"Insomeplaces，"saysM。deLavergne，（25*）"inthe
　　neighbourhoodofParis，forexample，wheretheadvantagesofthe
　　grandeculturebecomeevident，thesizeoffarmstendsto
　　increase，severalfarmsarethrowntogetherintoone，andfarmers
　　enlargetheirholdingsbyrentingparcellesfromanumberof
　　differentproprietors。Elsewherefarmsaswellaspropertiesof
　　toogreatextent，tendtodivision。Cultivationspontaneously
　　findsouttheorganizationwhichsuitsitbest。"Itisastriking
　　fact，statedbythesameeminentwriter，（26*）thatthe
　　departmentswhichhavethegreatestnumberofsmallc魌es
　　fonci鑢es，aretheNord，theSomme，thePasdeCalais，theSeine
　　Inf閞ieure，theAisne，andtheOise;allofthemamongthe
　　richestandbestcultivated，andthefirst—mentionedofthemthe
　　veryrichestandbestcultivated，inFrance。
　　Unduesubdivision，andexcessivesmallnessofholdings，are
　　undoubtedlyaprevalentevilinsomecountriesofpeasant
　　proprietors，andparticularlyinpartsofGermanyandFrance。The
　　governmentsofBavariaandNassauhavethoughtitnecessaryto
　　imposealegallimittosubdivision，andthePrussianGovernment
　　unsuccessfullyproposedthesamemeasurestotheEstatesofits
　　RhenishProvinces。ButIdonotthinkitwillanywherebefound
　　thatthepetitecultureisthesystemofthepeasants，andthe
　　grandeculturethatofthegreatlandlords:onthecontrary，
　　whereverthesmallpropertiesaredividedamongtoomany
　　proprietors，Ibelieveittobetruethatthelargeproperties
　　alsoareparcelledoutamongtoomanyfarmers，andthatthecause
　　isthesameinbothcases，abackwardstateofcapital，skill，
　　andagriculturalenterprise。Thereisreasontobelievethatthe
　　subdivisioninFranceisnotmoreexcessivethanisaccountedfor
　　bythiscause;thatitisdiminishing，notincreasing;andthat
　　theterrorexpressedinsomequarters，attheprogressofthe
　　morcellement，isoneofthemostgroundlessofrealorpretended
　　panics。（27*）
　　Ifpeasantpropertieshaveanyeffectinpromoting
　　subdivisionbeyondthedegreewhichcorrespondstothe
　　agriculturalpracticesofthecountry，andwhichiscustomaryon
　　itslargeestates，thecausemustlieinoneofthesalutary
　　influencesofthesystem;theeminentdegreeinwhichitpromotes
　　providenceonthepartofthosewho，notbeingyetpeasant
　　proprietors，hopetobecomeso。InEngland，wherethe
　　agriculturallabourerhasnoinvestmentforhissavingsbutthe
　　savingsbank，andnopositiontowhichhecanrisebyany
　　exerciseofeconomy，exceptperhapsthatofapettyshopkeeper，
　　withitschancesofbankruptcy，thereisnothingatall
　　resemblingtheintensespiritofthriftwhichtakespossessionof
　　onewho，frombeingadaylabourer，canraisehimselfbysaving
　　totheconditionofalandedproprietor。Accordingtoalmostall
　　authorities，therealcauseofthemorcellementisthehigher
　　pricewhichcanbeobtainedforlandbysellingittothe
　　peasantry，asaninvestmentfortheirsmallaccumulations，than
　　bydisposingofitentiretosomerichpurchaserwhohasno
　　objectbuttoliveonitsincome，withoutimprovingit。Thehope
　　ofobtainingsuchaninvestmentisthemostpowerfulinducements，
　　tothosewhoarewithoutland，topractisetheindustry，
　　frugality，andself—restraint，onwhichtheirsuccessinthis
　　objectofambitionisdependent。
　　Astheresultofthisenquiryintothedirectoperationand
　　indirectinfluencesofpeasantproperties，Iconceiveittobe
　　established，thatthereisnonecessaryconnexionbetweenthis
　　formoflandedpropertyandanimperfectstateoftheartsof
　　production;thatitisfavourableinquiteasmanyrespectsasit
　　isunfavourable，tothemosteffectiveuseofthepowersofthe
　　soil;thatnootherexistingstateofagriculturaleconomyhasso
　　beneficialaneffectontheindustry，theintelligence，the
　　frugality，andprudenceofthepopulation，nortendsonthewhole
　　somuchtodiscourageanimprovidentincreaseoftheirnumbers;
　　andthatnoexistingstate，therefore，isonthewholeso
　　favourablebothtotheirmoralandtheirphysicalwelfare。
　　ComparedwiththeEnglishsystemofcultivationbyhiredlabour，
　　itmustberegardedaseminentlybeneficialtothelabouring
　　class。（28*）Wearenotonthepresentoccasioncalleduponto
　　compareitwiththejointownershipofthelandbyassociations
　　oflabourers。
　　NOTES:
　　1。"FastubermenschlicheFleiss"。DerCantonSchaffhausen（ut
　　supra），p。53。
　　2。Supra，Booki，ch。ix，sec。4。
　　3。ReadthegraphicdescriptionbythehistorianMichelet，ofthe
　　feelingsofapeasantproprietortowardshisland。
　　"Sinousvoulonsconnaitrelapenseeintime，lapassion，du
　　paysandeFrance，celaestfortaise。Promenons—nousledimanche
　　danslacampagne，suivons—le。Levoilaquis’envala—basdevant
　　nous。Ilestdeuxheures;safemmeestavepres;ilest
　　endimanche;jerepondsqu’ilvavoirsamaitresse。
　　"Quellemaitresse？saterre。
　　"Jenedispasqu’ilyailletoutdroit。Non，ilestlibrece
　　jour—la，ilestmaitred’yallerouden’ypasaller。N’yva—t—il
　　pasasseztouslesjoursdelasemaine？Aussi，ilsedetourne，il
　　vaailleurs，ilaaffaireailleurs。Etpourtant，ilyva。
　　"Ilestvraiqu’ilpassaitbienpres;c’etaitunoccasion。Il
　　laregarde，maisapparemmentiln’yenterapas;qu’yferait—il？
　　——Etpourtantilyentre。
　　"Dumoins，ilestprobablequ’iln’ytravaillerapas;ilest
　　endimanche;ilablouseetchemiseblanches。——Rienn’empeche
　　cependantd’oterquelquemauvaiseherbe，derejetercettepierre。
　　Ilyabienencorecettesouchequigene，maisiln’apassa
　　pioche，ceserapourdemain。
　　"Alors，ilcroisesesbrasets’arrete，regarde，serieux，
　　soucieux。Ilregardelongtemps，tres—longtemps，etsemble
　　s’oublier。Alafin，s’ilsecroitobserve，s’ilappercoitun
　　passant，ils’eloigneapaslents。Atrentepasencore，il
　　s’arrete，seretourne，etjettesursaterreundernierregard，
　　regardprofondetsombre;maispourquisaitbienvoir，ilest
　　toutpassionne，ceregard，toutdecoeur，pleindedevotion。"——
　　LePeuple，parJ。Michelet，1repartie，ch。1。
　　4。Essaisurl’EconomieRuraledel’Angleterre，del’Ecosse，et
　　del’Irlande，3meed。p。127。
　　5。EssayontheDistributionofWealth，p。146。
　　6。Ibid。p。68。
　　7。NotesofaTraveller，p。46。
　　8。NouveauxPrincipes，Bookiii。ch。3。
　　9。ResidenceinNorway，p。18。
　　10。Vol。i。pp。67—9。
　　11。Ibid。pp。75—9。
　　12。Ibid。p。90。
　　13。ThePrussianministerofstatistics，inawork（Der
　　VolkswohlstandimPreussischenStaate）whichIamobligedto
　　quoteatsecondhandfromMrKay，afterprovingbyfiguresthe
　　greatandprogressiveincreaseoftheconsumptionoffoodand
　　clothingperheadofthepopulation，fromwhichhejustlyinfers
　　acorrespondingincreaseoftheproductivenessofagriculture，
　　continues:"Thedivisionofestateshas，since1831，proceeded
　　moreandmorethroughoutthecountry。Therearenowmanymore
　　smallindependentproprietorsthanformerly。Yet，howevermany
　　complaintsofpauperismareheardamongthedependentlabourers，
　　weneverhearitcomplainedthatpauperismisincreasingamong
　　thepeasantproprietors。"——Kay，i。262—6。
　　14。InacommunicationtotheCommissionersofPoorLawEnquiry，
　　p。640oftheirForeignCommunication，AppendixFtotheirFirst
　　Report。
　　15。Ibid。268。
　　16。Thefollowingisthetable（seep。168oftheBelgian
　　translationofMrRau’slargework:
　　percent
　　UnitedStates1820—302。92
　　Hungary（accordingtoRohrer）2。40
　　England1811—211。78
　　England1821—311。60
　　Austria（Rohrer）1。30
　　Prussia1816—271。54
　　Prussia1820—301。37
　　Prussia1821—311。27
　　Netherlands1821—281。28
　　Scotland1821—311。30
　　Saxony1815—301。15
　　Baden1820—30（Heunisch）1。13
　　Bavaria1814—281。08
　　Naples1814—240。83
　　France1817—27（Mathieu）0。63
　　andmorerecentlyMoreaudeJonnes0。55
　　ButthenumbergivenbyMoreaudeJonnes，headds，isnot
　　entitledtoimplicitconfidence。
　　ThefollowingtablegivenbyM。Quetelet（Surl’Hommeetle
　　DeveloppmentdeseFacultes，vol。i，ch。7，alsoontheauthority
　　ofRau，containsadditionalmatter，anddiffersinsomeitems
　　fromthepreceding，probablyfromtheauthor’shavingtaken，in
　　thosecases，anaverageofdifferentyears:
　　percent
　　Ireland2。45
　　Hungary2。40
　　Spain1。66
　　England1。65
　　RhenishPrussia1。33
　　Austria1。30
　　Bavaria1。08
　　Netherlands0。94
　　Naples0。83
　　France0。63
　　Sweden0。58
　　Lombardy0。45
　　Averycarefullypreparedstatement，byM。Legoyt，inthe
　　JournalofEconomistesforMay1847，whichbringsuptheresults
　　forFrancetothecensusoftheprecedingyear1846，issummedup
　　inthefollowingtable:
　　AccordingtotheCensusAccordingtotheexcess
　　of
　　birthsoverdeaths
　　percentpercent
　　Sweden0。831。14
　　Norway1。361。30
　　Denmark——0。95
　　Russia——0。65
　　Austria0。850。90
　　Prussia1。841。18
　　Saxony1。450。90
　　Hanover——0。85
　　Bavaria——0。71
　　Wurtemburg0。011。00
　　Holland0。901。03
　　Belgium——0。76
　　Sardinia1。08——
　　GreatBritain
　　（exclusiveofIreland）
　　1。951。00
　　France0。680。50
　　UnitedStates
　　3。27——
　　17。JournaldesEconomistesforMarchandMay1847。
　　18。M。Legoytisofopinionthatthepopulationwasunderstated
　　in1841，andtheincreasebetweenthattimeand1846consequently
　　overstated，andthattherealincreaseduringthewholeperiod
　　wassomethingintermediatebetweenthelasttwoaverages，ornot
　　muchmorethanoneintwohundred。
　　19。JournaldesEconomistesforFebruary1847。IntheJournalfor
　　January1865，M。Legoytgivessomeofthenumbersslightly
　　altered，andIpresumecorrected。Theseriesofpercentagesis
　　1。28，0。31，0。69，0。60，0。41，0。68，0。22，and0。20。Thelast
　　censusinthetablethatof1861，showsaslightreaction，the
　　percentage，independentlyofthenewlyacquireddepartments，
　　being0。32。
　　20。ThefollowingarethenumbersgivenbyM。Legoyt:
　　From1824to1828annualnumberofbirths981，914，being1in
　　32。30ofthepopulation。
　　From1829to1833annualnumberofbirths965，444，being1in
　　34。00
　　From1834to1838annualnumberofbirths972，993，being1in
　　34。39
　　From1839to1843annualnumberofbirths970，617，being1in
　　35。27
　　From1844to1845annualnumbrrofbirths983，573，being1in
　　35。58
　　Inthelasttwoyearsthebirths，accordingtoM。Legoyt，
　　wereswelledbytheeffectsofconsiderableimmigration。"Cette
　　diminutiondesnaissances。"heobserves，"enpresenced’un
　　accroissementconstant，quoiquepeurapide，delapopulation
　　generaleetdesmariages，nepeutetreattribuequ’auxprogresde
　　l’espritd’ordreetdeprevisiondanslesfamiles。C’est
　　d’ailleurslaconsequenceprevuedenosinstitutionscivileset
　　sociales，qui，enamenantchaquejouruneplusgrandesubdivision
　　delafortuneterritorialeetmobilieredelaFrance，developpent
　　auseindespopulationslesinstinctsdeconservationetde
　　bien—etre。"
　　Infourdepartments，amongwhicharetwoofthemostthriving
　　inNormandy，thedeathseventhenexceededthebirths。Thecensus
　　of1856exhibitstheremarkablefactofapositivediminutionin
　　thepopulationof54outofthe86departments。Asignificant
　　commentonthepauper—warrentheory。SeeM。deLavergne’s
　　analysisofthereturns。
　　21。"Lesclassesdenotrepopulationquin’ontqueleursalaire，
　　cellesqui，parcetteraison，sontlesplusexposeesa
　　l’indigence，sontaujourd’huibeaucoupmieuxpourvuesdesobjets
　　necessairesalanourriture，aulogementetauvetement，qu’elles
　　nel’etaientaucommencementdusiecle……Onpeutappuyer[ce
　　fait]dutemoignagedetouteslespersonnesquiontsouvenirde
　　lapremieredesepoquescomparees……S’ilrestaitdesdoutesa
　　cetegard，onpourraitfacilementlesdissiperenconsultantles
　　ancienscultivateursetlesanciensouvriers，ainsiquenous
　　l’avonsfaitnous—memesdansdiverseslocalites，sansrencontrer
　　unseultemoignagecontradictoire;onpeutinvoqueraussiles
　　renseignemensrecueillisacesujetparunobservateurexact，M。
　　Villerme（Tableaydel’EtatPhysiqueetMoraldesOyvriers，liv。
　　ii。ch。i）"Fromanintelligentworkpublishedin1846，
　　RecherchessurlesCaysesdel’Indigence，parA。Clement，pp。
　　84—5。Thesamewriterspeaks（p。118）of"lahausseconsiderable
　　quis’estmanifestedepuis1789dansletauxdusalairedenos
　　cultivateursjournaliers;"andaddsthefollowingevidenceofa
　　higherstandardofhabitualrequirements，eveninthatportionof
　　thetownpopulation，thestateofwhichisusuallyrepresentedas
　　mostdeplorable。"Depuisquinzeavingtans，unchangement
　　considerables’estmanifestedansleshabitudesdesouvriersde
　　nosvillesmanufacturieres:ilsdepensentaujourd’huibeaucoup
　　plusqueparlepassepourlevetementetlaparure……Les
　　ouvriersdecertainesclasses，telsquelesancienscanutsde
　　Lyon，"（accordingtoallrepresentations，liketheir
　　counterpart，ourhandloomweavers，theveryworstpaidclassof
　　artizans，）"nesemontrentpluscommeautrefoiscouvertsdesales
　　haillons。"（page164。）
　　Theprecedingstatementsweregiveninformereditionsof
　　thiswork，beingthebesttowhichIhadatthetimeaccess;but
　　evidence，bothofamorerecent，andofamoreminuteandprecise
　　character，willnowbefoundintheimportantworkofM。Leonce
　　deLavergne，EconomieRuraledelaFrancedepuis1789。According
　　tothatpains—taking，well—informed，andmostimpartialenquirer，
　　theaveragedailywagesofaFrenchlabourerhaverisen，since
　　thecommencementoftheRevolution，intheratioof19to30，
　　while，owingtothemoreconstantemployment，thetotalearnings
　　haveincreasedinastillneaterratio，notshortofdouble。The
　　followingarethewordsofM。deLavergne（2nded。p。57）:
　　"ArthurYoungevalueadix—neufsolsleprixmoyendela
　　journeedutravail，quidoitetreaujourd’huid’unfranc
　　cinquantecentimes，etcetteaugmentationnerepresenteencore
　　qu’unepartiedugainrealise。Bienquelanationruralesoit
　　resteeapeupreslameme，l’excedantdepopulationsurvenu
　　depuis1789s’etantconcentredanslesvilles，lenombreeffectif
　　desjourneesdetravailagrossi，d’abordparcequelavie
　　moyennes’etantallongee，lenombredeshommesvalidess’est
　　eleve，etensuiteparcequeletravailestmieuxorganise，soit
　　parlasuppressiondeplusieursfeteschomees，soitparleseul
　　effetd’unedemandeplusactive。Entenantcomptede
　　l’accroissementdunombredesjournees，legainannuelde
　　l’ouvrierruraldoitavoirdouble……Cetteaugmentationdansle
　　salairesetraduitpourl’ouvrierenuneaugmentationaumoins
　　correspondantedebien—etre，puisqueleprixdesprincipaux
　　objetsnecessairesalavieapeuchange，etqueceluidesobjets
　　fabriques，destissus，parexemple，asensiblementbaisse。
　　L’habitationestegalementdevenuemeilleure，sinonpartout，du
　　moinsdanslaplupartdenosprovinces。"
　　M。deLavergne’sestimateoftheaverageamountofaday’s
　　wagesisgroundedonacarefulcomparison，inthisandallother
　　economicalpointsofview，ofallthedifferentprovincesof
　　France。
　　22。InhislittlebookontheAgricultureofthePalatinate，
　　alreadycited。Hesaysthatthedailywagesoflabour，which
　　duringthelastyearsofthewarwereunusuallyhigh，andso
　　continueduntil1817，afterwardssanktoalowermoney—rate，but
　　thatthepricesofmanycommoditieshavingfalleninastill
　　greaterproportion，theconditionofthepeoplewasunequivocally
　　improved。Thefoodgiventofarmlabourersbytheiremployershas
　　alsoneatlyimprovedinquantityandquality。"SieheutigenTages
　　bedeutendbesserist，alsvorungefahr40Jahren，wodasGesinde
　　wenigerFleischundMehlspeisen，keinenKasezumBroteu。dgl。
　　erhielt。"（p。20）"Suchanincreaseofwages"（addsthe
　　Professor）"whichmustbeestimatednotinmoney，butinthe
　　quantityofnecessariesandconvenienceswhichthelaboureris
　　enabledtoprocure，is，byuniversaladmission，aproofthatthe
　　massofcapitalmusthaveincreased。"Itprovesnotonlythis，
　　butalsothatthelabouringpopulationhasnotincreasedinan
　　equaldegree;andthatinthisinstanceaswellasinthatof
　　France，thedivisionoftheland，evenwhenexcessive，hasbeen
　　compatiblewithastrengtheningoftheprudentialchecksto
　　population。
　　23。Hecitesasanauthority，Schwerz，Landwirthschaftliche
　　Mittheilungen，i。185。
　　24。Oneofthemanyimportantpaperswhichhaveappearedinthe
　　JournalofEconomistes，theorganoftheprincipalpolitical
　　economistsofFrance，anddoinggreatandincreasinghonourto
　　theirknowledgeandability。M。Passy’sessayhasbeenreprinted
　　separatelyasapamphlet。
　　25。EconomieRuraledelaFrance，p。455。
　　26。See，forfactsofasimilartendency，pp。141，250，andother
　　passagesofthesameimportanttreatise:which，ontheother
　　hand，equallyaboundswithevidenceofthemischievouseffectof
　　subdivisionwhentoominute，orwhenthenatureofthesoiland
　　ofitsproductsisnotsuitabletoit。
　　27。Mr。Laing，inhislatestpublication，"Observationsonthe
　　SocialandPoliticalStateoftheEuropeanPeoplein1848and
　　1849"，abookdevotedtotheglorificationofEngland，andthe
　　disparagementofeverythingelsewherewhichothers，orevenhe
　　himselfinformerworks，hadthoughtworthyofpraise，argues
　　that"althoughthelanditselfisnotdividedandsubdivided"on
　　thedeathoftheproprietor，"thevalueofthelandis，andwith
　　effectsalmostasprejudicialtosocialprogress。Thevalueof
　　eachsharebecomesadebtorburdenupontheland。"Consequently
　　theconditionoftheagriculturalpopulationisretrograde;"each
　　generationisworseoffthantheprecedingone，althoughtheland
　　isneitherlessnormoredivided，norworsecultivated。"Andthis
　　hegivesastheexplanationofthegreatindebtednessofthe
　　smalllandedproprietorsinFrance（pp。97—9）。Ifthese
　　statementswerecorrect，theywouldinvalidateallwhichMr。
　　Laingaffirmedsopositivelyinotherwritings，andrepeatsin
　　this，respectingthepeculiarefficacyofthepossessionofland
　　inpreventingover—population。Butheisentirelymistakenasto
　　thematteroffact。Intheonlycountryofwhichhespeaksfrom
　　actualresidence，Norway，hedoesnotpretendthatthecondition
　　ofthepeasantproprietorsisdeteriorating。Thefactsalready
　　citedprovethatinrespecttoBelgium，Germany，andSwitzerland，
　　theassertionisequallywideofthemark;andwhathasbeen
　　shownrespectingtheslowincreaseofpopulationinFrance，
　　demonstratesthatiftheconditionoftheFrenchpeasantrywas
　　deteriorating，itcouldnotbefromthecausesupposedbyMr。
　　Laing。ThetruthIbelievetobethatineverycountrywithout
　　exception，inwhichpeasantpropertiesprevail，theconditionof
　　thepeopleisimproving，theproduceofthelandandevenits
　　fertilityincreasing，andfromthelargersurpluswhichremains
　　afterfeedingtheagriculturalclasses，thetownsareaugmenting
　　bothinpopulationandinthewell—beingoftheirinhabitants。On
　　thisquestion，aswellasonthatofthemorcellement，sofaras
　　regardsFrance，additionalfactsandobservations，broughtupto
　　alaterdate，will[52，57observationswill]befoundinthe
　　Appendix。
　　28。Frenchhistorystrikinglyconfirmstheseconclusions。Three
　　timesduringthecourseofagesthepeasantryhavebeen
　　purchasersofland;andthesetimesimmediatelyprecededthe
　　threeprincipalerasofFrenchagriculturalprosperity。
　　"Auxtempslesplusmauvais，"saysthehistorianMichelet，
　　（LePeyple，lrepartie，ch。1）"auxmomentsdepauvrete
　　universelle，oulerichememeestpauvreetvendparforce，alors
　　lepauvresetrouveenetatd’acheter;nulacquereurnese
　　presentant，lepaysanenguenillesarriveavecsapieced’or，et
　　ilacquiertunboutdeterre。Cesmomentsdedesastreoule
　　paysanapuacquerirlaterreabonmarche，onttoujoursete
　　suivisd’unelansubitdefeconditequ’onnes’expliquaitpas。
　　Vers1500，parexample，quandlaFranceepuiseeparLouisXI
　　sembleacheversaruineenItalie，lanoblessequipartest
　　obligeedevendre;laterre，passantadenouvellesmains，
　　refleurittout—a—coup;ontravaille，onbatit。Cebeaumoment
　　（danslestyledel’histoiremonarchique）s’estappelelebon
　　LouisXII。
　　"Ildurepeu，malheureusement。Laterreestapeineremiseen
　　bonetat，lefiscfonddessus;lesguerresdereligionarrivent，
　　quisemblentrasertoutjusqu’ausol，misereshorribles，famines
　　atrocesoulesmeresmangeaientleursenfants。Quicroiraitque
　　lepaysserelevedela？Ehbien，laguerrefinitapeine，dece
　　champravage，decettechaumiereencorenoireetbrulee，sort
　　l’Epargnedupaysan。Ilachete;endixans，laFranceachangede
　　face;envingtoutrente，touslesbiensontdouble，triplede
　　valeur。Cemomentencorebaptised’unnomroyal，s’appellelebon
　　HenriIVetlegrandRichelieu。"
　　Ofthethirderaitisneedlessagaintospeak:itwasthat
　　oftheRevolution。
　　Whoeverwouldstudythereverseofthepicture，maycompare
　　thesehistoricperiods，characterizedbythedismembermentof
　　largeandtheconstructionofsmallproperties，withthe
　　wide—spreadnationalsufferingwhichaccompanied，andthe
　　permanentdeteriorationoftheconditionofthelabouringclasses
　　whichfollowed，the"clearing"awayofsmallyeomentomakeroom
　　forlargegrazingfarms，whichwasthegrandeconomicaleventof
　　Englishhistoryduringthesixteenthcentury。
　　ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
　　byJohnStuartMill
　　Book2，Chapter8
　　OfMetayers
　　1。Fromthecaseinwhichtheproduceoflandandlabour
　　belongsundividedlytothelabourer，weproceedtothecasesin
　　whichitisdivided，butbetweentwoclassesonly，thelabourers
　　andthelandowners:thecharacterofcapitalistsmerginginthe
　　oneortheother，asthecasemaybe。Itispossibleindeedto
　　conceivethattheremightbeonlytwoclassesofpersonstoshare
　　theproduce，andthataclassofcapitalistsmightbeoneof
　　them;thecharacteroflabourerandthatoflandownerbeing
　　unitedtoformtheother。Thismightoccurintwoways。The
　　labourers，thoughowningtheland，mightletittoatenant，and
　　workunderhimashiredservants。Butthisarrangement，evenin
　　theveryrarecaseswhichcouldgiverisetoit，wouldnot
　　requireanyparticulardiscussion，sinceitwouldnotdifferin
　　anymaterialrespectfromthethreefoldsystemoflabourers，
　　capitalists，andlandlords。Theothercaseisthenotuncommon
　　one，inwhichapeasantproprietorownsandcultivatestheland，
　　butrisesthelittlecapitalrequired，byamortgageuponit。
　　Neitherdoesthiscasepresentanyimportantpeculiarity。There
　　isbutoneperson，thepeasanthimself，whohasanyrightor
　　powerofinterferenceinthemanagement。Hepaysafixedannuity
　　asinteresttoacapitalist，ashepaysanotherfixedsumin
　　taxestothegovernment。Withoutdwellingfurtheronthesecases，
　　wepasstothosewhichpresentmarkedfeaturesofpeculiarity。
　　Whenthetwopartiessharingintheproducearethelabourer
　　orlabourersandthelandowner，itisnotaverymaterial
　　circumstanceinthecase，whichofthetwofurnishesthestock，
　　orwhether，assometimeshappens，theyfurnishit，ina
　　determinateproportion，betweenthem。Theessentialdifference
　　doesnotlieinthis，butinanothercircumstance，namely，
　　whetherthedivisionoftheproducebetweenthetwoisregulated
　　bycustomorbycompetition。Wewillbeginwiththeformercase;
　　ofwhichthemetayercultureistheprincipal，andinEurope
　　almostthesole，example。
　　Theprincipleofthemetayersystem，isthatthelabourer，or
　　peasant，makeshisengagementdirectlywiththelandowner，and
　　pays，notafixedrent，eitherinmoneyorinkind，butacertain
　　proportionoftheproduce，orratherofwhatremainsofthe
　　produceafterdeductingwhatisconsiderednecessarytokeepup
　　thestock。Theproportionisusually，asthenameimports，
　　one—half;butinseveraldistrictsinItalyitistwo—thirds。
　　Respectingthesupplyofstock，thecustomvariesfromplaceto
　　place;insomeplacesthelandlordfurnishesthewhole，inothers
　　half，inotherssomeparticularpart，asforinstancethecattle
　　andseed，thelabourerprovidingtheimplements。（1*）"This
　　connexion，"saysSismondi，speakingchieflyofTuscany，（2*）"is
　　oftenthesubjectofacontract，todefinecertainservicesand
　　certainoccasionalpaymentstowhichthemetayerbindshimself;
　　neverthelessthedifferencesintheobligationsofonesuch
　　contractandanotherareinconsiderable;usagegovernsalikeall
　　theseengagements，andsuppliesthestipulationswhichhavenot
　　beenexpressed;andthelandlordwhoattemptedtodepartfrom
　　usage，whoexactedmorethanhisneighbour，whotookforthe
　　basisoftheagreementanythingbuttheequaldivisionofthe
　　crops，wouldrenderhimselfsoodious，hewouldbesosureofnot
　　obtainingametayerwhowasanhonestman，thatthecontractof
　　allthemetayersmaybeconsideredasidentical，atleastineach
　　province，andnevergivesrisetoanycompetitionamongpeasants
　　insearchofemployment，oranyoffertocultivatethesoilon
　　cheapertermsthanoneanother。"Tothesameeffect
　　Ch鈚eauvieux，（3*）speakingofthemetayersofPiedmont。"They
　　considerit，"（thefarm）"asapatrimony，andneverthinkof
　　renewingthelease，butgoonfromgenerationtogeneration，on
　　thesameterms，withoutwritingsorregistries。"（4*）
　　2。Whenthepartitionoftheproduceisamatteroffixed
　　usage，notofvaryingconvention，politicaleconomyhasnolaws
　　ofdistributiontoinvestigate。Ithasonlytoconsider，asin
　　thecaseofpeasantproprietors，theeffectsofthesystemfirst
　　ontheconditionofthepeasantry，morallyandphysically，and
　　secondly，ontheefficiencyofthelabour。Inboththese
　　particularsthemetayersystemhasthecharacteristicadvantages
　　ofpeasantproperties，buthastheminalessdegree。Themetayer
　　haslessmotivetoexertionthanthepeasantproprietor，since
　　onlyhalfthefruitsofhisindustry，insteadofthewhole，are
　　hisown。Buthehasamuchstrongermotivethanadaylabourer，
　　whohasnootherinterestintheresultthannottobedismissed。
　　Ifthemetayercannotbeturnedoutexceptforsomeviolationof
　　hiscontract，hehasastrongermotivetoexertionthanany
　　tenant—farmerwhohasnotalease。Themetayerisatleasthis
　　landlord’spartner，andahalf—sharerintheirjointgains。
　　Where，too，thepermanenceofhistenureisguaranteedbycustom，
　　heacquireslocalattachments，andmuchofthefeelingsofa
　　proprietor。Iamsupposingthatthishalfproduceissufficient
　　toyieldhimacomfortablesupport。Whetheritisso，depends（in
　　anygivenstateofaciculture）onthedeCeeofsubdivisionofthe
　　land;whichdependsontheoperationofthepopulationprinciple。
　　Amultiplicationofpeople，beyondthenumberthatcanbe
　　properlysupportedonthelandortakenoffbymanufactures，is
　　incidenteventoapeasantproprietary，andofcoursenotless
　　butrathermoreincidenttoametayerpopulation。Thetendency，
　　however，whichwenoticedintheproprietarysystem，topromote
　　prudenceonthispoint，isinnosmalldegreecommontoitwith
　　themetayersystem。There，also，itisamatterofeasyandexact
　　calculationwhetherafamilycanhesupportedornot。Ifitis
　　easytoseewhethertheownerofthewholeproducecanincrease
　　theproductionsoastomaintainagreaternumberofpersons
　　equallywell，itisanotlesssimpleproblemwhethertheowner
　　ofhalftheproducecandoso。（5*）Thereisonecheckwhichthis
　　systemseemstooffer，overandabovethoseheldoutevenbythe
　　proprietarysystem;thereisalandlord，whomayexerta
　　controllingpower，byrefusinghisconsenttoasubdivision。Ido
　　not，however，attachgreatimportancetothischeck，becausethe
　　farmmaybeloadedwithsuperfluoushandswithoutbeing
　　subdivided;andbecause，solongastheincreaseofhands
　　increasesthegrossproduce，whichisalmostalwaysthecase，the
　　landlord，whoreceiveshalftheproduce，isanimmediategainer，
　　theinconveniencefallingonlyonthelabourers。Thelandlordis
　　nodoubtliableintheendtosufferfromtheirpoverty，bybeing
　　forcedtomakeadvancestothem，especiallyinbadseasons;anda
　　foresightofthisultimateinconveniencemayoperatebeneficially
　　onsuchlandlordsaspreferfuturesecuritytopresentprofit。
　　Thecharacteristicdisadvantageofthemetayersystemisvery
　　fairlystatedbyAdamSmith。Afterpointingoutthatmetayers
　　"haveaplaininterestthatthewholeproduceshouldbeasgreat
　　aspossible，inorderthattheirownproportionmaybeso，"he
　　continues，（6*）"itcouldnever，however，betheinterestofthis
　　speciesofcultivatorstolayout，inthefurtherimprovementof
　　theland，anypartofthelittlestockwhichtheymightsavefrom
　　theirownshareoftheproduce，becausethelordwholaidout
　　nothing，wastogetone—halfofwhateveritproduced。Thetithe，
　　whichisbutatenthoftheproduce，isfoundtobeaverygreat
　　hindrancetoimprovement。Atax，therefore，whichamountedto
　　one—half，musthavebeenaneffectualbartoit。Itmightbethe
　　interestofametayertomakethelandproduceasmuchascould
　　bebroughtoutofitbymeansofthestock，butitcouldneverbe
　　hisinteresttomixanyfurnishedbytheproprietor;partofhis
　　ownwithit。InFrance，wherefivepartsoutofsixofthewhole
　　kingdomaresaidtobestilloccupiedbythisspeciesof
　　cultivators，theproprietorscomplainthattheirmetayerstake
　　everyopportunityofemployingthemaster’scattleratherin
　　carriagethanincultivation;becauseintheonecasetheyget
　　thewholeprofitstothemselves，intheothertheysharethem
　　withtheirlandlord。"
　　Itisindeedimpliedintheverynatureofthetenure，that
　　allimprovementswhichrequireexpenditureofcapitalmustbe
　　madewiththecapitalofthelandlord。This，however，is
　　essentiallythecaseeveninEngland，wheneverthefarmersare
　　tenants—at—will:or（ifArthurYoungisright）evenona"nine
　　years’lease。"Ifthelandlordiswillingtoprovidecapitalfor
　　improvements，themetayerhasthestrongestinterestinpromoting
　　them，sincehalfthebenefitofthemwillaccruetohimself。As
　　howevertheperpetuityoftenurewhich，inthecaseweare
　　discussing，heenjoysbycustom，rendershisconsentanecessary
　　condition;thespiritofroutine，anddislikeofinnovation，
　　characteristicofanagriculturalpeoplewhennotcorrectedby
　　education，arenodoubt，astheadvocatesofthesystemseemto
　　admit，aserioushindrancetoimprovement。
　　3。ThemetayersystemhasmetwithnomercyfromEnglish
　　authorities。"Thereisnotonewordtobesaidinfavourofthe
　　practice，"saysArthurYoung，（7*）anda"thousandargumentsthat
　　mightbeusedagainstit。Thehardpleaofnecessitycanalonebe
　　urgedinitsfavour;thepovertyofthefarmersbeingsoceat，
　　thatthelandlordmuststockthefarm，oritcouldnotbestocked
　　atall:thisisamostcruelburdentoaproprietor，whoisthus
　　obligedtorunmuchofthehazardoffarminginthemost
　　dangerousofallmethods，thatoftrustinghisproperty
　　absolutelyinthehandsofpeoplewhoaregenerallyignorant，
　　manycareless，andsomeundoubtedlywicked……Inthismost
　　miserableofallthemodesoflettingland，thedefrauded
　　landlordredeivesacontemptiblerent;thefarmerisinthe
　　loweststateofpoverty;thelandismiserablycultivated;and
　　thenationsuffersasseverelyasthepartiesthemselves……
　　Wherever（8*）thissystemprevails，itmaybetakenforgranted
　　thatauselessandmiserablepopulationisfound……Whereverthe
　　country（thatIsaw）ispoorandunwatered，intheMilanese，it
　　isinthehandsofmetayers:"theyarealmostalwaysindebtto
　　theirlandlordforseedorfood，and"theirconditionismore
　　wretchedthanthatofadaylabourer……There（9*）arebutfew
　　districts"（inItaly）"wherelandsarelettotheoccupying
　　tenantatamoney—rent;butwhereveritisfound，theircropsare
　　greater;aclearproofoftheimbecilityofthemetayingsystem。"
　　"Whereverit"（themetayersystem）"hasbeenadopted，"saysMr。
　　M’Culloch，（10*）"ithasputastoptoallimprovement，andhas
　　reducedthecultivatorstothemostabjectpoverty"Mr。
　　Jones（11*）sharesthecommonopinion，andquotesTurgotand
　　Destutt—Tracyinsupportofit。Theimpression，however，ofall
　　thesewriters（notwithstandingArthurYoung’soccasional
　　referencestoItaly）seemstobechieflyderivedfromFrance，and
　　FrancebeforetheRevolution。（12*）NowthesituationofFrench
　　metayersundertheoldr間imebynomeansrepresentsthetypical
　　formofthecontract。Itisessentialtothatform，thatthe
　　proprietorpaysallthetaxes。ButinFrancetheexemptionofthe
　　noblessefromdirecttaxationhadledtheGovernmenttothrowthe
　　wholehurthenoftheirever—increasingfiscalexactionsuponthe
　　occupiers:anditistotheseexactionsthatTurgotascribedthe
　　extremewretchednessofthemetayers:awretchednessinsome
　　casessoexcessive，thatinLimousinandAngounmois（the
　　provinceswhichheadministered）theyhadseldommore，according
　　tohim，afterdeductingallburthens，thanfromtwenty—fiveto
　　thirtylivres（20to24shillings）perheadfortheirwhole
　　annualconsumption:"jenedispasenargent，maisencomptant
　　toutcequ’ilsconsommentennaturesurcequ’ilsont
　　r閏olt？"（13*）Whenweaddthattheyhadnotthevirtualfixity
　　oftenureofthemetayersofItaly，（"inLimousin，"saysArthur
　　Young，（14*）"themetayersareconsideredaslittlebetterthan
　　menialservants，removableatpleasure，andobligedtoconformin
　　allthingstothewillofthelandlords，"）itisevidentthat
　　theircaseaffordsnoargumentagainstthemetayersysteminits
　　betterform。Apopulationwhocouldcallnothingtheirown，who，
　　liketheIrishcottiers，couldnotinanycontingencybeworse
　　off，hadnothingtorestrainthemfrommultiplying，and
　　subdividingtheland，untilstoppedbyactualstarvation。
　　Weshallfindaverydifferentpicture，bythemostaccurate
　　authorities，ofthemetayercultivationofItaly。Inthefirst
　　place，astosubdivision。InLombardy，accordingto
　　Ch鈚eauvieux，（15*）therearefewfarmswhichexceedfiftyacres，
　　andfewwhichhavelessthanten。Thesefarmsarealloccupiedby
　　metayersathalfprofit。Theyinvariablydisplay"anextent（16*）
　　andarichnessinbuildingsrarelyknowninanyothercountryin
　　Europe。"Theirplan"affordsthegreatestroomwiththeleast
　　extentofbuilding;isbestadaptedtoarrangeandsecurethe
　　crop;andis，atthesametime，themosteconomical，andthe
　　leastexposedtoaccidentshyfire。"Thecourt—yard"exhibitsa
　　wholesoregularandcommodious，andasystemofsuchcareand
　　goodorder，andthatourdirtyandill—arrangedfarmscanconvey
　　noadequateideaof。"ThesamedescriptionappliestoPiedmont。
　　Therotationofcropsisexcellent。"Ishouldthink（17*）no
　　countrycanbringsolargeaportionofitsproducetomarketas
　　Piedmont。"Thoughthesoilisnotnaturallyveryfertile，"the
　　numberofcitiesisprodigiouslygreat。"Theagriculturemust，
　　therefore，beeminentlyfavourabletothenetaswellastothe
　　grossproduceoftlheland。"Eachploughworksthirty—twoacres
　　intheseason……Nothngcanbemoreperfectorneaterthanthe
　　hoeingandmouldingupthemaize，wheninfullgrowth，bya
　　singleplough，withapairofoxen，withoutinjurytoasingle
　　plant，whilealltheweedsareeffectuallydestroyed。"Somuch
　　foragriculturalskill。"Nothingcanbesoexcellentasthecrop
　　whichprecedesandthatwhichfollowsit。"Thewheat"isthrashed
　　byacylinder，drawnhyahorse，andguidedbyaboy，whilethe
　　labourersturnoverthestrawwithforks。Thisprocesslasts
　　nearlyafortnight;itisquickandeconomical，andcompletely
　　getsoutthegrain……Innopartoftheworldaretheeconomy
　　andthemanagementofthelandbetterunderstoodthanin
　　Piedmont，andthisexplainsthephenomenonofitsgreat
　　population，andimmenseexportofprovisions。"Allthisunder
　　metayercultivation。
　　OfthevalleyoftheArno，initswholeextent，bothabove
　　andbelowFlorence，thesamewriterthusspeaks:（18*）——"Forests
　　ofolive—treescoveredthelowerpartsofthemountains，andby
　　theirfoliageconcealedaninfinitenumberofsmallfarms，which
　　peopledthesepartsofthemountains;chestnut—treesraisedtheir
　　headsonthehigherslopes，theirhealthyverdurecontrasting
　　withthepaletintoftheolive—trees，andspreadingabrightness
　　overthisamphitheatre。Theroadwasborderedoneachsidewith
　　villagehouses，notmorethanahundredpacesfromeachother……
　　Theyareplacedatalittledistancefromtheroad，andseparated
　　fromitbyawall，andaterraceofsomefeetinextent。Onthe
　　wallarecommonlyplacedmanyvasesofantiqueforms，inwhich
　　flowers，aloes，andyoungorange—treesaregrowing。Thehouse
　　itselfiscompletelycoveredwithvines……Beforethesehouses
　　wesawgroupsofpeasantfemalesdressedinwhitelinen，silk
　　corsets，andstraw—hats，ornamentedwithflowers……These
　　housesbeingsoneareachother，itisevidentthattheland
　　annexedtothemmustbesmall，andthatproperty，inthese
　　valleys，mustbeverymuchdivided;theextentofthesedomains
　　beingfromthreetotenacres。Thelandliesroundthehouses，
　　andisdividedintofieldsbysmallcanals，orrowsoftrees，
　　someofwhicharemulberry—trees，butthegreatestnumber
　　poplars，theleavesofwhichareeatenbythecattle。Eachtree
　　supportsavine……Thesedivisions，arrayedinoblongsquares，
　　arelargeenoughtobecultivatedbyaploughwithoutwheels，and
　　apairofoxen。Thereisapairofoxenbetweentenortwelveof
　　thefarmers;theyemploythemsuccessivelyinthecultivationof
　　allthefarms……Almosteveryfarmmaintainsawell—looking
　　horse，whichgoesinasmalltwo—wheeledcart，neatlymade，and
　　paintedred;theyserveforallthepurposesofdraughtforthe
　　farm，andalsotoconveythefarmer’sdaughterstomassandto
　　balls。Thus，onholidays，hundredsoftheselittlecartsareseen
　　flyinginalldirections，Carryingtheyoungwomen，decorated
　　withflowersandribbons。"
　　Thisisnotapictureofpoverty;andsofarasagriculture
　　isconcerned，iteffectuallyredeemsmetayercultivation，as
　　existinginthesecountries，fromthereproachesofEnglish
　　writers;butwithrespecttotheconditionofthecultivators，
　　Ch鈚eauvieux’stestimonyis，insomepoints，notsofavourable。
　　"Itis（19*）neitherthenaturalfertilityofthesoil，northe
　　abundancewhichstrikestheeyeofthetraveller，which
　　constitutethewell—beingofitsinhabitants。Itisthenumberof
　　individualsamongwhomthetotalproduceisdivided，whichfixes
　　theportionthateachisenabledtoenjoy。Hereitisverysmall。
　　Ihavethusfar，indeed，exhibitedadelightfulcountry，well
　　watered，fertile，andcoveredwithaperpetualvegetation;Ihave
　　shownitdividedintocountlessenclosures，which，likesomany
　　bedsinagarden，displayathousandvaryingproductions;Ihave
　　shown，thattoalltheseenclosuresareattachedwell—built
　　houses，clothedwithvines，anddecoratedwithflowers;but，on
　　enteringthem，wefindatotalwantofalltheconveniencesof
　　life，atablemorethanfrugal，andageneralappearanceof
　　privation。"IsnotCh鈚eauvieuxhereunconsciouslycontrasting
　　theconditionofthemetayerswiththatofthefarmersofother
　　countries，whentheproperstandardwithwhichtocompareitis
　　thatoftheaciculturalday—labourers？
　　ArthurYoungsays，（20*）"Iwasassuredthatthesemetayers
　　are（especiallynearflorence）muchattheirease;thaton
　　holidaystheyaredressedremarkablywell，andnotwithout
　　objectsofluxury，assilver，gold，andsilk;andlivewell，on
　　plentyofbread，wine，andlegumes。Insomeinstancesthismay
　　possiblybethecase，butthegeneralfactiscontrary。Itis
　　absurdtothinkthatmetayers，uponsuchafarmasiscultivated
　　byapairofoxen，canliveattheirease;andaclearproofof
　　theirpovertyisthis，thatthelandlord，whoprovideshalfthe
　　livestock，isoftenobligedtolendthepeasantmoneytoprocure
　　hishalf……Themetayers，notinthevicinityofthecity，are
　　sopoor，thatlandlordsevenlendthemcorntoeat:theirfoodis
　　blackbread，madeofamixturewithvetches;andtheirdrinkis
　　verylittlewine，mixedwithwater，andcalledaquarolle;meaton
　　Sundaysonly;theirdressveryordinary。"Mr。Jonesadmitsthe
　　superiorcomfortofthemetayersnearFlorence，andattributesit
　　partlytostraw—platting，bywhichthewomenofthepeasantrycan
　　earn，accordingtoCh鈚eauvieux，（21*）fromfifteentotwenty
　　penceaday。Buteventhisfacttellsinfavourofthemetayer
　　system:forinthosepartsofEnglandinwhicheither
　　straw—plattingorlace—makingiscarriedonbythewomenand
　　childrenofthelabouringclass，asinBedfordshireand
　　Buckinghamshire，theconditionoftheclassisnotbetter，but
　　ratherworsethanelsewhere，thewagesofagriculturallabour
　　beingdepressedbyafullequivalent。
　　InspiteofCh鈚eauvieux’sstatementrespectingthepoverty
　　ofthemetayers，hisopinion，inrespecttoItalyatleast，is
　　giveninfavourofthesystem。"Itoccupies（22*）andconstantly
　　intereststheproprietors，whichisneverthecasewithgreat
　　proprietorswholeasetheirestatesatfixedrents。It
　　establishesacommunityofinterests，andrelationsofkindness
　　betweentheproprietorsandthemetayers;akindnesswhichIhave
　　oftenwitnessed，andfromwhichresultgreatadvantagesinthe
　　moralconditionofsociety。Theproprietor，underthissystem，
　　alwaysinterestedinthesuccessofthecropneverrefusesto
　　makeanadvanceuponit，whichthelandpromisestorepaywith
　　interest。Itisbytheseadvancesandbythehopethusinspired，
　　thattherichproprietorsoflandhavecaduallyperfectedthe
　　wholeruraleconomyofItaly。Itistothemthatitowesthe
　　numeroussystemsofirrigationwhichwateritssoil，asalsothe
　　establishmentoftheterracecultureonthehills:gradualbut
　　permanentimprovements，whichcommonpeasants，forwantofmeans，
　　couldneverhaveaffected，andwhichcouldneverhavebeen
　　accomplishedbythefarmers，norbytheceatproprietorswholet
　　theirestatesatfixedrents，becausetheyarenotsufficiently
　　interested。Thustheinterestedsystemformsofitselfthat
　　alliancebetweentherichproprietor，whosemeansprovideforthe
　　improvementoftheculture，andthemetayerwhosecareandlabour
　　aredirected，byacommoninterest，tomakethemostofthese
　　advances。"
　　Butthetestimonymostfavourabletothesystemisthatof
　　Sismondi，whichhastheadvantageofbeingspecific，andfrom
　　accurateknowledge;hisinformationbeingnotthatofa
　　traveller，butofaresidentproprietor，intimatelyacquainted
　　withrurallife。HisstatementsapplytoTuscanygenerally，and
　　moreparticularlytotheValdiNievole，inwhichhisown
　　propertylay，andwhichisnotwithinthesupposedprivileged
　　circleimmediatelyroundFlorence。Itisoneofthedistrictsin
　　whichthesizeoffarmsappearstobethesmallest。Thefollowing
　　ishisdescriptionofthedwellingsandmodeoflifeofthe
　　metayersofthatdistrict。（23*）
　　"Cettemaison，b鈚ieenbonnesmurailles？chauxet？ciment，
　　atoujoursaumoinsun閠age，quelquefoisdeux，au—dessusdu
　　rez—de—chauss閑。Leplussouventontrouve？cerez—de—chauss閑
　　lacuisine，une閠ablepourdeuxb阾es？corne，etlemagasin，
　　quiprendsonnom，tinaia，desgrandescuves（tini）o？l’onfait
　　fermenterlevin，sanslesoumettreaupressoir:c’estl？encore
　　quelem閠ayerenfermesouscl？sestonneaux，sonhuile，etson
　　bl？Presquetoujoursilposs鑔eencoreunhangarappuy？contre
　　lamaison，pourqu’ilpuisseytravailler？couvert？raccommoder
　　sesoutils，ou？hacherlefourragepoursonb閠ail。Aupremier
　　etausecond閠agesontdeux，trois，etsouventquatrechambres？
　　lit……Laplusspacieuseetlamieuxa閞閑deceschambresest
　　eng閚閞aldestin閑parlem閠ayer，pendantlesmoisdeMaietde
　　Juin，？l’閐ucationdesvers？soie:degrandscoffrespour
　　enfermerleshabitsetlelinge，etquelqueschaisesdebois，
　　sontlesprincipauxmeublesdeceschambres;maisunenouvelle
　　閜ouseyapportetoujourssacommodedeboisdenoyer。Leslits
　　sontsansrideaux，sanstourdelit;maissurchacun，outreun
　　bongarde—pailleremplidelapaille閘astiquedubl？deTurquie，
　　Onvoitunoudeuxmatelasenlaine，ou，chezlespluspauvres，
　　en閠oupe，unebonnecouverturepiqu閑，desdrapsdefortetoile
　　dechanvre，etsurlemeilleurlitdelafamille，untapisde
　　bourredesoiequ’on閠alelesjoursdef阾e。Iln’yade
　　chemin閑qu’？lacuisine;danslam阭epi鑓eontrouvetoujours
　　lagrandetabledeboiso？d頽elafamille，avecsesbancs;le
　　grandcoffre，quisertenm阭etempsd’armoirepourconserverle
　　painetlesprovisions，etdep閠rin;unassortimentassez
　　completetfortpeuco鹴euxdepots，deplatsetd’assiettesen
　　terrecuite;uneoudeuxlampesdelaiton，unpoids？laromaine，
　　etaumoinsdeuxcruchesencuivrerougepourpuiseretpour
　　conserverl’eau。Toutlelingeettousleshabitsdetravailde
　　lafamilleont閠？fil閟parlesfemmesdelamaison。Ceshabits，
　　tantpourleshommesquepourlesfemmes，sontdel’閠offequ’ils
　　nommentmezzalanasielleest閜aisse，molasielleestl間ere。
　　Latrameestungrosfiloudechanvreoud’閠oupe，le
　　remplissageestdelaineoudecoton;elleestteinteparles
　　m阭espaysannesquil’ontfil閑。Onsefigureraitdifficilement
　　combien，paruntravailassidu，lespaysannessaventaccumuleret
　　detoileetdemezzalana;combiendedrapssetrouventaud閜魌
　　commun:comhienchaquemembredelafamilleadechemises，de
　　vestes，depantalons，dejupons，etderobes。Pourlefaire
　　comprendre，nousjoignonsennoteunepartiedel’inventairede
　　lafamilledepaysansquenousconnaissonslemieux;ellen’est
　　niparmilespluspauvresniparmilesplusriches，etellevit
　　heureuseparsontravailsurlamoiti？desr閏oltesdemoinsde
　　dixarpensdeterre。（24*）Cette閜ouseavaiteu50閏usdedot，
　　dont20pay閟comptant，etlereste？terme，？2閏usparann閑。
　　L’閏udeToscanevaut6francs。Ladotlapluscommunepourles
　　paysannes，danslerestedelaToscaneo？lesm閠airiessontplus
　　grandes，estde100閏us，600francs。"
　　Isthispoverty，orconsistentwithpoverty？Whenacommon，
　　M。deSismondievensaysthecommon，marriageportionofa
　　metayer’sdaughteris24l。Englishmoney，equivalenttoatleast
　　50l。inItalyandinthatrankoflife;whenonewhosedowryis
　　onlyhalfthatamount，hasthewardrobedescribed，whichis
　　representedbySismondiasafairaverage;theclassmustbe
　　fullycomparable，ingeneralcondition，toalargeproportion
　　evenofcapitalistfarmersinothercountries;andincomparably
　　abovethedaylabourersofanycountry，exceptanewcolony，or
　　theUnitedStates。Verylittlecanbeinferred，againstsuch
　　evidence，fromatraveller’simpressionofthepoorqualityof
　　theirfood。Itsunexpensivecharactermayberathertheeffectof
　　economythanofnecessity。Costlyfeedingisnotthefavourite
　　luxuryofasouthernpeople;theirdietinallclassesis
　　principallyvegetable，andnopeasantryontheContinenthasthe
　　superstitionoftheEnglishlabourerrespectingwhitebread。But
　　thenourishmentoftheTuscanpeasant，accordingtoSismondi，"is
　　wholesomeandvarious:itsbasisisanexcellentwheatenbread，
　　brown，butpurefrombranandfromallmixture。""Dansla
　　mauvaisesaison，ilnefaitquedeuxrepaspar。jour。？dix
　　heuresdumatinilmangesapollenta，？l’entr閑delanuitil
　　mangelasoupe，puisdupainavecquelqueassaisonnement
　　（companatico）。En閠？ilfaittroisrepas，？huitheures，？une
　　heure，etausoir，maisiln’allumedefeuqu’uneseulefoispar
　　jour，poursondiner，quisecomposedesoupe，puisd’unplatou
　　deviandesal閑oudepoissonsec，oudeharicots，oud’herbages，
　　qu’ilmangeavecdupain。Laviandesal閑n’entrequepourune
　　quantit？bienminimedanscetordinaire，carilestimeque
　　quarantelivresdeporcsal？parindividusuffisentamplement？
　　saprovisiondel’ann閑;ilenmetdeuxfoisparsemaineunpetit
　　morceaudanssonpotage。Ledimancheilatoujourssursatable
　　unplatdeviandefraiche，maisunmorceauquinep鑣equ’une
　　livreouunelivreetdemiesuffit？toutelafamille，quelque
　　nombreusequ’ellesoit。Ilnefautpointoublierquelepaysan
　　Toscanr閏olteeng閚閞aldel’huiled’olivepoursonusage:il
　　s’ensert，nonseulementpours’閏lairer，maispourassaisonner
　　touslesv間閠auxqu’ilappr阾epoursatable，etquideviennent
　　ainsibienplussavoureuxetplusnutritifs。Ad閖eunerilmange
　　dupain，etquelquefoisdufromageetdesfruits;？souper，du
　　painetdelasalade。Saboissonsecomposeduvininf閞ieurdu
　　pays，etdelavinelleoupiquettefaitd’eauferment閑surle
　　marcduraisin。Ilr閟ervecependanttoujoursquelquepeudeson
　　meilleurvinpourlejouro？ilbattrasongrain，etpour
　　quelquesf阾esquisec閘閎rentenfamille。Ilestime？dix
　　barilsdevinelleparann閑（environcinquantebouteilles）et？
　　cinqsacsdefroment（environmillelivresdepain）laportion
　　requisepourunhommefait。"