IdonotmeanthatthereisanydeficiencyofwealthyindividualsintheUnitedStates;Iknowofnocountry，indeed，wheretheloveofmoneyhastakenstrongerholdontheaffectionsofmen，andwheretheprofoundercontemptisexpressedforthetheoryofthepermanentequalityofproperty。Butwealthcirculateswithinconceivablerapidity，andexperienceshowsthatitisraretofindtwosucceedinggenerationsinthefullenjoymentofit。
Thispicture，whichmayperhapsbethoughttobeovercharged，stillgivesaveryimperfectideaofwhatistakingplaceinthenewStatesoftheWestandSouth—west。AttheendofthelastcenturyafewboldadventurersbegantopenetrateintothevalleysoftheMississippi，andthemassofthepopulationverysoonbegantomoveinthatdirection:communitiesunheardoftillthenwereseentoemergefromthewilds:StateswhosenameswerenotinexistenceafewyearsbeforeclaimedtheirplaceintheAmericanUnion;andintheWesternsettlementswemaybeholddemocracyarrivedatitsutmostextreme。IntheseStates，foundedoff—hand，and，asitwere，bychance，theinhabitantsarebutofyesterday。Scarcelyknowntooneanother，thenearestneighborsareignorantofeachother’shistory。InthispartoftheAmericancontinent，therefore，thepopulationhasnotexperiencedtheinfluenceofgreatnamesandgreatwealth，noreventhatofthenaturalaristocracyofknowledgeandvirtue。Nonearetheretowieldthatrespectablepowerwhichmenwillinglygranttotheremembranceofalifespentindoinggoodbeforetheireyes。ThenewStatesoftheWestarealreadyinhabited，butsocietyhasnoexistenceamongthem。*e[Footnotee:Thismayhavebeentruein1832，butisnotsoin1874，whengreatcitieslikeChicagoandSanFranciscohavesprungupintheWesternStates。ButasyettheWesternStatesexertnopowerfulinfluenceonAmericansociety。—Translator’sNote。]
ItisnotonlythefortunesofmenwhichareequalinAmerica;eventheirrequirementspartakeinsomedegreeofthesameuniformity。Idonotbelievethatthereisacountryintheworldwhere，inproportiontothepopulation，therearesofewuninstructedandatthesametimesofewlearnedindividuals。
Primaryinstructioniswithinthereachofeverybody;superiorinstructionisscarcelytobeobtainedbyany。Thisisnotsurprising;itisinfactthenecessaryconsequenceofwhatwehaveadvancedabove。AlmostalltheAmericansareineasycircumstances，andcanthereforeobtainthefirstelementsofhumanknowledge。
InAmericatherearecomparativelyfewwhoarerichenoughtolivewithoutaprofession。Everyprofessionrequiresanapprenticeship，whichlimitsthetimeofinstructiontotheearlyyearsoflife。Atfifteentheyenterupontheircalling，andthustheireducationendsattheagewhenoursbegins。Whateverisdoneafterwardsiswithaviewtosomespecialandlucrativeobject;ascienceistakenupasamatterofbusiness，andtheonlybranchofitwhichisattendedtoissuchasadmitsofanimmediatepracticalapplication。InAmericamostoftherichmenwereformerlypoor;mostofthosewhonowenjoyleisurewereabsorbedinbusinessduringtheiryouth;theconsequenceofwhichis，thatwhentheymighthavehadatasteforstudytheyhadnotimeforit，andwhentimeisattheirdisposaltheyhavenolongertheinclination。
Thereisnoclass，then，inAmerica，inwhichthetasteforintellectualpleasuresistransmittedwithhereditaryfortuneandleisure，andbywhichthelaborsoftheintellectareheldinhonor。Accordinglythereisanequalwantofthedesireandthepowerofapplicationtotheseobjects。
AmiddlestandardisfixedinAmericaforhumanknowledge。
Allapproachasneartoitastheycan;someastheyrise，othersastheydescend。Ofcourse，animmensemultitudeofpersonsaretobefoundwhoentertainthesamenumberofideasonreligion，history，science，politicaleconomy，legislation，andgovernment。
ThegiftsofintellectproceeddirectlyfromGod，andmancannotpreventtheirunequaldistribution。Butinconsequenceofthestateofthingswhichwehavehererepresentedithappensthat，althoughthecapacitiesofmenarewidelydifferent，astheCreatorhasdoubtlessintendedtheyshouldbe，theyaresubmittedtothesamemethodoftreatment。
InAmericathearistocraticelementhasalwaysbeenfeeblefromitsbirth;andifatthepresentdayitisnotactuallydestroyed，itisatanyratesocompletelydisabledthatwecanscarcelyassigntoitanydegreeofinfluenceinthecourseofaffairs。Thedemocraticprinciple，onthecontrary，hasgainedsomuchstrengthbytime，byevents，andbylegislation，astohavebecomenotonlypredominantbutall—powerful。Thereisnofamilyorcorporateauthority，anditisraretofindeventheinfluenceofindividualcharacterenjoyanydurability。
America，then，exhibitsinhersocialstateamostextraordinaryphenomenon。Menarethereseenonagreaterequalityinpointoffortuneandintellect，or，inotherwords，moreequalintheirstrength，thaninanyothercountryoftheworld，orinanyageofwhichhistoryhaspreservedtheremembrance。
PoliticalConsequencesOfTheSocialConditionOfTheAnglo—
AmericansThepoliticalconsequencesofsuchasocialconditionasthisareeasilydeducible。Itisimpossibletobelievethatequalitywillnoteventuallyfinditswayintothepoliticalworldasitdoeseverywhereelse。Toconceiveofmenremainingforeverunequalupononesinglepoint，yetequalonallothers，isimpossible;theymustcomeintheendtobeequaluponall。
NowIknowofonlytwomethodsofestablishingequalityinthepoliticalworld;everycitizenmustbeputinpossessionofhisrights，orrightsmustbegrantedtonoone。FornationswhicharearrivedatthesamestageofsocialexistenceastheAnglo—Americans，itisthereforeverydifficulttodiscoveramediumbetweenthesovereigntyofallandtheabsolutepowerofoneman:anditwouldbevaintodenythatthesocialconditionwhichIhavebeendescribingisequallyliabletoeachoftheseconsequences。
Thereis，infact，amanlyandlawfulpassionforequalitywhichexcitesmentowishalltobepowerfulandhonored。Thispassiontendstoelevatethehumbletotherankofthegreat;butthereexistsalsointhehumanheartadepravedtasteforequality，whichimpelstheweaktoattempttolowerthepowerfultotheirownlevel，andreducesmentopreferequalityinslaverytoinequalitywithfreedom。Notthatthosenationswhosesocialconditionisdemocraticnaturallydespiseliberty;onthecontrary，theyhaveaninstinctiveloveofit。Butlibertyisnotthechiefandconstantobjectoftheirdesires;equalityistheiridol:theymakerapidandsuddeneffortstoobtainliberty，andiftheymisstheiraimresignthemselvestotheirdisappointment;butnothingcansatisfythemexceptequality，andratherthanloseittheyresolvetoperish。
Ontheotherhand，inaStatewherethecitizensarenearlyonanequality，itbecomesdifficultforthemtopreservetheirindependenceagainsttheaggressionsofpower。Nooneamongthembeingstrongenoughtoengageinthestrugglewithadvantage，nothingbutageneralcombinationcanprotecttheirliberty。Andsuchaunionisnotalwaystobefound。
Fromthesamesocialposition，then，nationsmayderiveoneortheotheroftwogreatpoliticalresults;theseresultsareextremelydifferentfromeachother，buttheymaybothproceedfromthesamecause。
TheAnglo—Americansarethefirstnationswho，havingbeenexposedtothisformidablealternative，havebeenhappyenoughtoescapethedominionofabsolutepower。Theyhavebeenallowedbytheircircumstances，theirorigin，theirintelligence，andespeciallybytheirmoralfeeling，toestablishandmaintainthesovereigntyofthepeople。
ChapterIV:ThePrincipleOfTheSovereigntyOfThePeopleInAmericaChapterSummaryItpredominatesoverthewholeofsocietyinAmerica—
ApplicationmadeofthisprinciplebytheAmericansevenbeforetheirRevolution—DevelopmentgiventoitbythatRevolution—
Gradualandirresistibleextensionoftheelectivequalification。
ThePrincipleOfTheSovereigntyOfThePeopleInAmericaWheneverthepoliticallawsoftheUnitedStatesaretobediscussed，itiswiththedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeoplethatwemustbegin。Theprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeople，whichistobefound，moreorless，atthebottomofalmostallhumaninstitutions，generallyremainsconcealedfromview。Itisobeyedwithoutbeingrecognized，orifforamomentitbebroughttolight，itishastilycastbackintothegloomofthesanctuary。"Thewillofthenation"isoneofthoseexpressionswhichhavebeenmostprofuselyabusedbythewilyandthedespoticofeveryage。Totheeyesofsomeithasbeenrepresentedbythevenalsuffragesofafewofthesatellitesofpower;toothersbythevotesofatimidoraninterestedminority;andsomehaveevendiscovereditinthesilenceofapeople，onthesuppositionthatthefactofsubmissionestablishedtherightofcommand。
InAmericatheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeopleisnoteitherbarrenorconcealed，asitiswithsomeothernations;
itisrecognizedbythecustomsandproclaimedbythelaws;itspreadsfreely，andarriveswithoutimpedimentatitsmostremoteconsequences。Iftherebeacountryintheworldwherethedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeoplecanbefairlyappreciated，whereitcanbestudiedinitsapplicationtotheaffairsofsociety，andwhereitsdangersanditsadvantagesmaybeforeseen，thatcountryisassuredlyAmerica。
Ihavealreadyobservedthat，fromtheirorigin，thesovereigntyofthepeoplewasthefundamentalprincipleofthegreaternumberofBritishcoloniesinAmerica。Itwasfar，however，fromthenexercisingasmuchinfluenceonthegovernmentofsocietyasitnowdoes。Twoobstacles，theoneexternal，theotherinternal，checkeditsinvasiveprogress。Itcouldnotostensiblydiscloseitselfinthelawsofcolonieswhichwerestillconstrainedtoobeythemother—country:itwasthereforeobligedtospreadsecretly，andtogaingroundintheprovincialassemblies，andespeciallyinthetownships。
Americansocietywasnotyetpreparedtoadoptitwithallitsconsequences。TheintelligenceofNewEngland，andthewealthofthecountrytothesouthoftheHudson（asIhaveshownintheprecedingchapter），longexercisedasortofaristocraticinfluence，whichtendedtoretaintheexerciseofsocialauthorityinthehandsofafew。Thepublicfunctionarieswerenotuniversallyelected，andthecitizenswerenotallofthemelectors。Theelectoralfranchisewaseverywhereplacedwithincertainlimits，andmadedependentonacertainqualification，whichwasexceedinglylowintheNorthandmoreconsiderableintheSouth。
TheAmericanrevolutionbrokeout，andthedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeople，whichhadbeennurturedinthetownshipsandmunicipalities，tookpossessionoftheState:everyclasswasenlistedinitscause;battleswerefought，andvictoriesobtainedforit，untilitbecamethelawoflaws。
Anolessrapidchangewaseffectedintheinteriorofsociety，wherethelawofdescentcompletedtheabolitionoflocalinfluences。
Attheverytimewhenthisconsequenceofthelawsandoftherevolutionwasapparenttoeveryeye，victorywasirrevocablypronouncedinfavorofthedemocraticcause。Allpowerwas，infact，initshands，andresistancewasnolongerpossible。Thehigherorderssubmittedwithoutamurmurandwithoutastruggletoanevilwhichwasthenceforthinevitable。Theordinaryfateoffallingpowersawaitedthem;eachoftheirseveralmembersfollowedhisowninterests;andasitwasimpossibletowringthepowerfromthehandsofapeoplewhichtheydidnotdetestsufficientlytobrave，theironlyaimwastosecureitsgood—willatanyprice。Themostdemocraticlawswereconsequentlyvotedbytheverymenwhoseintereststheyimpaired;andthus，althoughthehigherclassesdidnotexcitethepassionsofthepeopleagainsttheirorder，theyacceleratedthetriumphofthenewstateofthings;sothatbyasingularchangethedemocraticimpulsewasfoundtobemostirresistibleintheveryStateswherethearistocracyhadthefirmesthold。TheStateofMaryland，whichhadbeenfoundedbymenofrank，wasthefirsttoproclaimuniversalsuffrage，andtointroducethemostdemocraticformsintotheconductofitsgovernment。
Whenanationmodifiestheelectivequalification，itmayeasilybeforeseenthatsoonerorlaterthatqualificationwillbeentirelyabolished。Thereisnomoreinvariableruleinthehistoryofsociety:thefurtherelectoralrightsareextended，thegreateristheneedofextendingthem;foraftereachconcessionthestrengthofthedemocracyincreases，anditsdemandsincreasewithitsstrength。Theambitionofthosewhoarebelowtheappointedrateisirritatedinexactproportiontothegreatnumberofthosewhoareaboveit。Theexceptionatlastbecomestherule，concessionfollowsconcession，andnostopcanbemadeshortofuniversalsuffrage。
Atthepresentdaytheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeoplehasacquired，intheUnitedStates，allthepracticaldevelopmentwhichtheimaginationcanconceive。Itisunencumberedbythosefictionswhichhavebeenthrownoveritinothercountries，anditappearsineverypossibleformaccordingtotheexigencyoftheoccasion。Sometimesthelawsaremadebythepeopleinabody，asatAthens;andsometimesitsrepresentatives，chosenbyuniversalsuffrage，transactbusinessinitsname，andalmostunderitsimmediatecontrol。
Insomecountriesapowerexistswhich，thoughitisinadegreeforeigntothesocialbody，directsit，andforcesittopursueacertaintrack。Inotherstherulingforceisdivided，beingpartlywithinandpartlywithouttheranksofthepeople。
ButnothingofthekindistobeseenintheUnitedStates;theresocietygovernsitselfforitself。Allpowercentresinitsbosom;andscarcelyanindividualistobemeetwithwhowouldventuretoconceive，or，stillless，toexpress，theideaofseekingitelsewhere。Thenationparticipatesinthemakingofitslawsbythechoiceofitslegislators，andintheexecutionofthembythechoiceoftheagentsoftheexecutivegovernment;
itmayalmostbesaidtogovernitself，sofeebleandsorestrictedisthesharelefttotheadministration，solittledotheauthoritiesforgettheirpopularoriginandthepowerfromwhichtheyemanate。*a[Footnotea:SeeAppendix，H。]
ChapterV:NecessityOfExaminingTheConditionOfTheStates—
PartI
NecessityOfExaminingTheConditionOfTheStatesBeforeThatOfTheUnionAtLargeItisproposedtoexamineinthefollowingchapterwhatistheformofgovernmentestablishedinAmericaontheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeople;whatareitsresources，itshindrances，itsadvantages，anditsdangers。ThefirstdifficultywhichpresentsitselfarisesfromthecomplexnatureoftheconstitutionoftheUnitedStates，whichconsistsoftwodistinctsocialstructures，connectedand，asitwere，encasedonewithintheother;twogovernments，completelyseparateandalmostindependent，theonefulfillingtheordinarydutiesandrespondingtothedailyandindefinitecallsofacommunity，theothercircumscribedwithincertainlimits，andonlyexercisinganexceptionalauthorityoverthegeneralinterestsofthecountry。
Inshort，therearetwenty—foursmallsovereignnations，whoseagglomerationconstitutesthebodyoftheUnion。ToexaminetheUnionbeforewehavestudiedtheStateswouldbetoadoptamethodfilledwithobstacles。TheformoftheFederalGovernmentoftheUnitedStateswasthelastwhichwasadopted;anditisinfactnothingmorethanamodificationorasummaryofthoserepublicanprincipleswhichwerecurrentinthewholecommunitybeforeitexisted，andindependentlyofitsexistence。Moreover，theFederalGovernmentis，asIhavejustobserved，theexception;theGovernmentoftheStatesistherule。Theauthorwhoshouldattempttoexhibitthepictureasawholebeforehehadexplaineditsdetailswouldnecessarilyfallintoobscurityandrepetition。
ThegreatpoliticalprincipleswhichgovernAmericansocietyatthisdayundoubtedlytooktheiroriginandtheirgrowthintheState。ItisthereforenecessarytobecomeacquaintedwiththeStateinordertopossessacluetotheremainder。TheStateswhichatpresentcomposetheAmericanUnionallpresentthesamefeatures，asfarasregardstheexternalaspectoftheirinstitutions。Theirpoliticaloradministrativeexistenceiscentredinthreefocusesofaction，whichmaynotinaptlybecomparedtothedifferentnervouscentreswhichconveymotiontothehumanbody。Thetownshipisthelowestinorder，thenthecounty，andlastlytheState;andIproposetodevotethefollowingchaptertotheexaminationofthesethreedivisions。
TheAmericanSystemOfTownshipsAndMunicipalBodiesWhytheAuthorbeginstheexaminationofthepoliticalinstitutionswiththetownship—Itsexistenceinallnations—
Difficultyofestablishingandpreservingmunicipalindependence—Itsimportance—WhytheAuthorhasselectedthetownshipsystemofNewEnglandasthemaintopicofhisdiscussion。
ItisnotundesignedlythatIbeginthissubjectwiththeTownship。Thevillageortownshipistheonlyassociationwhichissoperfectlynaturalthatwhereveranumberofmenarecollecteditseemstoconstituteitself。
Thetown，ortithing，asthesmallestdivisionofacommunity，mustnecessarilyexistinallnations，whatevertheirlawsandcustomsmaybe:ifmanmakesmonarchiesandestablishesrepublics，thefirstassociationofmankindseemsconstitutedbythehandofGod。Butalthoughtheexistenceofthetownshipiscoevalwiththatofman，itslibertiesarenotthelessrarelyrespectedandeasilydestroyed。Anationisalwaysabletoestablishgreatpoliticalassemblies，becauseithabituallycontainsacertainnumberofindividualsfittedbytheirtalents，ifnotbytheirhabits，forthedirectionofaffairs。Thetownshipis，onthecontrary，composedofcoarsermaterials，whicharelesseasilyfashionedbythelegislator。Thedifficultieswhichattendtheconsolidationofitsindependenceratheraugmentthandiminishwiththeincreasingenlightenmentofthepeople。Ahighlycivilizedcommunityspurnstheattemptsofalocalindependence，isdisgustedatitsnumerousblunders，andisapttodespairofsuccessbeforetheexperimentiscompleted。
Again，noimmunitiesaresoillprotectedfromtheencroachmentsofthesupremepowerasthoseofmunicipalbodiesingeneral:
theyareunabletostruggle，single—handed，againstastrongoranenterprisinggovernment，andtheycannotdefendtheircausewithsuccessunlessitbeidentifiedwiththecustomsofthenationandsupportedbypublicopinion。Thusuntiltheindependenceoftownshipsisamalgamatedwiththemannersofapeopleitiseasilydestroyed，anditisonlyafteralongexistenceinthelawsthatitcanbethusamalgamated。Municipalfreedomisnotthefruitofhumandevice;itisrarelycreated;
butitis，asitwere，secretlyandspontaneouslyengenderedinthemidstofasemi—barbarousstateofsociety。Theconstantactionofthelawsandthenationalhabits，peculiarcircumstances，andabovealltime，mayconsolidateit;butthereiscertainlynonationonthecontinentofEuropewhichhasexperienceditsadvantages。Neverthelesslocalassembliesofcitizensconstitutethestrengthoffreenations。Town—meetingsaretolibertywhatprimaryschoolsaretoscience;theybringitwithinthepeople’sreach，theyteachmenhowtouseandhowtoenjoyit。Anationmayestablishasystemoffreegovernment，butwithoutthespiritofmunicipalinstitutionsitcannothavethespiritofliberty。Thetransientpassionsandtheinterestsofanhour，orthechanceofcircumstances，mayhavecreatedtheexternalformsofindependence;butthedespotictendencywhichhasbeenrepelledwill，soonerorlater，inevitablyreappearonthesurface。
InordertoexplaintothereaderthegeneralprinciplesonwhichthepoliticalorganizationofthecountiesandtownshipsoftheUnitedStatesrests，IhavethoughtitexpedienttochooseoneoftheStatesofNewEnglandasanexample，toexaminethemechanismofitsconstitution，andthentocastageneralglanceoverthecountry。ThetownshipandthecountyarenotorganizedinthesamemannerineverypartoftheUnion;itis，however，easytoperceivethatthesameprincipleshaveguidedtheformationofbothofthemthroughouttheUnion。IaminclinedtobelievethattheseprincipleshavebeencarriedfurtherinNewEnglandthanelsewhere，andconsequentlythattheyoffergreaterfacilitiestotheobservationsofastranger。TheinstitutionsofNewEnglandformacompleteandregularwhole;theyhavereceivedthesanctionoftime，theyhavethesupportofthelaws，andthestillstrongersupportofthemannersofthecommunity，overwhichtheyexercisethemostprodigiousinfluence;theyconsequentlydeserveourattentiononeveryaccount。
LimitsOfTheTownshipThetownshipofNewEnglandisadivisionwhichstandsbetweenthecommuneandthecantonofFrance，andwhichcorrespondsingeneraltotheEnglishtithing，ortown。Itsaveragepopulationisfromtwotothreethousand;*asothat，ontheonehand，theinterestsofitsinhabitantsarenotlikelytoconflict，and，ontheother，mencapableofconductingitsaffairsarealwaystobefoundamongitscitizens。
[Footnotea:In1830therewere305townshipsintheStateofMassachusetts，and610，014inhabitants，whichgivesanaverageofabout2，000inhabitantstoeachtownship。]
AuthoritiesOfTheTownshipInNewEnglandThepeoplethesourceofallpowerhereaselsewhere—Managesitsownaffairs—Nocorporation—ThegreaterpartoftheauthorityvestedinthehandsoftheSelectmen—HowtheSelectmenact—Town—meeting—Enumerationofthepublicofficersofthetownship—Obligatoryandremuneratedfunctions。
Inthetownship，aswellaseverywhereelse，thepeopleistheonlysourceofpower;butinnostageofgovernmentdoesthebodyofcitizensexerciseamoreimmediateinfluence。InAmericathepeopleisamasterwhoseexigenciesdemandobediencetotheutmostlimitsofpossibility。
InNewEnglandthemajorityactsbyrepresentativesintheconductofthepublicbusinessoftheState;butifsuchanarrangementbenecessaryingeneralaffairs，inthetownships，wherethelegislativeandadministrativeactionofthegovernmentisinmoreimmediatecontactwiththesubject，thesystemofrepresentationisnotadopted。Thereisnocorporation;butthebodyofelectors，afterhavingdesignateditsmagistrates，directsthemineverythingthatexceedsthesimpleandordinaryexecutivebusinessoftheState。*b[Footnoteb:Thesamerulesarenotapplicabletothegreattowns，whichgenerallyhaveamayor，andacorporationdividedintotwobodies;this，however，isanexceptionwhichrequiresthesanctionofalaw。—SeetheActofFebruary22，1822，forappointingtheauthoritiesofthecityofBoston。Itfrequentlyhappensthatsmalltownsaswellascitiesaresubjecttoapeculiaradministration。In1832，104townshipsintheStateofNewYorkweregovernedinthismanner。—Williams’Register。]
Thisstateofthingsissocontrarytoourideas，andsodifferentfromourcustoms，thatitisnecessaryformetoadducesomeexamplestoexplainitthoroughly。
Thepublicdutiesinthetownshipareextremelynumerousandminutelydivided，asweshallseefurtheron;butthelargerproportionofadministrativepowerisvestedinthehandsofasmallnumberofindividuals，called"theSelectmen。"*cThegenerallawsoftheStateimposeacertainnumberofobligationsontheselectmen，whichtheymayfulfilwithouttheauthorizationofthebodytheyrepresent，butwhichtheycanonlyneglectontheirownresponsibility。ThelawoftheStateobligesthem，forinstance，todrawupthelistofelectorsintheirtownships;andiftheyomitthispartoftheirfunctions，theyareguiltyofamisdemeanor。Inalltheaffairs，however，whicharedeterminedbythetown—meeting，theselectmenaretheorgansofthepopularmandate，asinFrancetheMaireexecutesthedecreeofthemunicipalcouncil。Theyusuallyactupontheirownresponsibility，andmerelyputinpracticeprincipleswhichhavebeenpreviouslyrecognizedbythemajority。Butifanychangeistobeintroducedintheexistingstateofthings，oriftheywishtoundertakeanynewenterprise，theyareobligedtorefertothesourceoftheirpower。If，forinstance，aschoolistobeestablished，theselectmenconvokethewholebodyoftheelectorsonacertaindayatanappointedplace;theyexplaintheurgencyofthecase;theygivetheiropiniononthemeansofsatisfyingit，ontheprobableexpense，andthesitewhichseemstobemostfavorable。Themeetingisconsultedontheseseveralpoints;itadoptstheprinciple，marksoutthesite，votestherate，andconfidestheexecutionofitsresolutiontotheselectmen。
[Footnotec:Threeselectmenareappointedinthesmalltownships，andnineinthelargeones。See"TheTown—Officer，"
p。186。SeealsotheprincipallawsoftheStateofMassachusettsrelativetotheselectmen:
ActofFebruary20，1786，vol。i。p。219;February24，1796，vol。i。p。488;March7，1801，vol。ii。p。45;June16，1795，vol。i。p。475;March12，1808，vol。ii。p。186;February28，1787，vol。i。p。302;June22，1797，vol。i。p。539。]
Theselectmenhavealonetherightofcallingatown—meeting，buttheymayberequestedtodoso:iftencitizensaredesirousofsubmittinganewprojecttotheassentofthetownship，theymaydemandageneralconvocationoftheinhabitants;theselectmenareobligedtocomply，buttheyhaveonlytherightofpresidingatthemeeting。*d[Footnoted:SeeLawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。150，ActofMarch25，1786。]
TheselectmenareelectedeveryyearinthemonthofAprilorofMay。Thetown—meetingchoosesatthesametimeanumberofothermunicipalmagistrates，whoareentrustedwithimportantadministrativefunctions。Theassessorsratethetownship;thecollectorsreceivetherate。Aconstableisappointedtokeepthepeace，towatchthestreets，andtoforwardtheexecutionofthelaws;thetown—clerkrecordsallthetownvotes，orders，grants，births，deaths，andmarriages;thetreasurerkeepsthefunds;theoverseerofthepoorperformsthedifficulttaskofsuperintendingtheactionofthepoor—laws;committee—menareappointedtoattendtotheschoolsandtopublicinstruction;andtheroad—surveyors，whotakecareofthegreaterandlesserthoroughfaresofthetownship，completethelistoftheprincipalfunctionaries。Theyare，however，stillfurthersubdivided;andamongstthemunicipalofficersaretobefoundparishcommissioners，whoaudittheexpensesofpublicworship;
differentclassesofinspectors，someofwhomaretodirectthecitizensincaseoffire;tithing—men，listers，haywards，chimney—viewers，fence—viewerstomaintaintheboundsofproperty，timber—measurers，andsealersofweightsandmeasures。
*e[Footnotee:Allthesemagistratesactuallyexist;theirdifferentfunctionsarealldetailedinabookcalled"TheTown—Officer，"byIsaacGoodwin，Worcester，1827;andinthe"CollectionoftheGeneralLawsofMassachusetts，"3vols。，Boston，1823。]
Therearenineteenprincipalofficersinatownship。Everyinhabitantisconstrained，onthepainofbeingfined，toundertakethesedifferentfunctions;which，however，arealmostallpaid，inorderthatthepoorercitizensmaybeabletogiveuptheirtimewithoutloss。IngeneraltheAmericansystemisnottograntafixedsalarytoitsfunctionaries。Everyservicehasitsprice，andtheyareremuneratedinproportiontowhattheyhavedone。
ExistenceOfTheTownshipEveryonethebestjudgeofhisowninterest—Corollaryoftheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeople—ApplicationofthosedoctrinesinthetownshipsofAmerica—ThetownshipofNewEnglandissovereigninallthatconcernsitselfalone:subjecttotheStateinallothermatters—BondofthetownshipandtheState—InFrancetheGovernmentlendsitsagenttotheCommune—
InAmericathereverseoccurs。
IhavealreadyobservedthattheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeoplegovernsthewholepoliticalsystemoftheAnglo—Americans。Everypageofthisbookwillaffordnewinstancesofthesamedoctrine。Inthenationsbywhichthesovereigntyofthepeopleisrecognizedeveryindividualpossessesanequalshareofpower，andparticipatesalikeinthegovernmentoftheState。Everyindividualis，therefore，supposedtobeaswellinformed，asvirtuous，andasstrongasanyofhisfellow—citizens。Heobeysthegovernment，notbecauseheisinferiortotheauthoritieswhichconductit，orthatheislesscapablethanhisneighborofgoverninghimself，butbecauseheacknowledgestheutilityofanassociationwithhisfellow—men，andbecauseheknowsthatnosuchassociationcanexistwithoutaregulatingforce。Ifhebeasubjectinallthatconcernsthemutualrelationsofcitizens，heisfreeandresponsibletoGodaloneforallthatconcernshimself。Hencearisesthemaximthateveryoneisthebestandthesolejudgeofhisownprivateinterest，andthatsocietyhasnorighttocontrolaman’sactions，unlesstheyareprejudicialtothecommonweal，orunlessthecommonwealdemandshisco—operation。
ThisdoctrineisuniversallyadmittedintheUnitedStates。I
shallhereafterexaminethegeneralinfluencewhichitexercisesontheordinaryactionsoflife;Iamnowspeakingofthenatureofmunicipalbodies。
Thetownship，takenasawhole，andinrelationtothegovernmentofthecountry，maybelookeduponasanindividualtowhomthetheoryIhavejustalludedtoisapplied。MunicipalindependenceisthereforeanaturalconsequenceoftheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeopleintheUnitedStates:alltheAmericanrepublicsrecognizeitmoreorless;butcircumstanceshavepeculiarlyfavoreditsgrowthinNewEngland。
InthispartoftheUniontheimpulsionofpoliticalactivitywasgiveninthetownships;anditmayalmostbesaidthateachofthemoriginallyformedanindependentnation。WhentheKingsofEnglandassertedtheirsupremacy，theywerecontentedtoassumethecentralpoweroftheState。ThetownshipsofNewEnglandremainedastheywerebefore;andalthoughtheyarenowsubjecttotheState，theywereatfirstscarcelydependentuponit。Itisimportanttorememberthattheyhavenotbeeninvestedwithprivileges，butthattheyhave，onthecontrary，forfeitedaportionoftheirindependencetotheState。ThetownshipsareonlysubordinatetotheStateinthoseinterestswhichIshalltermsocial，astheyarecommontoallthecitizens。Theyareindependentinallthatconcernsthemselves;andamongsttheinhabitantsofNewEnglandIbelievethatnotamanistobefoundwhowouldacknowledgethattheStatehasanyrighttointerfereintheirlocalinterests。ThetownsofNewEnglandbuyandsell，sueoraresued，augmentordiminishtheirrates，withouttheslightestoppositiononthepartoftheadministrativeauthorityoftheState。
Theyarebound，however，tocomplywiththedemandsofthecommunity。IftheStateisinneedofmoney，atowncanneithergivenorwithholdthesupplies。IftheStateprojectsaroad，thetownshipcannotrefusetoletitcrossitsterritory;ifapoliceregulationismadebytheState，itmustbeenforcedbythetown。Auniformsystemofinstructionisorganizedalloverthecountry，andeverytownisboundtoestablishtheschoolswhichthelawordains。InspeakingoftheadministrationoftheUnitedStatesIshallhaveoccasiontopointoutthemeansbywhichthetownshipsarecompelledtoobeyinthesedifferentcases:Iheremerelyshowtheexistenceoftheobligation。Strictasthisobligationis，thegovernmentoftheStateimposesitinprincipleonly，andinitsperformancethetownshipresumesallitsindependentrights。Thus，taxesarevotedbytheState，buttheyareleviedandcollectedbythetownship;theexistenceofaschoolisobligatory，butthetownshipbuilds，pays，andsuperintendsit。InFrancetheState—collectorreceivesthelocalimposts;inAmericathetown—collectorreceivesthetaxesoftheState。ThustheFrenchGovernmentlendsitsagentstothecommune;inAmericathetownshipistheagentoftheGovernment。