7。ItisfromFrance，thatimpressionsunfavourabletopeasantpropertiesaregenerallydrawn;itisinFrancethatthesystemissooftenassertedtohavebroughtforthitsfruitinthemostwretchedpossibleagriculture，andtoberapidlyreducing，ifnottohavealreadyreducedthepeasantry，bysubdivisionofland，tothevergeofstarvation。itisdifficulttoaccountforthegeneralprevalenceofimpressionssomuchthereverseoftruth。TheagricultureofFrancewaswretchedandthepeasantryingreatindigencebeforetheRevolution。Atthattimetheywerenot，souniversallyasatpresent，landedproprietors。
Therewere，however，considerabledistrictsofFrancewheretheland，eventhen，wastoagreatextentthepropertyofthepeasantry，andamongtheseweremanyofthemostconspicuousexceptionstothegeneralbadagricultureandtothegeneralpoverty。Anauthority，onthispoint，nottobedisputed，isArthurYoung，theinveterateenemyofsmallfarms，thecoryphaeusofthemodernEnglishschoolofagriculturists;whoyet，travellingovernearlythewholeofFrancein1787，1788，and1789，whenhefindsremarkableexcellenceofcultivation，neverhesitatestoascribeittopeasantproperty。"LeavingSauve，"
sayshe，（32*）"Iwasmuchstruckwithalargetractofland，seeminglynothingbuthugerocks;yetmostofitenclosedandplantedwiththemostindustriousattention。Everymanhasanolive，amulberry，analmond，orapeachtree，andvinesscatteredamongthem;sothatthewholegroundiscoveredwiththeoddestmixtureoftheseplantsandbulgingrocks，thatcanbeconceived。Theinhabitantsofthisvillagedeserveencouragementfortheirindustry;andifIwereaFrenchministertheyshouldhaveit。Theywouldsoonturnallthedesertsaroundthemintogardens。Suchaknotofactivehusbandmen，whoturntheirrocksintoscenesoffertility，becauseIsupposetheirown，woulddothesamebythewastes，ifanimatedbythesameomnipotentprinciple。"Again:（33*）"WalktoRossendal，"（nearDunkirk）
"whereM。leBrunhasanimprovementontheDunes，whichheveryobliginglyshowedme。Betweenthetownandthatplaceisagreatnumberofneatlittlehouses，builteachwithitsgarden，andoneortwofieldsenclosed，ofmostwretchedblowingdunesand，naturallyaswhiteassnow，butimprovedbyindustry。Themagicofpropertyturnssandtogold。"Andagain:（34*）"GoingoutofGange，IwassurprisedtofindbyfarthegreatestexertioninirrigationwhichIhadyetseeninFrance;andthenpassedbysomesteepmountains，highlycultivatedinterraces。MuchwateringatSt。Lawrence。Thesceneryveryinterestingtoafarmer。FromGange，tothemountainofroughgroundwhichI
crossed，theridehasbeenthemostinterestingwhichIhavetakeninFrance;theeffortsofindustrythemostvigorous;theanimationthemostlively。Anactivityhasbeenhere，thathassweptawayalldifficultiesbeforeit，andhasclothedtheveryrockswithverdure。Itwouldbeadisgracetocommonsensetoaskthecause;theenjoymentofpropertymusthavedoneit。Giveamanthesecurepossessionofableakrock，andhewillturnitintoagarden;givehimanineyears’leaseofagarden，andhewillconvertitintoadesert。"
InhisdescriptionofthecountryatthefootoftheWesternPyrenees，hespeaksnolongerfromsurmise，butfromknowledge。
"Take（35*）theroadtoMoneng，andcomepresentlytoascenewhichwassonewtomeinFrance，thatIcouldhardlybelievemyowneyes。Asuccessionofmanywell—built，tight，andcomfortablefarmingcottagesbuiltofstoneandcoveredwithtiles;eachhavingitslittlegarden，enclosedbycliptthorn—hedges，withplentyofpeachandotherfruit—trees，somefineoaksscatteredinthehedges，andyoungtreesnursedupwithsomuchcare，thatnothingbutthefosteringattentionoftheownercouldeffectanythinglikeit。Toeveryhousebelongsafarm，perfectlywellenclosed，withgrassbordersmownandneatlykeptaroundthecorn—fields，withgatestopassfromoneenclosuretoanother。
TherearesomepartsofEngland（wheresmallyeomenstillremain）
thatresemblethiscountryofB閍rn;butwehaveverylittlethatisequaltowhatIhaveseeninthisrideoftwelvemilesfromPautoMoneng。Itisallinthehandsoflittleproprietors，withoutthefarmsbeingsosmallastooccasionaviciousandmiserablepopulation。Anairofneatness，warmth，andcomfortbreathesoverthewhole。Itisvisibleintheirnewbuilthousesandstables;intheirlittlegardens;intheirhedges;inthecourtsbeforetheirdoors;eveninthecoopsfortheirpoultry，andthestiesfortheirhogs。Apeasantdoesnotthinkofrenderinghispigcomfortable，ifhisownhappinesshangbythethreadofanineyears’lease。WearenowinB閍rn，withinafewmilesofthecradleofHenryIV。Dotheyinherittheseblessingsfromthatgoodprince？Thebenignantgeniusofthatgoodmonarchseemstoreignstilloverthecountry;eachpeasanthasthefowlinthepot。"HefrequentlynoticestheexcellenceoftheagricultureofFrenchFlanders，wherethefarms"areallsmall，andmuchinthehandsoflittleproprietors。"（36*）InthePaysdeCaux，alsoacountryofsmallproperties，theagriculturewasmiserable;ofwhichhisexplanationwasthatit"isamanufacturingcountry，andfarmingisbutasecondarypursuittothecottonfabric，whichspreadsoverthewholeofit。"（37*）Thesamedistrictisstillaseatofmanufactures，andacountryofsmallproprietors，andisnow，whetherwejudgefromtheappearanceofthecropsorfromtheofficialreturns，oneofthebestcultivatedinFrance。In"Flanders，Alsace，andpartofArtois，aswellasonthebanksoftheGaronne，Francepossessesahusbandryequaltoourown。"（38*）Thosecountries，andaconsiderablepartofQuercy，"arecultivatedmorelikegardensthanfarms。Perhapstheyaretoomuchlikegardens，fromthesmallnessofproperties。"（39*）Inthosedistrictstheadmirablerotationofcrops，solongpractisedinItaly，butatthattimegenerallyneglectedinFrance，wasalreadyuniversal。"Therapidsuccessionofcrops，theharvestofonebeingbutthesignalofsowingimmediatelyforasecond，"（thesamefactwhichstrikesallobserversinthevalleyoftheRhine）"canscarcelybecarryedtogreaterperfection:andthisisapoint，perhaps，ofallothersthemostessentialtogoodhusbandry，whensuchcropsaresojustlydistributedaswegenerallyfindthemintheseprovinces;cleaningandamelioratingonesbeingmadethepreparationforsuchasfoulandexhaust。"
Itmustnot，however，besupposed，thatArthurYoung’stestimonyonthesubjectofpeasantpropertiesisuniformlyfavourable。InLorraine，Champagne，andelsewhere，hefindstheagriculturebad，andthesmallproprietorsverymiserable，inconsequence，ashesays，oftheextremesubdivisionoftheland。
Hisopinionisthussummedup:（40*）——"BeforeItravelled，I
conceivedthatsmallfarms，inproperty，wereverysusceptibleofgoodcultivation;andthattheoccupierofsuch，havingnorenttopay，mightbesufficientlyathiseasetoworkimprovements，andcarryonavigoroushusbandry;butwhatIhaveseeninFrance，hasgreatlylessenedmygoodopinionofthem。InFlanders，Isawexcellenthusbandryonpropertiesof30to100
acres;butweseldomfindheresuchsmallpatchesofpropertyasarecommoninotherprovinces。InAlsace，andontheGaronne，thatis，onsoilsofsuchexuberantfertilityastodemandnoexertions，somesmallpropertiesalsoarewellcultivated。InB閍rn，Ipassedthrougharegionoflittlefarmers，whoseappearance，neatness，ease，andhappinesscharmedme;itwaswhatpropertyalonecould，onasmallscale，effect;butthesewerebynomeanscontemptiblysmall;theyare，asIjudgedbythedistancefromhousetohouse，from40to80acres。Exceptthese，andaveryfewotherinstances，Isawnothingrespectableonsmallproperties，exceptamostunremittingindustry。Indeed，itisnecessarytoimpressonthereader’smind，thatthoughthehusbandryImetwith，inagreatvarietyofinstancesonlittleproperties，wasasbadascanbewellconceived，yettheindustryofthepossessorswassoconspicuous，andsomeritorious，thatnocommendationswouldbetoogreatforit。Itwassufficienttoprovethatpropertyinlandis，ofallothers，themostactiveinstigatortosevereandincessantlabour。Andthistruthisofsuchforceandextent，thatIknownowaysosureofcarrying。
tillagetoamountaintop，asbypermittingtheadjoiningvillagerstoacquireitinproperty;infact，weseethatinthemountainsofLanguedoc，&c。，theyhaveconveyedearthinbaskets，ontheirbacks，toformasoilwherenaturehaddeniedit。"
Theexperience，therefore，ofthiscelebratedagriculturist，andapostleofthegrandeculture，maybesaidtobe，thattheeffectofsmallproperties，cultivatedbypeasantproprietors，isadmirablewhentheyarenottoosmall:sosmall，namely，asnotfullytooccupythetimeandattentionofthefamily;forheoftencomplains，withgreatapparentreason，ofthequantityofidletimewhichthepeasantryhadontheirhandswhenthelandwasinverysmallportions，notwithstandingtheardourwithwhichtheytoiledtoimprovetheirlittlepatrimonyineverywaywhichtheirknowledgeoringenuitycouldsuggest。Herecommends，accordingly，thatalimitofsubdivisionshouldbefixedbylaw;
andthisisbynomeansanindefensiblepropositionincountries，ifsuchthereare，wherethemorcellement，havingalreadygonefartherthanthestateofcapitalandthenatureofthestaplearticlesofcultivationrenderadvisable，stillcontinuesprogressive。Thateachpeasantshouldhaveapatchofland，eveninfullproperty，ifitisnotsufficienttosupporthimincomfort，isasystemwithallthedisadvantages，andscarcelyanyofthebenefits，ofsmallproperties;sincehemusteitherliveinindigenceontheproduceofhisland，ordependashabituallyasifhehadnolandedpossessions，onthewagesofhiredlabour:
which，besides，ifalltheholdingssurroundinghimareofsimilardimensions，hehaslittleprospectoffinding。Thebenefitsofpeasantpropertiesareconditionalontheirnotbeingtoomuchsubdivided;thatis，ontheirnotbeingrequiredtomaintaintoomanypersons，inproportiontotheproducethatcanberaisedfromthembythosepersons。Thequestionresolvesitself，likemostquestionsrespectingtheconditionofthelabouringclasses，intooneofpopulation。Aresmallpropertiesastimulustounduemultiplication，orachecktoit？
NOTES:
1。InMrWordsworth’slittledescriptiveworkonthesceneryoftheLakes，hespeaksoftheupperpartofthedalesashavingbeenforcenturies"aperfectrepublicofshepherdsandagriculturalists，proprietors，forthemostpart，ofthelandswhichtheyoccupiedandcultivated。Theploughofeachmanwasconfinedtothemaintenanceofhisownfamily，ortotheoccasionalaccommodationtohisneighbour。Twoorthreecowsfurnishedeachfamilywithmilkandcheese。Thechapelwastheonlyedificethatpresidedoverthesedwellings，thesupremeheadofthispurecommonwealth;themembersofwhichexistedinthemidstofapowerfulempire，likeanidealsociety，oranorganizedcommunity，whoseconstitutionhadbeenimposedandregulatedbythemountainswhichprotectedit。Neitherhigh—bornnobleman，knight，noresquirewashere;butmanyofthesehumblesonsofthehillshadaconsciousnessthatthelandwhichtheywalkedoverandtilledhadformorethanfivehundredyearsbeenpossessedbymenoftheirnameandblood……Cornwasgrowninthesevalessufficientuponeachestatetofurnishbreadforeachfamily，nomore。thestormsandmoistureoftheclimateinducedthemtosprinkletheiruplandpropertywithouthousesofnativestone，asplacesofshelterfortheirsheep，where，intempestuousweather，foodwasdistributedtothem。Everyfamilyspunfromitsownflockthewoolwithwhichitwasclothed;aweaverwashereandtherefoundamongthem，andtherestoftheirwantswassuppliedbytheproduceoftheyarn，whichtheycardedandspunintheirownhouses，andcarriedtomarketeitherundertheirarms，ormorefrequentlyonpackhorses，asmalltraintaingtheirwayweeklydownthevalley，oroverthemountains，tothemostcommodioustown。"——ADescriptionoftheSceneryoftheLakesintheNorthofEngland。3rdedit。pp。50to53and63to65。
2。Etudessurl’EconomiePolitique，EssaiIII。
3。Andinanotherwork（NouveauxPrincipesd’EconomiePolitique，ilv，iii，ch。3hesays:"QuandontraverselaSuissepresqu’entiere，plusieursprovincesdeFrance，d’Italie，etd’Allemagne，iln’estpasbesoindedemander，enregardantchaquepartiedeterre，sielleappartientauncultivateurproprietaireouaunfermier。Lessoinsbienentendus，lesjoissancesprepareesaulabourer，laparurequelacampagnearecuedesesmains，indiquentbienvitelepremier。Ilestvraiqu’ungouvernementoppressifpeutdetruirel’aisanceetabrutirl’intelligencequedevaitdonnerlaproprietequel’impotpeutenleverleplusnetduproduitdeschamps，quel’insolencedesagensdupouvoirpeuttroublerlasecuritedespaysans，quel’impossiblited’obtenirjusticecontreunpuissantvoisonpeutjeterledecouragementdansl’ame，etque，danslebeaupaysquiaeterendual’administrationduRoideSardaigne，unproprietaireporteaussibienqu’unjournalierl’uniformedelamisere。"HewasherespeakingofSavoy，wherethepeasantsaregeneralyproprietors;andaccordingtoauthentic（thoughnotrecent）accounts，extremelymiserable。But，asM。deSismondicontinues，"Onabeauseconformerauneseuledesreglesdel’economiepolitique，ellenepeutpasopererlebienaelleseule;dumoinsellediminuelemal。"
4。Switzerland，theSouthofFrance，andthePyrenees，in1830。
vol。1，ch。2。
5。Ibid。ch。8and10。
6。TherehavebeenconsiderablechangesinthePoorLawadministrationandlegislationoftheCantonofBernesincethesentenceinthetextwaswritten。ButIamnotsufficientlyacquaintedwiththenatureandoperationofthesechangestospeakmoreparticularlyofthemhere。
7。’EineandasunglaublichegranzendeSchuldenmasse"istheexpression。（Historish—geographisch—statistischeGemaldederSchweiz。ErsterTheil。DerKantonZurich。VonGeroldMeyerVonKnonau，1834，pp。80—1）TherearevillagesinZurich，headds，inwhichthereisnotasinglepropertyunmortgaged。Itdoesnot，however，followthateachindividualproprietorisdeeplyinvolvedbecausetheaggregatemassofencumbrancesislarge。IntheCantonofSchaffhausen，forinstance，itisstatedthatthelandedpropertiesarealmostallmortgaged，butrarelyformorethanone—halftheirregisteredvalue。（ZwolfterTheil。DerKantonSchaffhausen，vonEdwardIm—Thurn，1840，p。52）andthemortgagesareoftenfortheimprovementandenlargementoftheestate。
（SiebenzehnterTheil。DerKantonThurgau，vonJ。A。Pupikofer，1837，p。209。）
8。"DenselbenErfolghatdieVertheilungderehemaligengrossenLehenhoteinmehrerekleinereeigenthumlicheBauerguter。Esistgarnichtselten，dasseinDrittheiloderViertheileinessolchenHofesnunebensovielGetreideliefertundebensovielStuckViehunterhaltalsvolmalsderganzeHof。"（Thurgau，p。72）
9。Reichensperger（DieAgrarfrage）quotedbyMrKay（"SocialConditionandEducationofthePeopleinEnglandandEurope，"）
observes，"thatthepartsofEuropewherethemostextensiveandcostlyplansforwateringthemeadowsandlandshavebeencarriedoutinthegreatestperfection，arethosewherethelandsareverymuchsubdivided，andareinthehandsofsmallproprietors。
HeinstancestheplainroundValencia，severalofthesoutherndepartmentsofFrance，particularlythoseofVaucluseandBouchesduRhone，Lombardy，Tuscany，thedistrictsofSienna，Lucca，andBergamo，Piedmont，manypartsofGermanyetc。，inallwhichpartsofEuropethelandisverymuchsubdividedamongsmallproprietors。Inallthesepartsgreatandexpensivesystemsandplansofgeneralirrigationhavebeencarriedout，andarenowbeingsupportedbythesmallproprietorsthemselves;thusshowinghowtheyareabletoaccomplish，bymeansofcombination，workrequiringtheexpenditureofgreatquantitiesofcapital。"Kay，i。126。
10。Laing，JournalofaResidenceinNorway，pp。36，37。
11。NotesofaTraveller，pp。299etseqq。
12。ThemannerinwhichtheSwisspeasantscombinetocarryoncheese—makingbytheirunitedcapitaldeservestobenoted。"EachparishinSwitzerlandhiresaman，generallyfromthedistrictofGruyereinthecantonofFreyburg，totakecareoftheherd，andmakethecheese。Onecheeseman，onepressmanorassistant，andonecowherdareconsiderednecessaryforeveryfortycows。Theownersofthecowsgetcrediteachofthem，inabookdailyforthequantityofmilkgivenbyeachcow。Thecheesemenandhisassistantsmilkthecows，putthemilkalltogether，andmakecheeseofit，andattheendoftheseasoneachownerreceivestheweightofcheeseproportionabletothequantityofmilkhiscowshavedelivered。Bythisco—operativeplan，insteadofthesmall—sizedunmarketablecheesesonly，whicheachcouldproduceoutofhisthreeorfourcows’milk，hehasthesameweightinlargemarketablecheesesuperiorinquality，becausemadebypeoplewhoattendtonootherbusiness。Thecheesemanandhisassistantsarepaidsomuchperheadofthecows，inmoneyorincheese，orsometimestheyhirethecows，andpaytheownersinmoneyorcheese。"NotesofaTraveller，p。351。AsimilarsystemexistsintheFrenchJura。See，forfulldetailsLavergne，EconomieRuraledelaFrance，2nded。pp。139etseqq。Oneofthemostremarkablepointsinthisinterestingcaseofcombinationoflabour，istheconfidencewhichitsupposes，andwhichexperiencemustjustify，intheintegrityofthepersonsemployed。
13。RuralandDomesticLifeofGermany，p。27。
14。Ibid。p。40。
15。RuralandDomesticLifeofGermany，p。44。
16。Ibid。p。50。
17。UeberdieLandwirthschaftderRheinpfalz，undinsbesondereinderHeidelbergerGegend。VonD。KarlHeinrichRau。Heidelber，1830。
18。Rau，pp。15，16。
19。TheSocialConditionandEducationofthePeopleinEnglandandEurope;showingtheresultsofthePrimarySchools，andofthedivisionofLandedPropertyinForeignCountries。ByJosephKay，Esq。，M。A。Barrister—at—Law，andthelaterTravellingBacheloroftheUniversityofCambridge。vol。i。
20。Kay，i，116—8。
21。GeographicalDictionary，art。"Belgium"。
22。Pp。11—14。
23。FlemishHusbandry，p。3。
24。Ibid。p。13。
25。FlemishHusbandry，pp。73etseq。
26。FlemishHusbandry，p。81。
27。AsmuchofthedistresslatelycomplainedofinBelgium，aspartakesinanydegreeofapermanentcharacter，appearstobealmostconfinedtotheportionofthepopulationwhocarryonmanufacturinglabour，eitherbyitselforinconjunctionwithagricultural;andtobeoccasionedbyadiminisheddemandforBelgicmanufactures。
TotheprecedingtestimoniesrespectingGermany，Switzerland，andBelgium，maybeaddedthefollowingfromNiebuhr，respectingtheRomanCampagna。InaletterfromTivoli，hesays，"Whereveryoufindhereditaryfarmers，orsmallproprietors，thereyoualsofindindustryandhonesty。Ibelievethatamanwhowouldemployalargefortuneinestablishingsmallfreeholdsmighputanendtorobberyinthemountaindistricts。"——LifeandLettersofNiebuhr，vol。ii，p。149。
28。APleaforPeasantProprietors。ByWilliamThomasThornton，pp。99—104。
29。Ibid，p。38。
30。Ibid。p。9。
31。Ibid。p。32。
32。ArthurYoung’sTravelsinFrance，vol。i，p。50。
33。Ibid。p。88。
34。Ibid。p。51。
35。Ibid。p。56。
36。Young，pp。322—4。
37。Ibid。p。357。
38。Ibid。p。325。
39。Ibid。p。364。
40。Young，vol。i，p。412。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book2，Chapter7
ContinuationoftheSameSubject
1。Beforeexaminingtheinfluenceofpeasantpropertieson
theultimateeconomicalinterestsofthelabouringclass，as
determinedbytheincreaseofpopulation，letusnotethepoints
respectingthemoralandsocialinfluenceofthatterritorial
arrangement，whichmaybelookeduponasestablished，eitherby
thereasonofthecase，orbythefactsandauthoritiescitedin
theprecedingchapter。
Thereadernewtothesubjectmusthavebeenstruckwiththe
powerfulimpressionmadeuponallthewitnessestowhomIhave
referred，bywhataSwissstatisticalwritercallsthe"almost
superhumanindustry"ofpeasantproprietors。（1*）Onthispointat
least，authoritiesareunanimous。Thosewhohaveseenonlyone
countryofpeasantproperties，alwaysthinktheinhabitantsof
thatcountrythemostindustriousintheworld。Thereisas
littledoubtamongobservers，withwhatfeatureinthecondition
ofthepeasantrythispre—eminentindustryisconnected。Itis
the"magicofproperty"which，inthewordsofArthurYoung，
"turnssandintogold。"Theideaofpropertydoesnot，however，
necessarilyimplythatthereshouldbenorent，anymorethan
thatthereshouldbenotaxes。Itmerelyimpliesthattherent
shouldbeafixedcharge，notliabletoberaisedagainstthe
possessorbyhisownimprovements，orbythewillofalandlord。
Atenantataquit—rentis，toallintentsandpurposes，a
proprietor;acopyholderisnotlesssothanafreeholder。What
iswantedispermanentpossessiononfixedterms。"Giveamanthe
securepossessionofableakrock，andhewillturnitintoa
garden;givehimanineyears’leaseofagarden，andhewill
convertitintoadesert。"
Thedetailswhichhavebeencited，andthose，stillmore
minute，tobefoundinthesameauthorities，concerningthe
habituallyelaboratesystemofcultivation，andthethousand
devicesofthepeasantproprietorformakingeverysuperfluous
hourandoddmomentinstrumentaltosomeincreaseinthefuture
produceandvalueoftheland，willexplainwhathasbeensaidin
apreviouschapter（2*）respectingthefarlargergrossproduce
which，withanythinglikeparityofagriculturalknowledge，is
obtainedfromthesamequalityofsoilonsmallfarms，atleast
whentheyarethepropertyofthecultivator。Thetreatiseon
"FlemishHusbandry"isespeciallyinstructiverespectingthe
meansbywhichuntiringindustrydoesmorethanoutweigh
inferiorityofresources，imperfectionofimplements，and
ignoranCeofscientifictheories。Thepeasantcultivationof
Flandersanditalyisaffirmedtoproduceheaviercrops，inequal
circumstancesofsoil，thanthebestcultivateddistrictsof
ScotlandandEngland。itproducesthem，nodoubt，withanamount
oflabourwhich，ifpaidforbyanemployer，wouldmakethecost
tohimmorethanequivalenttothebenefit;buttothepeasantit
isnotcost，itisthedevotionoftimewhichhecanspare，toa
favouritepursuit，ifweshouldnotrathersayaruling
passion。（3*）
Wehaveseen，too，thatitisnotsolelybysuperiorexertion
thattheFlemishcultivatorssucceedinobtainingthesebrilliant
results。Thesamemotivewhichgivessuchintensitytotheir
industry，placedthemearlierinpossessionofanamountof
agriculturalknowledge，notattaineduntilmuchlaterin
countrieswhereagriculturewascarriedonsolelybyhired
labour。AnequallyhightestimonyisbornebyM。deLavergne（4*）
totheagriculturalskillofthesmallproprietorsinthoseparts
ofFrancetowhichthepetitecultureisreallysuitable。"Inthe
richplainsofFlanders，onthebanksoftheRhine，theGaronne，
theCharente，theRhone，allthepracticeswhichfertilizethe
landandincreasetheproductivenessoflabourareknowntothe
verysmallestcultivators，andpractisedbythem，however
considerablemaybetheadvanceswhichtheyrequire。Intheir
hands，abundantmanures，collectedatgreatcost，repairand
incessantlyincreasethefertilityofthesoil，inspiteofthe
activityofcultivation。Theracesofcattlearesuperior，the
cropsmagnificent。Tobacco，flax，colza，madder，beetroot，in
someplaces;inothers，thevine，theolive，theplum，the
mulberry，onlyyieldtheirabundanttreasurestoapopulationof
industriouslabourers。Isitnotalsotothepetiteculturethat
weareindebtedformostofthegardenproduceobtainedbydint
ofgreatoutlayintheneighbourhoodofParis？"
2。Anotheraspectofpeasantproperties，inwhichitis
essentialthattheyshouldbeconsidered，isthatofan
instrumentofpopulareducation。Booksandschoolingare
absolutelynecessarytoeducation;butnotall—sufficient。The
mentalfacultieswillhemostdevelopedwheretheyaremost
exercised;andwhatgivesmoreexercisetothemthanthehavinga
multitudeofinterests，noneofwhichcanbeneglected，andwhich
canbeprovidedforonlybyvariedeffortsofwilland
intelligence？Someofthedisparagersofsmallpropertieslay
greatstressonthecaresandanxietieswhichbesetthepeasant
proprietoroftheRhinelandorFlanders。Itispreciselythose
caresandanxietieswhichtendtomakehimasuperiorbeingtoan
Englishday—labourer。Itis，tobesure，ratherabusingthe
privilegesoffairargumenttorepresenttheconditionofa
day—labourerasnotananxiousone。Icanconceiveno
circumstancesinwhichheisfreefromanxiety，wherethereisa
possibilityofbeingoutofemployment;unlesshehasaccesstoa
profusedispensationofparishpay，andnoshameorreluctancein
demandingit。Theday—labourerhas，intheexistingstateof
societyandpopulation，manyoftheanxietieswhichhavenotan
invigoratingeffectonthemind，andnoneofthosewhichhave。
ThepositionofthepeasantproprietorofContinentalEuropeis
thereverse。Fromtheanxietywhichchillsandparalyses—the
uncertaintyofhavingfoodtoeat—fewpersonsaremoreexempt:it
requiresasrareaconcurrenceofcircumstancesasthepotato
failurecombinedwithanuniversalbadharvest，tobringhim
withinreachofthatdanger。Hisanxietiesaretheordinary
vicissitudesofmoreandless;hiscaresarethathetakeshis
fairshareofthebusinessoflife;thatheisafreehuman
being，andnotperpetuallyachild，whichseemstobethe
approvedconditionofthelabouringclassesaccordingtothe
prevailingphilanthropy。Heisnolongerabeingofadifferent
orderfromthemiddleclasses;hehaspursuitsandobjectslike
thosewhichoccupythem，andgivetotheirintellectsthe
greatestpartofsuchcultivationastheyreceive。Ifthereisa
firstprincipleinintellectualeducation，itisthis—thatthe
disciplinewhichdoesgoodtothemindisthatinwhichthemind
isactive，notthatinwhichitispassive。Thesecretfor
developingthefacultiesistogivethemmuchtodo，andmuch
inducementtodoit。Thisdetractsnothingfromtheimportance，
andevennecessity，ofotherkindsofmentalcultivation。The
possessionofpropertywillnotpreventthepeasantfrombeing
coarse，selfish，andnarrow—minded。Thesethingsdependonother
influences，andotherkindsofinstruction。Butthisgreat
stimulustoonekindofmentalactivity，innowayimpedesany
othermeansofintellectualdevelopment。Onthecontrary，by
cultivatingthehabitofturningtopracticaluseeveryfragment
ofknowledgeacquired，ithelpstorenderthatschoolingand
readingfruitful，whichwithoutsomesuchauxiliaryinfluenceare
intoomanycaseslikeseedthrownonarock。
3。Itisnotontheintelligencealone，thatthesituationof
apeasantproprietorexercisesanimprovinginfluence。Itisno
lesspropitioustothemoralvirtuesofprudence，temperance，and
self—control。Day—labourers，wherethelabouringclassmainly
consistsofthem，areusuallyimprovident:theyspendcarelessly
tothefullextentoftheirmeans，andletthefutureshiftfor
itself。Thisissonotorious，thatmanypersonsstrongly
interestedinthewelfareofthelabouringclasses，holditasa
fixedopinionthatanincreaseofwageswoulddothemlittle
good，unlessaccompaniedbyatleastacorrespondingimprovement
intheirtastesandhabits。Thetendencyofpeasantproprietors，
andofthosewhohopetobecomeproprietors，istothecontrary
extreme;totakeeventoomuchthoughtforthemorrow。Theyare
ofteneraccusedofpenuriousnessthanofprodigality。Theydeny
themselvesreasonableindulgences，andlivewretchedlyinorder
toeconomize。InSwitzerlandalmosteverybodysaves，whohasany
meansofsaving;thecaseoftheFlemishfarmershasbeenalready
noticed:amongtheFrench，thoughapleasure—lovingandreputed
tobeaself—indulgentpeople，thespiritofthriftisdiffused
throughtheruralpopulationinamannermostgratifyingasa
whole，andwhichinindividualinstanceserrsratherontheside
ofexcessthandefect。Amongthosewho，fromthehovelsinwhich
theylive，andtheherbsandrootswhichconstitutetheirdiet，
aremistakenbytravellersforproofsandspecimensofgeneral
indigence，therearenumberswhohavehoardsinleathernbags，
consistingofsums，infivefrancpieces，whichtheykeepbythem
perhapsforawholegeneration，unlessbroughtouttobeexpended
intheirmostcherishedgratificationthepurchaseofland。If
thereisamoralinconvenienceattachedtoastateofsocietyin
whichthepeasantryhaveland，itisthedangeroftheirbeing
toocarefuloftheirpecuniaryconcerns;ofitsmakingthem
crafty，and"calculating"intheobjectionablesense。TheFrench
peasantisnosimplecountryman，nodownright"paysanduDanube;"
bothinfactandinfictionheisnow"lerus？paysan。"Thatis
thestagewhichhehasreachedintheprogressivedevelopment
whichtheconstitutionofthingshasimposedonhuman
intelligenceandhumanemancipation。Butsomeexcessinthis
directionisasmallandapassingevilcomparedwith
recklessnessandimprovidenceinthelabouringclasses，anda
cheappricetopayfortheinestimableworthofthevirtueof
self—dependence，asthegeneralcharacteristicofapeople:a
virtuewhichisoneofthefirstconditionsofexcellenceinthe
humancharacter——thestockonwhichiftheothervirtuesare
notgrafted，theyhaveseldomanyfirmroot;aquality
indispensableinthecaseofalabouringclass，eventoany
tolerabledegreeofphysicalcomfort;andbywhichthepeasantry
ofFrance，andofmostEuropeancountriesofpeasantproprietors，
aredistinguishedbeyondanyotherlabouringpopulation。
4。Isitlikelythatastateofeconomicalrelationsso
conducivetofrugalityandprudenceineveryotherrespect，
shouldbeprejudicialtoitinthecardinalpointofincreaseof
population？Thatitisso，istheopinionexpressedbymostof
thoseEnglishpoliticaleconomistswhohavewrittenanything
aboutthematter。Mr。M’Culloch’sopinioniswellknown。Mr。
Jonesaffirms，（5*）thata"peasantpopulationraisingtheirown
wagesfromthesoil，andconsumingtheminkind，areuniversally
acteduponveryfeeblybyinternalchecks，orbymotives
disposingthemtorestraint。Theconsequenceis，thatunlesssome
externalcause，quiteindependentoftheirwill，forcessuch
peasantcultivatorstoslackentheirrateofincrease，theywill，
inalimitedterritory，veryrapidlyapproachastateofwantand
penury，andwillbestoppedatlastonlybythephysical
impossibilityofprocuringsubsistence。"Heelsewhere（6*）speaks
ofsuchapeasantryas"exactlyintheconditioninwhichthe
animaldispositiontoincreasetheirnumbersischeckedbythe
fewestofthosebalancingmotivesanddesireswhichregulatethe
increaseofsuperiorranksormorecivilizedpeople。"The"causes
ofthispeculiarity"，Mr。Jonespromisedtopointoutina
subsequentwork，whichnevermadeitsappearance。Iamtotally
unabletoconjecturefromwhattheoryofhumannature，andofthe
motiveswhichinfluencehumanconduct，hewouldhavederived
them。ArthurYoungassumesthesame"peculiarity"asafact;but，
thoughnotmuchinthehabitofqualifyinghisopinions，hedoes
notpushhisdoctrinetosoviolentanextremeasMr。Jones;
having，aswehaveseen，himselftestifiedtovariousinstances
inwhichpeasantpopulationssuchasMr。Jonesspeaksof，were
nottendingto"astateofwantandpenury"，andwereinno
dangerwhateverofcomingintocontactwith"physical
impossibilityofprocuringsubsistence。"
Thatthereshouldbediscrepancyofexperienceonthis
matter，iseasilytobeaccountedfor。Whetherthelabouring
peoplelivebylandorbywages，theyhavealwayshitherto
multiplieduptothelimitsetbytheirhabitualstandardof
comfort。Whenthatstandardwaslow，notexceedingascanty
subsistence，thesizeofproperties，aswellastherateof
wages，hasbeenkeptdowntowhatwouldbarelysupportlife。
Extremelylowideasofwhatisnecessaryforsubsistence，are
perfectlycompatiblewithpeasantproperties;andifapeople
havealwaysbeenusedtopoverty，andhabithasreconciledthem
toit，therewillbeover—population，andexcessivesubdivision
ofland。Butthisisnottothepurpose。Thetruequestionis，
supposingapeasantrytopossesslandnotinsufficientbut
sufficientfortheircomfortablesupport，aretheymore，orless，
likelytofallfromthisstateofcomfortthroughimprovident
multiplication，thaniftheywerelivinginanequally
comfortablemannerashiredlabourers？All？priori
considerationsareinfavouroftheirbeinglesslikely。The
dependenceofwagesonpopulationisamatterofspeculationand
discussion。Thatwageswouldfallifpopulationweremuch
increasedisoftenamatterofrealdoubt，andalwaysathing
whichrequiressomeexerciseofthethinkingfacultyforits
intelligentrecognition。Buteverypeasantcansatisfyhimself
fromevidencewhichhecanfullyappreciate，whetherhispieceof
landcanbemadetosupportseveralfamiliesinthesamecomfort
asitsupportsone。Fewpeopleliketoleavetotheirchildrena
worselotinlifethantheirown。Theparentwhohaslandto
leave，isperfectlyabletojudgewhetherthechildrencanlive
uponitornot:butpeoplewhoaresupportedbywages，seeno
reasonwhytheirsonsshouldbeunabletosupportthemselvesin
thesameway，andtrustaccordinglytochance。"Ineventhemost
usefulandnecessaryartsandmanufactures，"saysMr。Laing，（7*）
"thedemandforlabourersisnotaseen，known，steady，and
appreciabledemand:butitissoinhusbandry"undersmall
properties。"Thelabourtobedone，thesubsistencethatlabour
willproduceoutofhisportionofland，areseenandknown
elementsinaman’scalculationuponhismeansofsubsistence。
Canhissquareofland，orcanitnot，subsistafamily？Canhe
marryornot？arequestionswhicheverymancananswerwithout
delay，doubt，orspeculation。Itisthedependingonchance，
wherejudgmenthasnothingclearlysetbeforeit，thatcauses
reckless，improvidentmarriagesinthelower，asinthehigher
classes，andproducesamongustheevilsofover—population;and
chancenecessarilyentersintoeveryman’scalculations，when
certaintyisremovedaltogether;asitis，wherecertain
subsistenceis，byourdistributionofproperty，thelotofbuta
smallportioninsteadofabouttwo—thirdsofthepeople。"
Thereneverhasbeenawritermorekeenlysensibleofthe
evilsbroughtuponthelabouringclassesbyexcessofpopulation，
thanSismondi，andthisisoneofthegroundsofhisearnest
advocacyofpeasantproperties。Hehadampleopportunity，inmore
countriesthanone，forjudgingoftheireffectonpopulation。
Letusseehistestimony。"Inthecountriesinwhichcultivation
bysmallproprietorsstillcontinues，populationincreases
regularlyandrapidlyuntilithasattaineditsnaturallimits;
thatistosay，inheritancescontinuetobedividedand
subdividedamongseveralsons，aslongas，byanincreaseof
labour，eachfamilycanextractanequalincomefromasmaller
portionofland。Afatherwhopossessedavastextentofnatural
pasture，dividesitamonghissons，andtheyturnitintofields
andmeadows;hissonsdivideitamongtheirsons，whoabolish
fallows:eachimprovementinagriculturalknowledgeadmitsof
anotherstepinthesubdivisionofproperty。Butthereisno
dangerlesttheproprietorshouldbringuphischildrentomake
beggarsofthem。Heknowsexactlywhatinheritancehehasto
leavethem;heknowsthatthelawwilldivideitequallyamong
them;heseesthelimitbeyondwhichthisdivisionwouldmake
themdescendfromtherankwhichhehashimselffilled，anda
justfamilypride，commontothepeasantandtothenobleman，
makeshimabstainfromsummoningintolife，childrenforwhomhe
cannotproperlyprovide。Ifmoreareborn，atleasttheydonot
marry，ortheyagreeamongthemselves，whichofseveralbrothers
shallperpetuatethefamily。ItisnotfoundthatintheSwiss
Cantons，thepatrimoniesofthepeasantsareeversodividedas
toreducethembelowanhonourablecompetence;thoughthehabit
offoreignservice，byopeningtothechildrenacareer
indefiniteanduncalculable，sometimescallsfortha
super—abundantpopulation。"（8*）
ThereissimilartestimonyrespectingNorway。Thoughthereis
nolaworcustomofprimogeniture，andnomanufacturestotake
offasurpluspopulation，thesubdivisionofpropertyisnot
carriedtoaninjuriousextent。"Thedivisionofthelandamong
children，"saysMr。Laing，（9*）"appearsnot，duringthethousand
yearsithasbeeninoperation，tohavehadtheeffectof
reducingthelandedpropertiestotheminimumsizethatwill
barelysupporthumanexistence。Ihavecountedfrom
five—and—twentytofortycowsuponfarms，andthatinacountry
inwhichthefarmermust，foratleastsevenmonthsintheyear，
havewinterprovenderandhousesprovidedforallthecattle。It
isevidentthatsomecauseorother，operatingonaggregationof
landedproperty，counteractsthedividingeffectsofpartition
amongchildren。ThatcausecanbenootherthanwhatIhavelong
conjecturedwouldbeeffectiveinsuchasocialarrangement;viz。
thatinacountrywherelandisheld，notintenancymerely，as
inIreland，butinfullownership，itsaggregationbythedeaths
ofco—heirs，andbythemarriagesofthefemaleheirsamongthe
bodyoflandholders，willbalanceitssubdivisionbytheequal
successionofchildren。Thewholemassofpropertywill，I
conceive，befoundinsuchastateofsocietytoconsistofas
manyestatesoftheclassof10001。，asmanyof100l。，asmanyof
10l。，ayear，atoneperiodasanother。"Thatthisshouldhappen，
supposesdiffusedthroughsocietyaveryefficaciousprudential
checktopopulation;anditisreasonabletogivepartofthe
creditofthisprudentialrestrainttothepeculiaradaptationof
thepeasant—proprietarysystemforfosteringit。
"InsomepartsofSwitzerland，"saysMr。Kay，（10*）"asinthe
cantonofArgovieforinstance，apeasantnevermarriesbeforehe
attainstheageoftwenty—fiveyears，andgenerallymuchlaterin
life;andinthatcantonthewomenveryseldommarrybeforethey
haveattainedtheageofthirty……Nordothedivisionofland
andthecheapnessofthemodeofconveyingitfromonemanto
another，encouragetheprovidenceofthelabourersoftherural
districtsonly。Theyactinthesamemanner，thoughperhaps。ina
lessdegree，uponthelabourersofthesmallertowns。Inthe
smallerprovincialtownsitiscustomaryforalabourertoowna
smallplotofgroundoutsidethetown。Thisplothecultivatesin
theeveningashiskitchengarden。Heraisesinitvegetablesand
fruitsfortheuseofhisfamilyduringthewinter。Afterhis
day’sworkisover，heandhisfamilyrepairtothegardenfora
shorttime，whichtheyspendinplanting，sowing，weeding，or
preparingforsowingorharvest，accordingtotheseason。The
desiretobecomepossessedofoneofthesegardensoperatesvery
stronglyinstrengtheningprudentialhabitsandinrestraining
improvidentmarriages。Someofthemanufacturersinthecantonof
Argovietoldmethatatownsmanwasseldomcontenteduntilhehad
boughtagarden，oragardenandhouse，andthatthetown
labourersgenerallydeferredtheirmarriagesforsomeyears，in
ordertosaveenoughtopurchaseeitheroneorbothofthese
luxuries。"
Thesamewritershowsbystatisticalevidence（11*）thatin
Prussiatheaverageageofmarriageisnotonlymuchlaterthan
inEngland，but"isgraduallybecominglaterthanitwas
formerly，"whileatthesametime"fewerillegitimatechildren
areborninPrussiathaninanyotheroftheEuropeancountries。"
"WhereverItravelled，"saysMr。Kay，（12*）"inNorthGermanyand
Switzerland，Iwasassuredbyallthatthedesiretoobtainland，
whichwasfeltbyallthepeasants，wasactingasthestrongest
possiblecheckuponundueincreaseofpopulation。"（13*）
InFlanders，accordingtoMr。Fauche，theBritishConsulat
Ostend，（14*）"farmers’sonsandthosewhohavethemeansto
becomefarmerswilldelaytheirmarriageuntiltheyget
possessionofafarm。"Onceafarmer，thenextobjectisto
becomeaproprietor。"ThefirstthingaDanedoeswithhis
savings，"saysMr。Browne，theConsulatCopenhagen，（15*）"isto
purchaseaclock，thenahorseandcow，whichhehiresout，and
whichpaysagoodinterest。Thenhisambitionistobecomea
pettyproprietor，andthisclassofpersonsisbetteroffthan
anyinDenmark。Indeed，Iknowofnopeopleinanycountrywho
havemoreeasilywithintheirreachallthatisreallynecessary
forlifethanthisclass，whichisverylargeincomparisonwith
thatoflabourers。"
Buttheexperiencewhichmostdecidedlycontradictsthe
assertedtendencyofpeasantproprietorshiptoproduceexcessof
population，isthecaseofFrance。Inthatcountrytheexperiment
isnottriedinthemostfavourablecircumstances，alarge
proportionofthepropertiesbeingtoosmall。Thenumberof
landedproprietorsinFranceisnotexactlyascertained，buton
noestimatedoesitfallmuchshortoffivemillions;which，on
thelowestcalculationofthenumberofpersonsofafamily（and
forFranceitoughttobealowcalculation），showsmuchmore
thanhalfthepopulationaseitherpossessing，orentitledto
inherit，landedproperty。Amajorityofthepropertiesareso
smallasnottoaffordasubsistencetotheproprietors，ofwhom，
accordingtosomecomputations，asmanyasthreemillionsare
obligedtoekeouttheirmeansofsupporteitherbyworkingfor
hire，orbytakingadditionalland，generallyonmetayertenure。
Whenthepropertypossessedisnotsufficienttorelievethe
possessorfromdependenceonwages，theconditionofaproprietor
losesmuchofitscharacteristicefficacyasacheckto
over—population:andifthepredictionsooftenmadeinEngland
hadbeenrealized，andFrancehadbecomea"pauperwarren，"the
experimentwouldhaveprovednothingagainstthetendenciesof
thesamesystemofagriculturaleconomyinothercircumstances。
Butwhatisthefact？ThattherateofincreaseoftheFrench
populationistheslowestinEurope。Duringthegenerationwhich
theRevolutionraisedfromtheextremeofhopelesswretchedness
tosuddenabundance，agreatincreaseofpopulationtookplace。
Butagenerationhasgrownup，which，havingbeenbornin
improvedcircumstances，hasnotlearnttobemiserable;andupon
themthespiritofthriftoperatesmostconspicuously，inkeeping
theincreaseofpopulationwithintheincreaseofnational
wealth。Inatable，drawnupbyProfessorRau，（16*）oftherate
ofannualincreaseofthepopulationsofvariouscountries，that
ofFrance，from1817to1827，isstatedat63/100percent，that
ofEnglandduringasimilardecennialperiodbeing16/10
annually，andthatoftheUnitedStatesnearly3。Accordingto
theOfficialreturnsasanalysedbyM。Legoyt，（17*）theincrease
ofthepopulation，whichfrom1801to1806wasattherateof
1。28percentannually，averagedonly0。47percentfrom1806to
1831;from1831to1836itaveraged0。60percent;from1836to
1841，0。41percent，andfrom1841tol846，0。68percent。（18*）
Atthecensusofl851therateofannualincreaseshownwasonly
1。08percentinthefiveyears，or0。21annually;andatthe
censusof1856only0。71percentinfiveyears，or0。14
annually。sothat，inthewordsofM。deLavergne，"lapopulation
nes’accro顃presqueplusenFrance。"（19*）Eventhisslow
increaseiswhollytheeffectofadiminutionofdeaths;the
numberofbirthsnotincreasingatall，whiletheproportionof
thebirthstothepopulationisconstantlydiminishing。（20*）This
slowgrowthofthenumbersofthepeople，whilecapitalincreases
muchmorerapidly，hascausedanoticeableimprovementinthe
conditionofthelabouringclass。Thecircumstancesofthat
portionoftheclasswhoarelandedproprietorsarenoteasily
ascertainedwithprecision，beingofcourseextremelyvariable;
butthemerelabourers，whoderivednodirectbenefitfromthe
changesinlandedpropertywhichtookplaceattheRevolution，
haveunquestionablymuchimprovedinconditionsincethat
period。（21*）Dr。Rautestifiestoasimilarfactinthecaseof
anothercountryinwhichthesubdivisionofthelandisprobably
excessive，thePalatinate。（22*）
Iamnotawareofasingleauthenticinstancewhichsupports
theassertionthatrapidmultiplicationispromotedbypeasant
properties。Instancesmayundoubtedlybecitedofitsnotbeing
preventedbythem，andoneoftheprincipaloftheseisBelgium;
theprospectsofwhich，inrespecttopopulation，areatpresent
amatterofconsiderableuncertainty。Belgiumhasthemost
rapidlyincreasingpopulationontheContinent;andwhenthe
circumstancesofthecountryrequire，astheymustsoondo，that
thisrapidityshouldbechecked，therewillbeaconsiderable
strengthofexistinghabittobebrokenthrough。Oneofthe
unfavourablecircumstancesisthegreatpowerpossessedoverthe
mindsofthepeoplebytheCatholicpriesthood，whoseinfluence
iseverywherestronglyexertedagainstrestrainingpopulation。As
yet，however，itmustberememberedthattheindefatigable
industryandgreatagriculturalskillofthepeoplehaverendered
theexistingrapidityofincreasepracticallyinnocuous;the
greatnumberoflargeestatesstillundividedaffordingbytheir
gradualdismemberment，aresourceforthenecessaryaugmentation
ofthegrossproduce;andthereare，besides，manylarge
manufacturingtowns，andminingandcoaldistricts，whichattract
andemployaconsiderableportionoftheannualincreaseof
population。
5。Butevenwherepeasantpropertiesareaccompaniedbyan
excessofnumbers，thisevilisnotnecessarilyattendedwiththe
additionaleconomicaldisadvantageoftoogreatasubdivisionof
theland。Itdoesnotfollowbecauselandedpropertyisminutely
divided，thatfarmswillbeso。Aslargepropertiesareperfectly
compatiblewithsmallfarms，soaresmallpropertieswithfarms
ofanadequatesize;andasubdivisionofoccupancyisnotan
inevitableconsequenceofevenunduemultiplicationamongpeasant
proprietors。Asmightbeexpectedfromtheiradmirable
intelligenceinthingsrelatingtotheiroccupation，theFlemish
peasantryhavelonglearntthislesson。"Thehabitofnot
dividingproperties，"saysDr。Rau，（23*）"andtheopinionthat
thisisadvantageous，havebeensocompletelypreservedin
Flanders，thatevennow，whenapeasantdiesleavingseveral
children，theydonotthinkofdividinghispatrimony，thoughit
beneitherentailednorsettledintrust;theyprefersellingit
entire，andsharingtheproceeds，consideringitasajewelwhich
losesitsvaluewhenitisdivided。"Thatthesamefeelingmust
prevailwidelyeveninFrance，isshownbythegreatfrequencyof
salesofland，amountingintenyearstoafourthpartofthe
wholesoilofthecountry……andM。Passy，inhistract"Onthe
ChangesintheAgriculturalConditionoftheDepartmentofthe
Euresincetheyear1800，"（24*）statesotherfactstendingtothe
sameconclusion。"Theexample，"sayshe，"ofthisdepartment
atteststhattheredoesnotexist，assomewritershaveimagined，
betweenthedistributionofpropertyandthatofcultivation，a
connexionwhichtendsinvinciblytoassimilatethem。Inno
portionofithavechangesofownershiphadaperceptible
influenceonthesizeofholdings。While，indistrictsofsmall
farming，landsbelongingtothesameownerareordinarily
distributedamongmanytenants，soneitherisituncommon，in
placeswherethegrandecultureprevails，forthesamefarmerto
rentthelandsofseveralproprietors。IntheplainsofVexin，in
particular，manyactiveandrichcultivatorsdonotcontent
themselveswithasinglefarm;othersaddtothelandsoftheir
principalholding，allthoseintheneighbourhoodwhichtheyare
abletohire，andinthismannermakeupatotalextentwhichin
somecasesreachesorexceedstwohundredhectares"（fivehundred
Englishacres）。"Themoretheestatesaredismembered，themore
frequentdothissortofarrangementsbecome:andastheyconduce
totheinterestofallconcerned，itisprobablethattimewill
confirmthem。"