SeveralauthorshavehintedthattheGunpowderPlotistobeprimarilyattributedtohisdoctrines，andseemtothinkthathiseffigyoughttobesubstitutedforthatofGuyFaux，inthoseprocessionsbywhichtheingeniousyouthofEnglandannuallycommemoratethepreservationoftheThreeEstates。TheChurchofRomehaspronouncedhisworksaccursedthings。Norhaveourowncountrymenbeenbackwardintestifyingtheiropinionofhismerits。Outofhissurnametheyhavecoinedanepithetforaknave，andoutofhisChristiannameasynonymfortheDevil。
　　[NickMachiavelhadne’eratrick，Tho’hegavehisnametoouroldNick。
　　Hudibras，Partiii。Cantoi。
　　But，webelieve，thereisaschismonthissubjectamongtheantiquarians。]
　　Itisindeedscarcelypossibleforanyperson，notwellacquaintedwiththehistoryandliteratureofItaly，toreadwithouthorrorandamazementthecelebratedtreatisewhichhasbroughtsomuchobloquyonthenameofMachiavelli。Suchadisplayofwickedness，nakedyetnotashamed，suchcool，judicious，scientificatrocity，seemedrathertobelongtoafiendthantothemostdepravedofmen。Principleswhichthemosthardenedruffianwouldscarcelyhinttohismosttrustedaccomplice，oravow，withoutthedisguiseofsomepalliatingsophism，eventohisownmind，areprofessedwithouttheslightestcircumlocution，andassumedasthefundamentalaxiomsofallpoliticalscience。
　　Itisnotstrangethatordinaryreadersshouldregardtheauthorofsuchabookasthemostdepravedandshamelessofhumanbeings。Wisemen，however，havealwaysbeeninclinedtolookwithgreatsuspicionontheangelsanddaemonsofthemultitude:andinthepresentinstance，severalcircumstanceshaveledevensuperficialobserverstoquestionthejusticeofthevulgardecision。ItisnotoriousthatMachiavelliwas，throughlife，azealousrepublican。InthesameyearinwhichhecomposedhismanualofKing—craft，hesufferedimprisonmentandtortureinthecauseofpublicliberty。Itseemsinconceivablethatthemartyroffreedomshouldhavedesignedlyactedastheapostleoftyranny。Severaleminentwritershave，therefore，endeavouredtodetectinthisunfortunateperformancesomeconcealedmeaning，moreconsistentwiththecharacterandconductoftheauthorthanthatwhichappearsatthefirstglance。
　　OnehypothesisisthatMachiavelliintendedtopractiseontheyoungLorenzodeMediciafraudsimilartothatwhichSunderlandissaidtohaveemployedagainstourJamestheSecond，andthatheurgedhispupiltoviolentandperfidiousmeasures，asthesurestmeansofacceleratingthemomentofdeliveranceandrevenge。AnothersuppositionwhichLordBaconseemstocountenance，isthatthetreatisewasmerelyapieceofgraveirony，intendedtowarnnationsagainsttheartsofambitiousmen。ItwouldbeeasytoshowthatneitherofthesesolutionsisconsistentwithmanypassagesinThePrinceitself。ButthemostdecisiverefutationisthatwhichisfurnishedbytheotherworksofMachiavelli。Inallthewritingswhichhegavetothepublic，andinallthosewhichtheresearchofeditorshas，inthecourseofthreecenturies，discovered，inhisComedies，designedfortheentertainmentofthemultitude，inhisCommentsonLivy，intendedfortheperusalofthemostenthusiasticpatriotsofFlorence，inhisHistory，inscribedtooneofthemostamiableandestimableofthePopes，inhispublicdespatches，inhisprivatememoranda，thesameobliquityofmoralprincipleforwhichThePrinceissoseverelycensuredismoreorlessdiscernible。Wedoubtwhetheritwouldbepossibletofind，inallthemanyvolumesofhiscompositions，asingleexpressionindicatingthatdissimulationandtreacheryhadeverstruckhimasdiscreditable。
　　Afterthis，itmayseemridiculoustosaythatweareacquaintedwithfewwritingswhichexhibitsomuchelevationofsentiment，sopureandwarmazealforthepublicgood，orsojustaviewofthedutiesandrightsofcitizens，asthoseofMachiavelli。Yetsoitis。AndevenfromThePrinceitselfwecouldselectmanypassagesinsupportofthisremark。Toareaderofourageandcountrythisinconsistencyis，atfirst，perfectlybewildering。
　　Thewholemanseemstobeanenigma，agrotesqueassemblageofincongruousqualities，selfishnessandgenerosity，crueltyandbenevolence，craftandsimplicity，abjectvillainyandromanticheroism。Onesentenceissuchasaveterandiplomatistwouldscarcelywriteincipherforthedirectionofhismostconfidentialspy;thenextseemstobeextractedfromathemecomposedbyanardentschoolboyonthedeathofLeonidas。Anactofdexterousperfidy，andanactofpatrioticself—devotion，callforththesamekindandthesamedegreeofrespectfuladmiration。
　　Themoralsensibilityofthewriterseemsatoncetobemorbidlyobtuseandmorbidlyacute。Twocharactersaltogetherdissimilarareunitedinhim。Theyarenotmerelyjoined，butinterwoven。
　　Theyarethewarpandthewoofofhismind;andtheircombination，likethatofthevariegatedthreadsinshotsilk，givestothewholetextureaglancingandever—changingappearance。Theexplanationmighthavebeeneasy，ifhehadbeenaveryweakoraveryaffectedman。Buthewasevidentlyneithertheonenortheother。Hisworksprove，beyondallcontradiction，thathisunderstandingwasstrong，histastepure，andhissenseoftheridiculousexquisitelykeen。
　　Thisisstrange:andyetthestrangestisbehind。Thereisnoreasonwhatevertothink，thatthoseamongstwhomhelivedsawanythingshockingorincongruousinhiswritings。Abundantproofsremainofthehighestimationinwhichbothhisworksandhispersonwereheldbythemostrespectableamonghiscontemporaries。ClementtheSeventhpatronisedthepublicationofthoseverybookswhichtheCouncilofTrent，inthefollowinggeneration，pronouncedunfitfortheperusalofChristians。SomemembersofthedemocraticalpartycensuredtheSecretaryfordedicatingThePrincetoapatronwhoboretheunpopularnameofMedici。Buttothoseimmoraldoctrineswhichhavesincecalledforthsuchseverereprehensionsnoexceptionappearstohavebeentaken。ThecryagainstthemwasfirstraisedbeyondtheAlps，andseemstohavebeenheardwithamazementinItaly。Theearliestassailant，asfarasweareaware，wasacountrymanofourown，CardinalPole。TheauthoroftheAnti—MachiavelliwasaFrenchProtestant。
　　Itis，therefore，inthestateofmoralfeelingamongtheItaliansofthosetimesthatwemustseekfortherealexplanationofwhatseemsmostmysteriousinthelifeandwritingsofthisremarkableman。Asthisisasubjectwhichsuggestsmanyinterestingconsiderations，bothpoliticalandmetaphysical，weshallmakenoapologyfordiscussingitatsomelength。
　　DuringthegloomyanddisastrouscenturieswhichfollowedthedownfalloftheRomanEmpire，Italyhadpreserved，inafargreaterdegreethananyotherpartofWesternEurope，thetracesofancientcivilisation。ThenightwhichdescendeduponherwasthenightofanArcticsummer。Thedawnbegantoreappearbeforethelastreflectionoftheprecedingsunsethadfadedfromthehorizon。ItwasinthetimeoftheFrenchMerovingiansandoftheSaxonHeptarchythatignoranceandferocityseemedtohavedonetheirworst。YeteventhentheNeapolitanprovinces，recognisingtheauthorityoftheEasternEmpire，preservedsomethingofEasternknowledgeandrefinement。Rome，protectedbythesacredcharacterofherPontiffs，enjoyedatleastcomparativesecurityandrepose，EveninthoseregionswherethesanguinaryLombardshadfixedtheirmonarchy，therewasincomparablymoreofwealth，ofinformation，ofphysicalcomfort，andofsocialorder，thancouldbefoundinGaul，Britain，orGermany。
　　ThatwhichmostdistinguishedItalyfromtheneighbouringcountrieswastheimportancewhichthepopulationofthetowns，ataveryearlyperiod，begantoacquire。Somecitieshadbeenfoundedinwildandremotesituations，byfugitiveswhohadescapedfromtherageofthebarbarians。SuchwereVeniceandGenoa，whichpreservedtheirfreedombytheirobscurity，tilltheybecameabletopreserveitbytheirpower。Othercitiesseemtohaveretained，underallthechangingdynastiesofinvaders，underOdoacerandTheodoric，NarsesandAlboin，themunicipalinstitutionswhichhadbeenconferredonthembytheliberalpolicyoftheGreatRepublic。Inprovinceswhichthecentralgovernmentwastoofeebleeithertoprotectortooppress，theseinstitutionsgraduallyacquiredstabilityandvigour。Thecitizens，defendedbytheirwalls，andgovernedbytheirownmagistratesandtheirownby—laws，enjoyedaconsiderableshareofrepublicanindependence。Thusastrongdemocraticspiritwascalledintoaction。TheCarlovingiansovereignsweretooimbeciletosubdueit。ThegenerouspolicyofOthoencouragedit。ItmightperhapshavebeensuppressedbyaclosecoalitionbetweentheChurchandtheEmpire。Itwasfosteredandinvigoratedbytheirdisputes。Inthetwelfthcenturyitattaineditsfullvigour，and，afteralonganddoubtfulconflict，triumphedovertheabilitiesandcourageoftheSwabianprinces。
　　TheassistanceoftheEcclesiasticalpowerhadgreatlycontributedtothesuccessoftheGuelfs。Thatsuccesswould，however，havebeenadoubtfulgood，ifitsonlyeffecthadbeentosubstituteamoralforapoliticalservitude，andtoexaltthePopesattheexpenseoftheCaesars。HappilythepublicmindofItalyhadlongcontainedtheseedsoffreeopinions，whichwerenowrapidlydevelopedbythegenialinfluenceoffreeinstitutions。ThepeopleofthatcountryhadobservedthewholemachineryoftheChurch，itssaintsanditsmiracles，itsloftypretensionsanditssplendidceremonial，itsworthlessblessingsanditsharmlesscurses，toolongandtoocloselytobeduped。
　　Theystoodbehindthescenesonwhichothersweregazingwithchildishaweandinterest。Theywitnessedthearrangementofthepulleys，andthemanufactureofthethunders。Theysawthenaturalfacesandheardthenaturalvoicesoftheactors。DistantnationslookedonthePopeastheVicegerentoftheAlmighty，theoracleoftheAll—wise，theumpirefromwhosedecisions，inthedisputeseitheroftheologiansorofkings，noChristianoughttoappeal。TheItalianswereacquaintedwithallthefolliesofhisyouth，andwithallthedishonestartsbywhichhehadattainedpower。TheyknewhowoftenhehademployedthekeysoftheChurchtoreleasehimselffromthemostsacredengagements，anditswealthtopamperhismistressesandnephews。Thedoctrinesandritesoftheestablishedreligiontheytreatedwithdecentreverence。ButthoughtheystillcalledthemselvesCatholics，theyhadceasedtobePapists。ThosespiritualarmswhichcarriedterrorintothepalacesandcampsoftheproudestsovereignsexcitedonlycontemptintheimmediateneighbourhoodoftheVatican。Alexander，whenhecommandedourHenrytheSecondtosubmittothelashbeforethetombofarebellioussubject，washimselfanexile。TheRomansapprehendingthatheentertaineddesignsagainsttheirliberties，haddrivenhimfromtheircity;
　　andthoughhesolemnlypromisedtoconfinehimselfforthefuturetohisspiritualfunctions，theystillrefusedtoreadmithim。
　　IneveryotherpartofEurope，alargeandpowerfulprivilegedclasstrampledonthepeopleanddefiedtheGovernment。ButinthemostflourishingpartsofItaly，thefeudalnobleswerereducedtocomparativeinsignificance。Insomedistrictstheytookshelterundertheprotectionofthepowerfulcommonwealthswhichtheywereunabletooppose，andgraduallysankintothemassofburghers。Inotherplacestheypossessedgreatinfluence;
　　butitwasaninfluencewidelydifferentfromthatwhichwasexercisedbythearistocracyofanyTransalpinekingdom。Theywerenotpettyprinces，buteminentcitizens。Insteadofstrengtheningtheirfastnessesamongthemountains，theyembellishedtheirpalacesinthemarket—place。ThestateofsocietyintheNeapolitandominions，andinsomepartsoftheEcclesiasticalState，morenearlyresembledthatwhichexistedinthegreatmonarchiesofEurope。ButtheGovernmentsofLombardyandTuscany，throughalltheirrevolutions，preservedadifferentcharacter。Apeople，whenassembledinatown，isfarmoreformidabletoitsrulersthanwhendispersedoverawideextentofcountry。ThemostarbitraryoftheCaesarsfounditnecessarytofeedanddiverttheinhabitantsoftheirunwieldycapitalattheexpenseoftheprovinces。ThecitizensofMadridhavemorethanoncebesiegedtheirsovereigninhisownpalace，andextortedfromhimthemosthumiliatingconcessions。TheSultanshaveoftenbeencompelledtopropitiatethefuriousrabbleofConstantinoplewiththeheadofanunpopularVizier。FromthesamecausetherewasacertaintingeofdemocracyinthemonarchiesandaristocraciesofNorthernItaly。
　　Thusliberty，partiallyindeedandtransiently，revisitedItaly;
　　andwithlibertycamecommerceandempire，scienceandtaste，allthecomfortsandalltheornamentsoflife。TheCrusades，fromwhichtheinhabitantsofothercountriesgainednothingbutrelicsandwounds，broughttotherisingcommonwealthsoftheAdriaticandTyrrheneseasalargeincreaseofwealth，dominion，andknowledge。ThemoralandgeographicalpositionofthosecommonwealthsenabledthemtoprofitalikebythebarbarismoftheWestandbythecivilisationoftheEast。Italianshipscoveredeverysea。Italianfactoriesroseoneveryshore。ThetablesofItalianmoneychangersweresetineverycity。
　　Manufacturesflourished。Bankswereestablished。Theoperationsofthecommercialmachinewerefacilitatedbymanyusefulandbeautifulinventions。WedoubtwhetheranycountryofEurope，ourownexcepted，haveatthepresenttimereachedsohighapointofwealthandcivilisationassomepartsofItalyhadattainedfourhundredyearsago。Historiansrarelydescendtothosedetailsfromwhichalonetherealstateofacommunitycanbecollected。Henceposterityistoooftendeceivedbythevaguehyperbolesofpoetsandrhetoricians，whomistakethesplendourofacourtforthehappinessofapeople。Fortunately，JohnVillanihasgivenusanampleandpreciseaccountofthestateofFlorenceintheearlypartofthefourteenthcentury。TherevenueoftheRepublicamountedtothreehundredthousandflorins;asumwhich，allowingforthedepreciationofthepreciousmetals，wasatleastequivalenttosixhundredthousandpoundssterling;alargersumthanEnglandandIreland，twocenturiesago，yieldedannuallytoElizabeth。Themanufactureofwoolaloneemployedtwohundredfactoriesandthirtythousandworkmen。Theclothannuallyproducedsold，atanaverage，fortwelvehundredthousandflorins;asumfullyequalinexchangeablevaluetotwomillionsandahalfofourmoney。Fourhundredthousandflorinswereannuallycoined。Eightybanksconductedthecommercialoperations，notofFlorenceonlybutofallEurope。ThetransactionsoftheseestablishmentsweresometimesofamagnitudewhichmaysurpriseeventhecontemporariesoftheBaringsandtheRothschilds。TwohousesadvancedtoEdwardtheThirdofEnglandupwardsofthreehundredthousandmarks，atatimewhenthemarkcontainedmoresilverthanfiftyshillingsofthepresentday，andwhenthevalueofsilverwasmorethanquadrupleofwhatitnowis。Thecityanditsenvironscontainedahundredandseventythousandinhabitants。Inthevariousschoolsabouttenthousandchildrenweretaughttoread;twelvehundredstudiedarithmetic;sixhundredreceivedalearnededucation。
　　Theprogressofelegantliteratureandofthefineartswasproportionedtothatofthepublicprosperity。UnderthedespoticsuccessorsofAugustus，allthefieldsofintellecthadbeenturnedintoaridwastes，stillmarkedoutbyformalboundaries，stillretainingthetracesofoldcultivation，butyieldingneitherflowersnorfruit。Thedelugeofbarbarismcame。
　　Itsweptawayallthelandmarks。Itobliteratedallthesignsofformertillage。Butitfertilisedwhileitdevastated。Whenitreceded，thewildernesswasasthegardenofGod，rejoicingoneveryside，laughing，clappingitshands，pouringforth，inspontaneousabundance，everythingbrilliant，orfragrant，ornourishing。Anewlanguage，characterisedbysimplesweetnessandsimpleenergy，hadattainedperfection。Notongueeverfurnishedmoregorgeousandvividtintstopoetry;norwasitlongbeforeapoetappearedwhoknewhowtoemploythem。EarlyinthefourteenthcenturycameforththeDivineComedy，beyondcomparisonthegreatestworkofimaginationwhichhadappearedsincethepoemsofHomer。ThefollowinggenerationproducedindeednosecondDante:butitwaseminentlydistinguishedbygeneralintellectualactivity。ThestudyoftheLatinwritershadneverbeenwhollyneglectedinItaly。ButPetrarchintroducedamoreprofound，liberal，andelegantscholarship，andcommunicatedtohiscountrymenthatenthusiasmfortheliterature，thehistory，andtheantiquitiesofRome，whichdividedhisownheartwithafrigidmistressandamorefrigidMuse。BoccaccioturnedtheirattentiontothemoresublimeandgracefulmodelsofGreece。
　　Fromthistime，theadmirationoflearningandgeniusbecamealmostanidolatryamongthepeopleofItaly。Kingsandrepublics，cardinalsanddoges，viedwitheachotherinhonouringandflatteringPetrarch。EmbassiesfromrivalStatessolicitedthehonourofhisinstructions。HiscoronationagitatedtheCourtofNaplesandthepeopleofRomeasmuchasthemostimportantpoliticaltransactioncouldhavedone。Tocollectbooksandantiques，tofoundprofessorships，topatronisemenoflearning，becamealmostuniversalfashionsamongthegreat。Thespiritofliteraryresearchallieditselftothatofcommercialenterprise。
　　EveryplacetowhichthemerchantprincesofFlorenceextendedtheirgigantictraffic，fromthebazarsoftheTigristothemonasteriesoftheClyde，wasransackedformedalsandmanuscripts。Architecture，painting，andsculpture，weremunificentlyencouraged。IndeeditwouldbedifficulttonameanItalianofeminence，duringtheperiodofwhichwespeak，who，whatevermayhavebeenhisgeneralcharacter，didnotatleastaffectaloveoflettersandofthearts。
　　Knowledgeandpublicprosperitycontinuedtoadvancetogether。
　　BothattainedtheirmeridianintheageofLorenzotheMagnificent。Wecannotrefrainfromquotingthesplendidpassage，inwhichtheTuscanThucydidesdescribesthestateofItalyatthatperiod。"Ridottatuttainsommapaceetranquillita，coltivatanonmenone’luoghipiumontuosiepiusterilichenellepianureeregionipiufertili，nesottopostaadaltroimperiochede’suoimedesimi，nonsoloeraabbondantissimad’
　　abitatoriediricchezze;maillustratasommamentedallamagnificenzadimoltiprincipi，dallosplendoredimoltenobilissimeebellissimecitta，dallasediaemaestadellareligione，fiorivad’uominiprestantissiminell’amministrazionedellecosepubbliche，ed’ingegnimoltonobiliintuttelescienze，edinqualunqueartepreclaraedindustriosa。"Whenweperusethisjustandsplendiddescription，wecanscarcelypersuadeourselvesthatwearereadingoftimesinwhichtheannalsofEnglandandFrancepresentusonlywithafrightfulspectacleofpoverty，barbarity，andignorance。Fromtheoppressionsofilliteratemasters，andthesufferingsofadegradedpeasantry，itisdelightfultoturntotheopulentandenlightenedStatesofItaly，tothevastandmagnificentcities，theports，thearsenals，thevillas，themuseums，thelibraries，themartsfilledwitheveryarticleofcomfortorluxury，thefactoriesswarmingwithartisans，theApenninescoveredwithrichcultivationuptotheirverysummits，thePowaftingtheharvestsofLombardytothegranariesofVenice，andcarryingbackthesilksofBengalandthefursofSiberiatothepalacesofMilan。
　　Withpeculiarpleasure，everycultivatedmindmustreposeonthefair，thehappy，thegloriousFlorence，thehallswhichrangwiththemirthofPulci，thecellwheretwinkledthemidnightlampofPolitian，thestatuesonwhichtheyoungeyeofMichaelAngeloglaredwiththefrenzyofakindredinspiration，thegardensinwhichLorenzomeditatedsomesparklingsongfortheMay—daydanceoftheEtrurianvirgins。Alasforthebeautifulcity！Alasforthewitandthelearning，thegeniusandthelove！
　　"Ledonne，eicavalier，gliaffanni，egliagi，Chene’nvogliavaamoreecortesiaLadoveicuorsonfattisimalvagi。"
　　Atimewasathand，whenallthesevenvialsoftheApocalypseweretobepouredforthandshakenoutoverthosepleasantcountries，atimeofslaughter，famine，beggary，infamy，slavery，despair。
　　IntheItalianStates，asinmanynaturalbodies，untimelydecrepitudewasthepenaltyofprecociousmaturity。Theirearlygreatness，andtheirearlydecline，areprincipallytobeattributedtothesamecause，thepreponderancewhichthetownsacquiredinthepoliticalsystem。
　　Inacommunityofhuntersorofshepherds，everymaneasilyandnecessarilybecomesasoldier。Hisordinaryavocationsareperfectlycompatiblewithallthedutiesofmilitaryservice。
　　Howeverremotemaybetheexpeditiononwhichheisbound，hefindsiteasytotransportwithhimthestockfromwhichhederiveshissubsistence。Thewholepeopleisanarmy;thewholeyearamarch。SuchwasthestateofsocietywhichfacilitatedthegiganticconquestsofAttilaandTamerlane。
　　Butapeoplewhichsubsistsbythecultivationoftheearthisinaverydifferentsituation。Thehusbandmanisboundtothesoilonwhichhelabours。Alongcampaignwouldberuinoustohim。
　　Stillhispursuitsaresuchasgivetohisframeboththeactiveandthepassivestrengthnecessarytoasoldier。Nordothey，atleastintheinfancyofagriculturalscience，demandhisuninterruptedattention。Atparticulartimesoftheyearheisalmostwhollyunemployed，andcan，withoutinjurytohimself，affordthetimenecessaryforashortexpedition。ThusthelegionsofRomeweresuppliedduringitsearlierwars。Theseasonduringwhichthefieldsdidnotrequirethepresenceofthecultivatorssufficedforashortinroadandabattle。Theseoperations，toofrequentlyinterruptedtoproducedecisiveresults，yetservedtokeepupamongthepeopleadegreeofdisciplineandcouragewhichrenderedthem，notonlysecure，butformidable。Thearchersandbillmenofthemiddleages，who，withprovisionsforfortydaysattheirbacks，leftthefieldsforthecamp，weretroopsofthesamedescription。
　　Butwhencommerceandmanufacturesbegintoflourishagreatchangetakesplace。Thesedentaryhabitsofthedeskandtheloomrendertheexertionsandhardshipsofwarinsupportable。Thebusinessoftradersandartisansrequirestheirconstantpresenceandattention。Insuchacommunitythereislittlesuperfluoustime;butthereisgenerallymuchsuperfluousmoney。Somemembersofthesocietyare，therefore，hiredtorelievetherestfromataskinconsistentwiththeirhabitsandengagements。
　　ThehistoryofGreeceis，inthis，asinmanyotherrespects，thebestcommentaryonthehistoryofItaly。FivehundredyearsbeforetheChristianera，thecitizensoftherepublicsroundtheAegeanSeaformedperhapsthefinestmilitiathateverexisted。
　　Aswealthandrefinementadvanced，thesystemunderwentagradualalteration。TheIonianStateswerethefirstinwhichcommerceandtheartswerecultivated，andthefirstinwhichtheancientdisciplinedecayed。WithineightyyearsafterthebattleofPlataea，mercenarytroopswereeverywhereplyingforbattlesandsieges。InthetimeofDemosthenes，itwasscarcelypossibletopersuadeorcompeltheAthenianstoenlistforforeignservice。
　　ThelawsofLycurgusprohibitedtradeandmanufactures。TheSpartans，therefore，continuedtoformanationalforcelongaftertheirneighbourshadbeguntohiresoldiers。Buttheirmilitaryspiritdeclinedwiththeirsingularinstitutions。InthesecondcenturybeforeChrist，Greececontainedonlyonenationofwarriors，thesavagehighlandersofAetolia，whoweresomegenerationsbehindtheircountrymenincivilisationandintelligence。
　　AllthecauseswhichproducedtheseeffectsamongtheGreeksactedstillmorestronglyonthemodernItalians。InsteadofapowerlikeSparta，initsnaturewarlike，theyhadamongstthemanecclesiasticalstate，initsnaturepacific。Wheretherearenumerousslaves，everyfreemanisinducedbythestrongestmotivestofamiliarisehimselfwiththeuseofarms。ThecommonwealthsofItalydidnot，likethoseofGreece，swarmwiththousandsofthesehouseholdenemies。Lastly，themodeinwhichmilitaryoperationswereconductedduringtheprosperoustimesofItalywaspeculiarlyunfavourabletotheformationofanefficientmilitia。Mencoveredwithironfromheadtofoot，armedwithponderouslances，andmountedonhorsesofthelargestbreed，wereconsideredascomposingthestrengthofanarmy。Theinfantrywasregardedascomparativelyworthless，andwasneglectedtillitbecamereallyso。ThesetacticsmaintainedtheirgroundforcenturiesinmostpartsofEurope。Thatfoot—
　　soldierscouldwithstandthechargeofheavycavalrywasthoughtutterlyimpossible，till，towardsthecloseofthefifteenthcentury，therudemountaineersofSwitzerlanddissolvedthespell，andastoundedthemostexperiencedgeneralsbyreceivingthedreadedshockonanimpenetrableforestofpikes。
　　TheuseoftheGrecianspear，theRomansword，orthemodernbayonet，mightbeacquiredwithcomparativeease。Butnothingshortofthedailyexerciseofyearscouldtraintheman—at—armstosupporthisponderouspanoply，andmanagehisunwieldyweapon。
　　ThroughoutEuropethismostimportantbranchofwarbecameaseparateprofession。BeyondtheAlps，indeed，thoughaprofession，itwasnotgenerallyatrade。Itwasthedutyandtheamusementofalargeclassofcountrygentlemen。Itwastheservicebywhichtheyheldtheirlands，andthediversionbywhich，intheabsenceofmentalresources，theybeguiledtheirleisure。ButintheNorthernStatesofItaly，aswehavealreadyremarked，thegrowingpowerofthecities，whereithadnotexterminatedthisorderofmen，hadcompletelychangedtheirhabits。Here，therefore，thepracticeofemployingmercenariesbecameuniversal，atatimewhenitwasalmostunknowninothercountries。
　　Whenwarbecomesthetradeofaseparateclass，theleastdangerouscourselefttoagovernmentistoforcethatclassintoastandingarmy。Itisscarcelypossible，thatmencanpasstheirlivesintheserviceofoneState，withoutfeelingsomeinterestinitsgreatness。Itsvictoriesaretheirvictories。Itsdefeatsaretheirdefeats。Thecontractlosessomethingofitsmercantilecharacter。Theservicesofthesoldierareconsideredastheeffectsofpatrioticzeal，hispayasthetributeofnationalgratitude。Tobetraythepowerwhichemployshim，tobeevenremissinitsservice，areinhiseyesthemostatrociousanddegradingofcrimes。
　　WhentheprincesandcommonwealthsofItalybegantousehiredtroops，theirwisestcoursewouldhavebeentoformseparatemilitaryestablishments。Unhappilythiswasnotdone。ThemercenarywarriorsofthePeninsula，insteadofbeingattachedtotheserviceofdifferentpowers，wereregardedasthecommonpropertyofall。TheconnectionbetweentheStateanditsdefenderswasreducedtothemostsimpleandnakedtraffic。Theadventurerbroughthishorse，hisweapons，hisstrength，andhisexperience，intothemarket。WhethertheKingofNaplesortheDukeofMilan，thePopeortheSignoryofFlorence，struckthebargain，wastohimamatterofperfectindifference。Hewasforthehighestwagesandthelongestterm。Whenthecampaignforwhichhehadcontractedwasfinished，therewasneitherlawnorpunctiliotopreventhimfrominstantlyturninghisarmsagainsthislatemasters。Thesoldierwasaltogetherdisjoinedfromthecitizenandfromthesubject。
　　Thenaturalconsequencesfollowed。Lefttotheconductofmenwhoneitherlovedthosewhomtheydefended，norhatedthosewhomtheyopposed，whowereoftenboundbystrongertiestothearmyagainstwhichtheyfoughtthantotheStatewhichtheyserved，wholostbytheterminationoftheconflict，andgainedbyitsprolongation，warcompletelychangeditscharacter。Everymancameintothefieldofbattleimpressedwiththeknowledgethat，inafewdays，hemightbetakingthepayofthepoweragainstwhichhewasthenemployed，and，fightingbythesideofhisenemiesagainsthisassociates。Thestrongestinterestsandthestrongestfeelingsconcurredtomitigatethehostilityofthosewhohadlatelybeenbrethreninarms，andwhomightsoonbebrethreninarmsoncemore。Theircommonprofessionwasabondofunionnottobeforgottenevenwhentheywereengagedintheserviceofcontendingparties。Henceitwasthatoperations，languidandindecisivebeyondanyrecordedinhistory，marchesandcounter—marches，pillagingexpeditionsandblockades，bloodlesscapitulationsandequallybloodlesscombats，makeupthemilitaryhistoryofItalyduringthecourseofnearlytwocenturies。Mightyarmiesfightfromsunrisetosunset。Agreatvictoryiswon。Thousandsofprisonersaretaken;andhardlyalifeislost。Apitchedbattleseemstohavebeenreallylessdangerousthananordinaryciviltumult。
　　Couragewasnownolongernecessaryeventothemilitarycharacter。Mengrewoldincamps，andacquiredthehighestrenownbytheirwarlikeachievements，withoutbeingoncerequiredtofaceseriousdanger。Thepoliticalconsequencesaretoowellknown。Therichestandmostenlightenedpartoftheworldwasleftundefendedtotheassaultsofeverybarbarousinvader，tothebrutalityofSwitzerland，theinsolenceofFrance，andthefiercerapacityofArragon。Themoraleffectswhichfollowedfromthisstateofthingswerestillmoreremarkable。
　　AmongtherudenationswhichlaybeyondtheAlps，valourwasabsolutelyindispensable。Withoutitnonecouldbeeminent;fewcouldbesecure。Cowardicewas，therefore，naturallyconsideredasthefoulestreproach。AmongthepolishedItalians，enrichedbycommerce，governedbylaw，andpassionatelyattachedtoliterature，everythingwasdonebysuperiorityandintelligence。
　　Theirverywars，morepacificthanthepeaceoftheirneighbours，requiredrathercivilthanmilitaryqualifications。Hence，whilecouragewasthepointofhonourinothercountries，ingenuitybecamethepointofhonourinItaly。
　　Fromtheseprincipleswerededuced，byprocessesstrictlyanalogous，twooppositesystemsoffashionablemorality。ThroughthegreaterpartofEurope，theviceswhichpeculiarlybelongtotimiddispositions，andwhicharethenaturaldefenceOfweakness，fraud，andhypocrisy，havealwaysbeenmostdisreputable。Ontheotherhand，theexcessesofhaughtyanddaringspiritshavebeentreatedwithindulgence，andevenwithrespect。TheItaliansregardedwithcorrespondinglenitythosecrimeswhichrequireself—command，address，quickobservation，fertileinvention，andprofoundknowledgeofhumannature。
　　SuchaprinceasourHenrytheFifthwouldhavebeentheidoloftheNorth。Thefolliesofhisyouth，theselfishambitionofhismanhood，theLollardsroastedatslowfirestheprisonersmassacredonthefieldofbattle，theexpiringleaseofpriestcraftrenewedforanothercentury，thedreadfullegacyofacauselessandhopelesswarbequeathedtoapeoplewhohadnointerestinitsevent，everythingisforgottenbutthevictoryofAgincourt。FrancisSforza，ontheotherhand，wasthemodelofItalianheroes。Hemadehisemployersandhisrivalsalikehistools。Hefirstoverpoweredhisopenenemiesbythehelpoffaithlessallies;hethenarmedhimselfagainsthisallieswiththespoilstakenfromhisenemies。Byhisincomparabledexterity，heraisedhimselffromtheprecariousanddependentsituationofamilitaryadventurertothefirstthroneofItaly。Tosuchamanmuchwasforgiven，hollowfriendship，ungenerousenmity，violatedfaith。Sucharetheoppositeerrorswhichmencommit，whentheirmoralityisnotasciencebutataste，whentheyabandoneternalprinciplesforaccidentalassociations。
　　Wehaveillustratedourmeaningbyaninstancetakenfromhistory。Wewillselectanotherfromfiction。Othellomurdershiswife;hegivesordersforthemurderofhislieutenant;heendsbymurderinghimself。YetheneverlosestheesteemandaffectionofNorthernreaders。Hisintrepidandardentspiritredeemseverything。Theunsuspectingconfidencewithwhichhelistenstohisadviser，theagonywithwhichheshrinksfromthethoughtofshame，thetempestofpassionwithwhichhecommitshiscrimes，andthehaughtyfearlessnesswithwhichheavowsthem，giveanextraordinaryinteresttohischaracter。Iago，onthecontrary，istheobjectofuniversalloathing。ManyareinclinedtosuspectthatShakspearehasbeenseducedintoanexaggerationunusualwithhim，andhasdrawnamonsterwhohasnoarchetypeinhumannature。NowwesuspectthatanItalianaudienceinthefifteenthcenturywouldhavefeltverydifferently。Othellowouldhaveinspirednothingbutdetestationandcontempt。Thefollywithwhichhetruststhefriendlyprofessionsofamanwhosepromotionhehadobstructed，thecredulitywithwhichhetakesunsupportedassertions，andtrivialcircumstances，forunanswerableproofs，theviolencewithwhichhesilencestheexculpationtilltheexculpationcanonlyaggravatehismisery，wouldhaveexcitedtheabhorrenceanddisgustofthespectators。TheconductofIagotheywouldassuredlyhavecondemned;buttheywouldhavecondemneditaswecondemnthatofhisvictim。Somethingofinterestandrespectwouldhavemingledwiththeirdisapprobation。Thereadinessofthetraitor’swit，theclearnessofhisjudgment，theskillwithwhichhepenetratesthedispositionsofothersandconcealshisown，wouldhaveensuredtohimacertainportionoftheiresteem。
　　SowidewasthedifferencebetweentheItaliansandtheirneighbours。AsimilardifferenceexistedbetweentheGreeksofthesecondcenturybeforeChrist，andtheirmasterstheRomans。
　　Theconquerors，braveandresolute，faithfultotheirengagements，andstronglyinfluencedbyreligiousfeelings，were，atthesametime，ignorant，arbitrary，andcruel。Withthevanquishedpeopleweredepositedalltheart，thescience，andtheliteratureoftheWesternworld。Inpoetry，inphilosophy，inpainting，inarchitecture，insculpture，theyhadnorivals。
　　Theirmannerswerepolished，theirperceptionsacute，theirinventionready;theyweretolerant，affable，humane;butofcourageandsinceritytheywerealmostutterlydestitute。Everyrudecenturionconsoledhimselfforhisintellectualinferiority，byremarkingthatknowledgeandtasteseemedonlytomakemenatheists，cowards，andslaves。Thedistinctionlongcontinuedtobestronglymarked，andfurnishedanadmirablesubjectforthefiercesarcasmsofJuvenal。
　　ThecitizenofanItaliancommonwealthwastheGreekofthetimeofJuvenalandtheGreekofthetimeofPericles，joinedinone。
　　Liketheformer，hewastimidandpliable，artfulandmean。But，likethelatter，hehadacountry。Itsindependenceandprosperityweredeartohim。Ifhischaracterweredegradedbysomebasecrimes，itwas，ontheotherhand，ennobledbypublicspiritandbyanhonourableambition，Avicesanctionedbythegeneralopinionismerelyavice。Theevilterminatesinitself。Avicecondemnedbythegeneralopinionproducesaperniciouseffectonthewholecharacter。Theformerisalocalmalady，thelatteraconstitutionaltaint。Whenthereputationoftheoffenderislost，hetoooftenflingstheremainsofhisvirtueafteritindespair。TheHighlandgentlemanwho，acenturyago，livedbytakingblackmailfromhisneighbours，committedthesamecrimeforwhichWildwasaccompaniedtoTyburnbythehuzzasoftwohundredthousandpeople。ButtherecanbenodoubtthathewasamuchlessdepravedmanthanWild。ThedeedforwhichMrs。Brownriggwashangedsinksintonothing，whencomparedwiththeconductoftheRomanwhotreatedthepublictoahundredpairofgladiators。YetweshouldgreatlywrongsuchaRomanifwesupposedthathisdispositionwasascruelasthatofMrs。
　　Brownrigg。Inourowncountry，awomanforfeitsherplaceinsocietybywhat，inaman，istoocommonlyconsideredasanhonourabledistinction，and，atworst，asavenialerror。Theconsequenceisnotorious。Themoralprincipleofawomanisfrequentlymoreimpairedbyasinglelapsefromvirtuethanthatofamanbytwentyyearsofintrigues。Classicalantiquitywouldfurnishuswithinstancesstronger，ifpossible，thanthosetowhichwehavereferred。
　　Wemustapplythisprincipletothecasebeforeus。Habitsofdissimulationandfalsehood，nodoubt，markamanofourageandcountryasutterlyworthlessandabandoned。ButitbynomeansfollowsthatasimilarjudgmentwouldbejustinthecaseofanItalianofthemiddleages。Onthecontrary，wefrequentlyfindthosefaultswhichweareaccustomedtoconsiderascertainindicationsofamindaltogetherdepraved，incompanywithgreatandgoodqualities，withgenerosity，withbenevolence，withdisinterestedness。Fromsuchastateofsociety，Palamedes，intheadmirabledialogueofHume，mighthavedrawnillustrationsofhistheoryasstrikingasanyofthosewithwhichFourlifurnishedhim。Thesearenot，wewellknow，thelessonswhichhistoriansaregenerallymostcarefultoteach，orreadersmostwillingtolearn。Buttheyarenotthereforeuseless。HowPhilipdisposedhistroopsatChaeronea，whereHannibalcrossedtheAlps，whetherMaryblewupDarnley，orSiquiershotCharlestheTwelfth，andtenthousandotherquestionsofthesamedescription，areinthemselvesunimportant。Theinquirymayamuseus，butthedecisionleavesusnowiser。Healonereadshistoryarightwho，observinghowpowerfullycircumstancesinfluencethefeelingsandopinionsofmen，howoftenvicespassintovirtuesandparadoxesintoaxioms，learnstodistinguishwhatisaccidentalandtransitoryinhumannaturefromwhatisessentialandimmutable。
　　InthisrespectnohistorysuggestsmoreimportantreflectionsthanthatoftheTuscanandLombardcommonwealths。ThecharacteroftheItalianstatesmanseems，atfirstsight，acollectionofcontradictions，aphantomasmonstrousastheportressofhellinMilton，halfdivinity，halfsnake，majesticandbeautifulabove，grovellingandpoisonousbelow，Weseeamanwhosethoughtsandwordshavenoconnectionwitheachother，whoneverhesitatesatanoathwhenhewishestoseduce，whoneverwantsapretextwhenheisinclinedtobetray。Hiscrueltiesspring，notfromtheheatofblood，ortheinsanityofuncontrolledpower，butfromdeepandcoolmeditation。Hispassions，likewell—trainedtroops，areimpetuousbyrule，andintheirmostheadstrongfuryneverforgetthedisciplinetowhichtheyhavebeenaccustomed。Hiswholesoulisoccupiedwithvastandcomplicatedschemesofambition:yethisaspectandlanguageexhibitnothingbutphilosophicalmoderation。Hatredandrevengeeatintohisheart:yeteverylookisacordialsmile，everygestureafamiliarcaress。Heneverexcitesthesuspicionofhisadversariesbypettyprovocations。
　　Hispurposeisdisclosedonlywhenitisaccomplished。Hisfaceisunruffled，hisspeechiscourteous，tillvigilanceislaidasleep，tillavitalpointisexposed，tillasureaimistaken;
　　andthenhestrikesforthefirstandlasttime。Militarycourage，theboastofthesottishGerman，ofthefrivolousandpratingFrenchman，oftheromanticandarrogantSpaniard，heneitherpossessesnorvalues。Heshunsdanger，notbecauseheisinsensibletoshame，butbecause，inthesocietyinwhichhelives，timidityhasceasedtobeshameful。Todoaninjuryopenlyis，inhisestimation，aswickedastodoitsecretly，andfarlessprofitable。Withhimthemosthonourablemeansarethosewhicharethesurest，thespeediest，andthedarkest。Hecannotcomprehendhowamanshouldscrupletodeceivethosewhomhedoesnotscrupletodestroy。Hewouldthinkitmadnesstodeclareopenhostilitiesagainstrivalswhomhemightstabinafriendlyembrace，orpoisoninaconsecratedwafer。
　　Yetthisman，blackwiththeviceswhichweconsiderasmostloathsome，traitor，hypocrite，coward，assassin，wasbynomeansdestituteevenofthosevirtueswhichwegenerallyconsiderasindicatingsuperiorelevationofcharacter。Incivilcourage，inperseverance，inpresenceofmind，thosebarbarouswarriors，whowereforemostinthebattleorthebreach，werefarhisinferiors。Eventhedangerswhichheavoidedwithacautionalmostpusillanimousneverconfusedhisperceptions，neverparalysedhisinventivefaculties，neverwrungoutonesecretfromhissmoothtongue，andhisinscrutablebrow。Thoughadangerousenemy，andastillmoredangerousaccomplice，hecouldbeajustandbeneficentruler。Withsomuchunfairnessinhispolicy，therewasanextraordinarydegreeoffairnessinhisintellect。Indifferenttotruthinthetransactionsoflife，hewashonestlydevotedtotruthintheresearchesofspeculation。
　　Wantoncrueltywasnotinhisnature。Onthecontrary，wherenopoliticalobjectwasatstake，hisdispositionwassoftandhumane。Thesusceptibilityofhisnervesandtheactivityofhisimaginationinclinedhim，tosympathisewiththefeelingsofothers，andtodelightinthecharitiesandcourtesiesofsociallife。Perpetuallydescendingtoactionswhichmightseemtomarkaminddiseasedthroughallitsfaculties，hehadneverthelessanexquisitesensibility，bothforthenaturalandthemoralsublime，foreverygracefulandeveryloftyconception。Habitsofpettyintrigueanddissimulationmighthaverenderedhimincapableofgreatgeneralviews，butthattheexpandingeffectofhisphilosophicalstudiescounteractedthenarrowingtendency。
　　Hehadthekeenestenjoymentofwit，eloquence，andpoetry。Thefineartsprofitedalikebytheseverityofhisjudgment，andbytheliberalityofhispatronage。TheportraitsofsomeoftheremarkableItaliansofthosetimesareperfectlyinharmonywiththisdescription。Ampleandmajesticforeheads，browsstronganddark，butnotfrowning，eyesofwhichthecalmfullgaze，whileitexpressesnothing，seemstodiscerneverything，cheekspalewiththoughtandsedentaryhabits，lipsformedwithfemininedelicacy，butcompressedwithmorethanmasculinedecision，markoutmenatonceenterprisingandtimid，menequallyskilledindetectingthepurposesofothers，andinconcealingtheirown，menwhomusthavebeenformidableenemiesandunsafeallies，butmen，atthesametime，whosetempersweremildandequable，andwhopossessedanamplitudeandsubtletyofintellectwhichwouldhaverenderedthememinenteitherinactiveorincontemplativelife，andfittedthemeithertogovernortoinstructmankind。
　　Everyageandeverynationhascertaincharacteristicvices，whichprevailalmostuniversally，whichscarcelyanypersonscruplestoavow，andwhichevenrigidmoralistsbutfaintlycensure。Succeedinggenerationschangethefashionoftheirmorals，withthefashionoftheirhatsandtheircoaches;takesomeotherkindofwickednessundertheirpatronage，andwonderatthedepravityoftheirancestors。Noristhisall。Posterity，thathighcourtofappealwhichisnevertiredofeulogisingitsownjusticeanddiscernment，actsonsuchoccasionslikeaRomandictatorafterageneralmutiny。Findingthedelinquentstoonumeroustobeallpunished，itselectssomeofthemathazard，tobearthewholepenaltyofanoffenceinwhichtheyarenotmoredeeplyimplicatedthanthosewhoescape，Whetherdecimationbeaconvenientmodeofmilitaryexecution，weknownot;butwesolemnlyprotestagainsttheintroductionofsuchaprincipleintothephilosophyofhistory。
　　Inthepresentinstance，thelothasfallenonMachiavelli，amanwhosepublicconductwasuprightandhonourable，whoseviewsofmorality，wheretheydifferedfromthoseofthepersonsaroundhim，seemedtohavedifferedforthebetter，andwhoseonlyfaultwas，that，havingadoptedsomeofthemaximsthengenerallyreceived，hearrangedthemmoreluminously，andexpressedthemmoreforcibiy，thananyotherwriter。
　　Havingnow，wehope，insomedegreeclearedthepersonalcharacterofMachiavelli，wecometotheconsiderationofhisworks。Asapoetheisnotentitledtoahighplace;buthiscomediesdeserveattention。
　　TheMandragola，inparticular，issuperiortothebestofGoldoni，andinferioronlytothebestofMoliere。Itistheworkofamanwho，ifhehaddevotedhimselftothedrama，wouldprobablyhaveattainedthehighesteminence，andproducedapermanentandsalutaryeffectonthenationaltaste。Thisweinfer，notsomuchfromthedegree，asfromthekindofitsexcellence。Therearecompositionswhichindicatestillgreatertalent，andwhichareperusedwithstillgreaterdelight，fromwhichweshouldhavedrawnverydifferentconclusions。Booksquiteworthlessarequiteharmless。Thesuresignofthegeneraldeclineofanartisthefrequentoccurrence，notofdeformity，butofmisplacedbeauty。Ingeneral，Tragedyiscorruptedbyeloquence，andComedybywit。
　　Therealobjectofthedramaistheexhibitionofhumancharacter。This，weconceive，isnoarbitrarycanon，originatinginlocalandtemporaryassociations，likethosecanonswhichregulatethenumberofactsinaplay，orofsyllablesinaline。
　　Tothisfundamentallaweveryotherregulationissubordinate。
　　Thesituationswhichmostsignallydevelopcharacterformthebestplot。Themothertongueofthepassionsisthebeststyle。
　　Thisprinciplerightlyunderstood，doesnotdebarthepoetfromanygraceofcomposition。Thereisnostyleinwhichsomemanmaynotundersomecircumstancesexpresshimself。Thereisthereforenostylewhichthedramarejects，nonewhichitdoesnotoccasionallyrequire。Itisinthediscernmentofplace，oftime，andofperson，thattheinferiorartistsfail。ThefantasticrhapsodyofMercutio，theelaboratedeclamationofAntony，are，whereShakspearehasplacedthem，naturalandpleasing。ButDrydenwouldhavemadeMercutiochallengeTybaltinhyperbolesasfancifulasthoseinwhichhedescribesthechariotofMab。
　　CorneillewouldhaverepresentedAntonyasscoldingandcoaxingCleopatrawithallthemeasuredrhetoricofafuneraloration。
　　NowritershaveinjuredtheComedyofEnglandsodeeplyasCongreveandSheridan。Bothweremenofsplendidwitandpolishedtaste。Unhappily，theymadealltheircharactersintheirownlikeness。Theirworksbearthesamerelationtothelegitimatedramawhichatransparencybearstoapainting。Therearenodelicatetouches，nohuesimperceptiblyfadingintoeachother:
　　thewholeislightedupwithanuniversalglare。Outlinesandtintsareforgotteninthecommonblazewhichilluminatesall。
　　Theflowersandfruitsoftheintellectabound;butitistheabundanceofajungle，notofagarden，unwholesome，bewildering，unprofitablefromitsveryplentyrankfromitsveryfragrance。
　　Everyfop，everyboor，everyvalet，isamanofwit。Theverybuttsanddupes，Tattle，Witwould，Puff，Acres，outshinethewholeHotelofRambouillet。Toprovethewholesystemofthisschoolerroneous，itisonlynecessarytoapplythetestwhichdissolvedtheenchantedFlorimel，toplacethetruebythefalseThalia，tocontrastthemostcelebratedcharacterswhichhavebeendrawnbythewritersofwhomwespeakwiththeBastardinKingJohnortheNurseinRomeoandJuliet。ItwasnotsurelyfromwantofwitthatShakspeareadoptedsodifferentamanner。
　　BenedickandBeatricethrowMirabelandMillamantintotheshade。
　　AllthegoodsayingsofthefacetioushousesofAbsoluteandSurfacemighthavebeenclippedfromthesinglecharacterofFalstaff，withoutbeingmissed。ItwouldhavebeeneasyforthatfertilemindtohavegivenBardolphandShallowasmuchwitasPrinceHal，andtohavemadeDogberryandVergesretortoneachotherinsparklingepigrams。Butheknewthatsuchindiscriminateprodigalitywas，tousehisownadmirablelanguage，"fromthepurposeofplaying，whoseend，bothatthefirstandnow，was，andis，tohold，asitwere，themirroruptoNature。"
　　ThisdigressionwillenableourreaderstounderstandwhatwemeanwhenwesaythatintheMandragola，Machiavellihasprovedthathecompletelyunderstoodthenatureofthedramaticart，andpossessedtalentswhichwouldhaveenabledhimtoexcelinit。Bythecorrectandvigorousdelineationofhumannature，itproducesinterestwithoutapleasingorskilfulplot，andlaughterwithouttheleastambitionofwit。Thelover，notaverydelicateorgenerouslover，andhisadvisertheparasite，aredrawnwithspirit。Thehypocriticalconfessorisanadmirableportrait。Heis，ifwemistakenot，theoriginalofFatherDominic，thebestcomiccharacterofDryden。ButoldNiciasisthegloryofthepiece。Wecannotcalltomindanythingthatresembleshim。ThefollieswhichMoliereridiculesarethoseofaffection，notthoseoffatuity。Coxcombsandpedants，notabsolutesimpletons，arehisgame。Shakspearehasindeedavastassortmentoffools;buttheprecisespeciesofwhichwespeakisnot，ifwerememberright，tobefoundthere。Shallowisafool。Buthisanimalspiritssupply，toacertaindegree，theplaceofcleverness。HistalkistothatofSirJohnwhatsodawateristochampagne。Ithastheeffervescencethoughnotthebodyortheflavour。SlenderandSirAndrewAguecheekarefools，troubledwithanuneasyconsciousnessoftheirfolly，whichinthelatterproducesmeeknessanddocility，andintheformer，awkwardness，obstinacy，andconfusion。Clotenisanarrogantfool，Osricafoppishfool，Ajaxasavagefool;butNiciasis，asThersitessaysofPatroclus，afoolpositive。Hismindisoccupiedbynostrongfeeling;ittakeseverycharacter，andretainsnone;itsaspectisdiversified，notbypassions，butbyfaintandtransitorysemblancesofpassion，amockjoy，amockfear，amocklove，amockpride，whichchaseeachotherlikeshadowsoveritssurface，andvanishassoonastheyappear。Heisjustidiotenoughtobeanobject，notofpityorhorror，butofridicule。HebearssomeresemblancetopoorCalandrino，whosemishaps，asrecountedbyBoccaccio，havemadeallEuropemerryformorethanfourcenturies。HeperhapsresemblesstillmorecloselySimondaVilla，towhomBrunoandBuffalmaccopromisedtheloveoftheCountessCivillari。Niciasis，likeSimon，ofalearnedprofession;andthedignitywithwhichhewearsthedoctoralfur，rendershisabsurditiesinfinitelymoregrotesque。TheoldTuscanistheverylanguageforsuchabeing。Itspeculiarsimplicitygiveseventothemostforciblereasoningandthemostbrilliantwitaninfantineair，generallydelightful，buttoaforeignreadersometimesalittleludicrous。Heroesandstatesmenseemtolispwhentheyuseit。ItbecomesNiciasincomparably，andrendersallhissillinessinfinitelymoresilly。