromthecontrolofabody，ifheisapersonofcapacity，isconsiderablymorelikelythanalmostanyassociationtorunjudiciousrisks，andoriginatecostlyimprovements。Co—operativesocietiesmaybedependedonforadoptingimprovementsaftertheyhavebeentestedbysuccess，butindividualsaremorelikelytocommencethingspreviouslyuntried。Eveninordinarybusiness，thecompetitionofcapablepersonswhointheeventoffailurearetohavealltheloss，andinthecaseofsuccessthegreaterpartofthegain，willbeveryusefulinkeepingthemanagersofcooperativesocietiesuptotheduepitchofactivityandvigilance。
　　When，however，cooperativesocietiesshallhavesufficientlymultiplied，itisnotprobablethatanybuttheleastvaluablework—peoplewillanylongerconsenttoworkalltheirlivesforwagesmerely;bothprivatecapitalistsandassociationswillgraduallyfinditnecessarytomaketheentirebodyoflabourersparticipantsinprofits。Eventually，andinperhapsalessremotefuturethanmaybesupposed，wemay，throughthecooperativeprinciple，seeourwaytoachangeinsociety，whichwouldcombinethefreedomandindependenceoftheindividual，withthemoral，intellectual，andeconomicaladvantagesofaggregateproduction;andwhich，withoutviolenceorspoliation，orevenanysuddendisturbanceofexistinghabitsandexpectations，wouldrealize，atleastintheindustrialdepartment，thebestaspirationsofthedemocraticspirit，byputtinganendtothedivisionofsocietyintotheindustriousandtheidle，andeffacingallsocialdistinctionsbutthosefairlyearnedbypersonalservicesandexertions。Associationslikethosewhichwehavedescribed，bytheveryprocessoftheirsuccess，areacourseofeducationinthosemoralandactivequalitiesbywhichalonesuccesscanbeeitherdeservedorattained。Asassociationsmultiplied，theywouldtendmoreandmoretoabsorballwork—people，exceptthosewhohavetoolittleunderstanding，ortoolittlevirtue，tobecapableoflearningtoactonanyothersystemthanthatofnarrowselfishness。Asthischangeproceeded，ownersofcapitalwouldgraduallyfindittotheiradvantage，insteadofmaintainingthestruggleoftheoldsystemwithwork—peopleofonlytheworstdescription，tolendtheircapitaltotheassociations;todothisatadiminishingrateofinterest，andatlast，perhaps，eventoexchangetheircapitalforterminableannuities。Inthisorsomesuchmode，theexistingaccumulationsofcapitalmighthonestly，andbyakindofspontaneousprocess，becomeintheendthejointpropertyofallwhoparticipateintheirproductiveemployment:atransformationwhich，thuseffected，（andassumingofcoursethatbothsexesparticipateequallyintherightsandinthegovernmentoftheassociation）（8*）wouldbethenearestapproachtosocialjustice，andthemostbeneficialorderingofindustrialaffairsfortheuniversalgood，whichitispossibleatpresenttoforesee。
　　7。Iagree，thenwiththeSocialistwritersintheirconceptionoftheformwhichindustrialoperationstendtoassumeintheadvanceofimprovement;andIentirelysharetheiropinionthatthetimeisripeforcommencingthistransformation，andthatitshouldbyalljustandeffectualmeansbeaidedandencouraged。ButwhileIagreeandsympathizewithSocialistsinthispracticalportionoftheiraims，Iutterlydissentfromthemostconspicuousandvehementpartoftheirteaching，theirdeclamationsagainstcompetition。Withmoralconceptionsinmanyrespectsfaraheadoftheexistingarrangementsofsociety，theyhaveingeneralveryconfusedanderroneousnotionsofitsactualworking;andoneoftheirgreatesterrors，asIconceive，istochargeuponcompetitionalltheeconomicalevilswhichatpresentexist。Theyforgetthatwherevercompetitionisnot，monopolyis;
　　andthatmonopoly，inallitsforms，isthetaxationoftheindustriousforthesupportofindolence，ifnotofplunder。Theyforget，too，thatwiththeexceptionofcompetitionamonglabourers，allothercompetitionisforthebenefitofthelabourers，bycheapeningthearticlestheyconsume;thatcompetitioneveninthelabourmarketisasourcenotoflowbutofhighwages，whereverthecompetitionforlabourexceedsthecompetitionoflabour，asinAmerica，inthecolonies，andintheskilledtrades;andnevercouldbeacauseoflowwages，savebytheoverstockingofthelabourmarketthroughthetoogreatnumbersofthelabourers’families;while，ifthesupplyoflabourersisexcessive，notevenSocialismcanpreventtheirremunerationfrombeinglow。Besides，ifassociationwereuniversal，therewouldbenocompetitionbetweenlabourerandlabourer;andthatbetweenassociationandassociationwouldbeforthebenefitoftheconsumers，thatis，oftheassociations;
　　oftheindustriousclassesgenerally。
　　Idonotpretendthattherearenoinconveniencesincompetition，orthatthemoralobjectionsurgedagainstitbySocialistwriters，asasourceofjealousyandhostilityamongthoseengagedinthesameoccupation，arealtogethergroundless。
　　Butifcompetitionhasitsevils，itpreventsgreaterevils。AsM。Feugueraywellsays，’Laracinelaplusprofondedesmauxetdesiniquitesquicouvrentlemondeindustriel，n’estpaslaconcurrence，maisbienl’exploitationduetravailparlecapital，etlapartenormequelespossesseursdesinstrumentsdetravailpreleventsurlesproduits……Silaconcurrenceabeaucoupdepuissancepourlemal，ellen’apasmoinsdefeconditepourlebien，surtoutencequiconcerneledeveloppementdesfacultesindividuelles，etlesuccesdesinnovations。’ItisthecommonerrorofSocialiststooverlookthenaturalindolenceofmankind;
　　theirtendencytobepassive，tobetheslavesofhabit，topersistindefinitelyinacourseoncechosen。Letthemonceattainanystateofexistencewhichtheyconsidertolerable，andthedangertobeapprehendedisthattheywillthenceforthstagnate;willnotexertthemselvestoimprove，andbylettingtheirfacultiesrust，willloseeventheenergyrequiredtopreservethemfromdeterioration。Competitionmaynotbethebestconceivablestimulus，butitisatpresentanecessaryone，andnoonecanforeseethetimewhenitwillnotbeindispensabletoprogress。Evenconfiningourselvestotheindustrialdepartment，inwhich，morethaninanyother，themajoritymaybesupposedtobecompetentjudgesofimprovements;itwouldbedifficulttoinducethegeneralassemblyofanassociationtosubmittothetroubleandinconvenienceofalteringtheirhabitsbyadoptingsomenewandpromisinginvention，unlesstheirknowledgeoftheexistenceofrivalassociationsmadethemapprehendthatwhattheywouldnotconsenttodo，otherswould，andthattheywouldbeleftbehindintherace。
　　Insteadoflookinguponcompetitionasthebanefulandanti—socialprinciplewhichitisheldtobebythegeneralityofSocialists，Iconceivethat，eveninthepresentstateofsocietyandindustry，everyrestrictionofitisanevil，andeveryextensionofit，evenifforthetimeinjuriouslyaffectingsomeclassoflabourers，isalwaysanultimategood。Tobeprotectedagainstcompetitionistobeprotectedinidleness，inmentaldulness;tobesavedthenecessityofbeingasactiveandasintelligentasotherpeople;andifitisalsotobeprotectedagainstbeingunderbidforemploymentbyalesshighlypaidclassoflabourers，thisisonlywhereoldcustom，orlocalandpartialmonopoly，hasplacedsomeparticularclassofartisansinaprivilegedpositionascomparedwiththerest;andthetimehascomewhentheinterestofuniversalimprovementisnolongerpromotedbyprolongingtheprivilegesofafew。Iftheslopsellersandothersoftheirclasshaveloweredthewagesoftailors，andsomeotherartisans，bymakingthemanaffairofcompetitioninsteadofcustom，somuchthebetterintheend。
　　Whatisnowrequiredisnottobolsterupoldcustoms，wherebylimitedclassesoflabouringpeopleobtainpartialgainswhichinteresttheminkeepingupthepresentorganizationofsociety，buttointroducenewgeneralpracticesbeneficialtoall;andthereisreasontorejoiceatwhatevermakestheprivilegedclassesofskilledartisansfeelthattheyhavethesameinterests，anddependfortheirremunerationonthesamegeneralcauses，andmustresortfortheimprovementoftheirconditiontothesameremedies，asthelessfortunatelycircumstancedandcomparativelyhelplessmultitude。
　　NOTES:
　　1。ThispassageisfromthePrizeEssayontheCausesandRemediesofNationalDistress，byMrSamuelLaing。TheextractswhichitincludesarefromtheAppendixtotheReportoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission。
　　2。EconomyofMachineryandManufactures，3rdedition，Ch。26。
　　3。Hisestablishmentis11，RueSaintGeorges。
　　4。Itappears，however，thattheworkmenwhomM。Leclairehadadmittedtothisparticipationofprofits，wereonlyaportion（ratherlessthanhalf）ofthewholenumberwhomheemployed。
　　Thisisexplainedbyanotherpartofhissystem。M。Leclairepaysthefullmarketrateofwagestoallhisworkmen。Theshareofprofitassignedtothemis，therefore，aclearadditiontotheordinarygainsoftheirclass，whichheverylaudablyusesasaninstrumentofimprovement，bymakingittherewardofdesert，ortherecompenseforpeculiartrust。
　　5。For27September，1845。
　　6。L’AssociationOuvriereIndustrielleetAgricole，pp。37—8。
　　7。’Self—helpbythePeople——HistoryofCo—operationinRochdale。’Aninstructiveaccountofthisandotherco—operativeassociationshasalsobeenwritteninthe’CompaniontotheAlmanack’for1862，byMrJohnPlummer，ofKettering;himselfoneofthemostinspiringexamplesofmentalcultivationandhighprincipleinaself—instructedworkingman。
　　8。InthisrespectalsotheRochdaleSocietyhasgivenanexampleofreasonandjustice，worthyofthegoodsenseandgoodfeelingmanifestedintheirgeneralproceedings。’TheRochdaleStory。’
　　saysMrHolyoake，’rendersincidentalbutvaluableaidtowardsrealizingthecivilindependenceofwomen。WomenmaybemembersofthisStore，andvoteinitsproceedings。Singleandmarriedwomenjoin。Manymarriedwomenbecomemembersbecausetheirhusbandswillnottakethetrouble，andothersjoininitinself—defence，topreventthehusbandfromspendingtheirmoneyindrink。ThehusbandcannotwithdrawthesavingsattheStorestandinginthewife’sname，unlessshesignstheorder。
　　ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
　　byJohnStuartMill
　　Book5:OnTheInfluenceofGovernment
　　Chapter1
　　OftheFunctionsofGovernmentinGeneral
　　1。Oneofthemostdisputedquestionsbothinpolitical
　　scienceandinpracticalstatesmanshipatthisparticularperiod，
　　relatestotheproperlimitsofthefunctionsandagencyof
　　governments。Atothertimesithasbeenasubjectofcontroversy
　　howgovernmentsshouldbeconstituted，andaccordingtowhat
　　principlesandrulestheyshouldexercisetheirauthority;butit
　　isnowalmostequallyaquestion，towhatdepartmentsofhuman
　　affairsthatauthorityshouldextend。Andwhenthetidesetsso
　　stronglytowardschangesingovernmentandlegislation，asa
　　meansofimprovingtheconditionofmankind，thisdiscussionis
　　morelikelytoincreasethantodiminishininterest。Ontheone
　　hand，impatientreformers，thinkingiteasierandshortertoget
　　possessionofthegovernmentthanoftheintellectsand
　　dispositionsofthepublic，areunderaconstanttemptationto
　　stretchtheprovinceofgovernmentbeyondduebounds:while，on
　　theother，mankindhavebeensomuchaccustomedbytheirrulers
　　tointerferenceforpurposesotherthanthepublicgood，orunder
　　anerroneousconceptionofwhatthatgoodrequires，andsomany
　　rashproposalsaremadebysincereloversofimprovement，for
　　attempting，bycompulsoryregulation，theattainmentofobjects
　　whichcanonlybeeffectuallyoronlyusefullycompassedby
　　opinionanddiscussion，thattherehasgrownupaspiritof
　　resistanceinliminetotheinterferenceofgovernment，merelyas
　　such，andadispositiontorestrictitssphereofactionwithin
　　thenarrowestbounds。Fromdifferencesinthehistorical
　　developmentofdifferentnations，notnecessarytobeheredwelt
　　upon，theformerexcess，thatofexaggeratingtheprovinceof
　　government，prevailsmost，bothintheoryandinpractice，among
　　theContinentalnations，whileinEnglandthecontraryspirithas
　　hithertobeenpredominant。
　　Thegeneralprinciplesofthequestion，insofarasitisa
　　questionofprinciple，Ishallmakeanattempttodetermineina
　　laterchapterofthisBook:afterfirstconsideringtheeffects
　　producedbytheconductofgovernmentintheexerciseofthe
　　functionsuniversallyacknowledgedtobelongtoit。Forthis
　　purpose，theremustbeaspecificationofthefunctionswhichare
　　eitherinseparablefromtheideaofagovernment，orare
　　exercisedhabituallyandwithoutobjectionbyallgovernments;as
　　distinguishedfromthoserespectingwhichithasbeenconsidered
　　questionablewhethergovernmentsshouldexercisethemornot。The
　　formermaybetermedthenecessary，thelattertheoptional，
　　functionsofgovernment。Bythetermoptionalitisnotmeantto
　　imply，thatitcaneverbeamatterofindifference，orof
　　arbitrarychoice，whetherthegovernmentshouldorshouldnot
　　takeuponitselfthefunctionsinquestion;butonlythatthe
　　expediencyofitsexercisingthemdoesnotamounttonecessity，
　　andisasubjectonwhichdiversityofopiniondoesormayexist。
　　2。Inattemptingtoenumeratethenecessaryfunctionsof
　　government，wefindthemtobeconsiderablymoremultifarious
　　thanmostpeopleareatfirstawareof，andnotcapableofbeing
　　circumscribedbythoseverydefinitelinesofdemarcation，which，
　　intheinconsideratenessofpopulardiscussion，itisoften
　　attemptedtodrawroundthem。Wesometimes，forexample，hearit
　　saidthatgovernmentsoughttoconfinethemselvestoaffording
　　protectionagainstforceandfraud:that，thesetwothingsapart，
　　peopleshouldbefreeagents，abletotakecareofthemselves，
　　andthatsolongasapersonpractisesnoviolenceordeception，
　　totheinjuryofothersinpersonorproperty，legislaturesand
　　governmentsareinnowaycalledontoconcernthemselvesabout
　　him。Butwhyshouldpeoplebeprotectedbytheirgovernment，that
　　is，bytheirowncollectivestrength，againstviolenceandfraud，
　　andnotagainstotherevils，exceptthattheexpediencyismore
　　obvious？Ifnothing，butwhatpeoplecannotpossiblydofor
　　themselves，canbefittobedoneforthembygovernment，people
　　mightberequiredtoprotectthemselvesbytheirskilland
　　courageevenagainstforce，ortobegorbuyprotectionagainst
　　it，astheyactuallydowherethegovernmentisnotcapableof
　　protectingthem:andagainstfraudeveryonehastheprotection
　　ofhisownwits。Butwithoutfurtheranticipatingthediscussion
　　ofprinciples，itissufficientonthepresentoccasionto
　　considerfacts。
　　Underwhichoftheseheads，therepressionofforceorof
　　fraud，arewetoplacetheoperation，forexample，ofthelawsof
　　inheritance？Somesuchlawsmustexistinallsocieties。Itmay
　　besaid，perhaps，thatinthismattergovernmenthasmerelyto
　　giveeffecttothedispositionwhichanindividualmakesofhis
　　ownpropertybywill。This，however，isatleastextremely
　　disputable;thereisprobablynocountrybywhoselawsthepower
　　oftestamentarydispositionisperfectlyabsolute。Andsuppose
　　theverycommoncaseoftherebeingnowill:doesnotthelaw，
　　thatis，thegovernment，decideonprinciplesofgeneral
　　expediency，whoshalltakethesuccession？andincasethe
　　successorisinanymannerincompetent，doesitnotappoint
　　persons，frequentlyofficersofitsown，tocollecttheproperty
　　andapplyittohisbenefit？Therearemanyothercasesinwhich
　　thegovernmentundertakestheadministrationofproperty，because
　　thepublicinterest，orperhapsonlythatoftheparticular
　　personsconcerned，isthoughttorequireit。Thisisoftendone
　　incaseoflitigatedproperty;andincasesofjudicially
　　declaredinsolvency。Ithasneverbeencontendedthatindoing
　　thesethings，agovernmentexceedsitsprovince。
　　Noristhefunctionofthelawindefiningpropertyitself，
　　sosimpleathingasmaybesupposed。Itmaybeimagined，
　　perhaps，thatthelawhasonlytodeclareandprotecttheright
　　ofeveryonetowhathehashimselfproduced，oracquiredbythe
　　voluntaryconsent，fairlyobtained，ofthosewhoproducedit。But
　　istherenothingrecognizedaspropertyexceptwhathasbeen
　　produced？Istherenottheearthitself，itsforestsandwaters，
　　andallothernaturalriches，aboveandbelowthesurface？These
　　aretheinheritanceofthehumanrace，andtheremustbe
　　regulationsforthecommonenjoymentofit。Whatrights，and
　　underwhatconditions，apersonshallbeallowedtoexerciseover
　　anyportionofthiscommoninheritance，cannotbeleftundecided。
　　Nofunctionofgovernmentislessoptionalthantheregulationof
　　thesethings，ormorecompletelyinvolvedintheideaof
　　civilizedsociety。
　　Again，thelegitimacyisconcededofrepressingviolenceor
　　treachery;butunderwhichoftheseheadsarewetoplacethe
　　obligationimposedonpeopletoperformtheircontracts？
　　Nonperformancedoesnotnecessarilyimplyfraud;thepersonwho
　　enteredintothecontractmayhavesincerelyintendedtofulfil
　　it:andthetermfraud，whichcanscarcelyadmitofbeing
　　extendedeventothecaseofvoluntarybreachofcontractwhenno
　　deceptionwaspractised，iscertainlynotapplicablewhenthe
　　omissiontoperformisacaseofnegligence。Isitnopartofthe
　　dutyofgovernmentstoenforcecontracts？Herethedoctrineof
　　non—interferencewouldnodoubtbestretchedalittle，andit
　　wouldbesaid，thatenforcingcontractsisnotregulatingthe
　　affairsofindividualsatthepleasureofgovernment，butgiving
　　effecttotheirownexpresseddesire。Letusacquiesceinthis
　　enlargementoftherestrictivetheory，andtakeitforwhatitis
　　worth。Butgovernmentsdonotlimittheirconcernwithcontracts
　　toasimpleenforcement。Theytakeuponthemselvestodetermine
　　whatcontractsarefittobeenforced。Itisnotenoughthatone
　　person，notbeingeithercheatedorcompelled，makesapromiseto
　　another。Therearepromisesbywhichitisnotforthepublic
　　goodthatpersonsshouldhavethepowerofbindingthemselves。To
　　saynothingofengagementstodosomethingcontrarytolaw，there
　　areengagementswhichthelawrefusestoenforce，forreasons
　　connectedwiththeinterestofthepromiser，orwiththegeneral
　　policyofthestate。Acontractbywhichapersonsellshimself
　　toanotherasaslave，wouldbedeclaredvoidbythetribunalsof
　　thisandofmostotherEuropeancountries。Therearefewnations
　　whoselawsenforceacontractforwhatislookeduponas
　　prostitution，oranymatrimonialengagementofwhichthe
　　conditionsvaryinanyrespectfromthosewhichthelawhas
　　thoughtfittoprescribe。Butwhenonceitisadmittedthatthere
　　areanyengagementswhichforreasonsofexpediencythelawought
　　nottoenforce，thesamequestionisnecessarilyopenedwith
　　respecttoallengagements。Whether，forexample，thelawshould
　　enforceacontracttolabour，whenthewagesaretooloworthe
　　hoursofworktoosevere:whetheritshouldenforceacontractby
　　whichapersonbindshimselftoremain，formorethanavery
　　limitedperiod，intheserviceofagivenindividual:whethera
　　contractofmarriage，enteredintoforlife，shouldcontinueto
　　beenforcedagainstthedeliberatewillofthepersons，orof
　　eitherofthepersons，whoenteredintoit。Everyquestionwhich
　　canpossiblyariseastothepolicyofcontracts，andofthe
　　relationswhichtheyestablishamonghumanbeings，isaquestion
　　forthelegislator;andonewhichhecannotescapefrom
　　considering，andinsomewayorotherdeciding。
　　Again，thepreventionandsuppressionofforceandfraud
　　affordappropriateemploymentforsoldiers，policemen，and
　　criminaljudges;buttherearealsociviltribunals。The
　　punishmentofwrongisonebusinessofanadministrationof
　　justice，butthedecisionofdisputesisanother。innumerable
　　disputesarisebetweenpersons，withoutmalafidesoneither
　　side，throughmisconceptionoftheirlegalrights，orfromnot
　　beingagreedaboutthefacts，ontheproofofwhichthoserights
　　arelegallydependent。Isitnotforthegeneralinterestthat
　　theStateshouldappointpersonstoclearuptheseuncertainties
　　andterminatethesedisputes？Itcannotbesaidtobeacaseof
　　absolutenecessity。Peoplemightappointanarbitrator，and
　　engagetosubmittohisdecision;andtheydosowherethereare
　　nocourtsofjustice，orwherethecourtsarenottrusted，or
　　wheretheirdelaysandexpenses，ortheirrationalityoftheir
　　rulesofevidence，deterpeoplefromresortingtothem。Still，it
　　isuniversallythoughtrightthattheStateshouldestablish
　　civiltribunals;andiftheirdefectsoftendrivepeopletohave
　　recoursetosubstitutes，eventhenthepowerheldinreserveof
　　carryingthecasebeforealegallyconstitutedcourt，givesto
　　thesubstitutestheirprincipalefficacy。
　　NotonlydoestheStateundertaketodecidedisputes，it
　　takesprecautionsbeforehandthatdisputesmaynotarise。The
　　lawsofmostcountrieslaydownrulesfordeterminingmany
　　things，notbecauseitisofmuchconsequenceinwhatwaythey
　　aredetermined，butinorderthattheymaybedeterminedsomehow，
　　andtheremaybenoquestiononthesubject。Thelawprescribes
　　formsofwordsformanykindsofcontract，inorderthatno
　　disputeormisunderstandingmayariseabouttheirmeaning:it
　　makesprovisionthatifadisputedoesarise，evidenceshallbe
　　procurablefordecidingit，byrequiringthatthedocumentbe
　　attestedbywitnessesandexecutedwithcertainformalities。The
　　lawpreservesauthenticevidenceoffactstowhichlegal
　　consequencesareattached，bykeepingaregistryofsuchfacts;
　　asofbirths，deaths，andmarriages，ofwillsandcontracts，and
　　ofjudicialproceedings。Indoingthesethings，ithasneverbeen
　　allegedthatgovernmentoverstepstheproperlimitsofits
　　functions。