Itispossibletoconceiveapeoplenotsubdividedintoanycastesorscaleofranks;inwhichthelaw，recognizingnoprivileges，shoulddivideinheritedpropertyintoequalshares;
　　butwhich，atthesametime，shouldbewithoutknowledgeandwithoutfreedom。Noristhisanemptyhypothesis:adespotmayfindthatitishisinteresttorenderhissubjectsequalandtoleavethemignorant，inordermoreeasilytokeepthemslaves。
　　Notonlywouldademocraticpeopleofthiskindshowneitheraptitudenortasteforscience，literature，orart，butitwouldprobablyneverarriveatthepossessionofthem。Thelawofdescentwouldofitselfprovideforthedestructionoffortunesateachsucceedinggeneration;andnewfortuneswouldbeacquiredbynone。Thepoorman，withouteitherknowledgeorfreedom，wouldnotsomuchasconceivetheideaofraisinghimselftowealth;andtherichmanwouldallowhimselftobedegradedtopoverty，withoutanotionofself—defence。Betweenthesetwomembersofthecommunitycompleteandinvincibleequalitywouldsoonbeestablished。
　　Noonewouldthenhavetimeortastetodevotehimselftothepursuitsorpleasuresoftheintellect;butallmenwouldremainparalyzedbyastateofcommonignoranceandequalservitude。WhenIconceiveademocraticsocietyofthiskind，I
　　fancymyselfinoneofthoselow，close，andgloomyabodes，wherethelightwhichbreaksinfromwithoutsoonfaintsandfadesaway。Asuddenheavinessoverpowersme，andIgropethroughthesurroundingdarkness，tofindtheaperturewhichwillrestoremetodaylightandtheair。
　　Butallthisisnotapplicabletomenalreadyenlightenedwhoretaintheirfreedom，afterhavingabolishedfromamongstthemthosepeculiarandhereditaryrightswhichperpetuatedthetenureofpropertyinthehandsofcertainindividualsorcertainbodies。Whenmenlivinginademocraticstateofsocietyareenlightened，theyreadilydiscoverthattheyareconfinedandfixedwithinnolimitswhichconstrainthemtotakeupwiththeirpresentfortune。Theyallthereforeconceivetheideaofincreasingit;iftheyarefree，theyallattemptit，butalldonotsucceedinthesamemanner。Thelegislature，itistrue，nolongergrantsprivileges，buttheyarebestowedbynature。Asnaturalinequalityisverygreat，fortunesbecomeunequalassoonaseverymanexertsallhisfacultiestogetrich。Thelawofdescentpreventstheestablishmentofwealthyfamilies;butitdoesnotpreventtheexistenceofwealthyindividuals。Itconstantlybringsbackthemembersofthecommunitytoacommonlevel，fromwhichtheyasconstantlyescape:andtheinequalityoffortunesaugmentsinproportionasknowledgeisdiffusedandlibertyincreased。
　　Asectwhicharoseinourtime，andwascelebratedforitstalentsanditsextravagance，proposedtoconcentrateallpropertyintothehandsofacentralpower，whosefunctionitshouldafterwardsbetoparcelitouttoindividuals，accordingtotheircapacity。Thiswouldhavebeenamethodofescapingfromthatcompleteandeternalequalitywhichseemstothreatendemocraticsociety。Butitwouldbeasimplerandlessdangerousremedytograntnoprivilegetoany，givingtoallequalcultivationandequalindependence，andleavingeveryonetodeterminehisownposition。Naturalinequalitywillverysoonmakewayforitself，andwealthwillspontaneouslypassintothehandsofthemostcapable。
　　Freeanddemocraticcommunities，then，willalwayscontainaconsiderablenumberofpeopleenjoyingopulenceorcompetency。
　　Thewealthywillnotbesocloselylinkedtoeachotherasthemembersoftheformeraristocraticclassofsociety:theirpropensitieswillbedifferent，andtheywillscarcelyeverenjoyleisureassecureorascomplete:buttheywillbefarmorenumerousthanthosewhobelongedtothatclassofsocietycouldeverbe。Thesepersonswillnotbestrictlyconfinedtothecaresofpracticallife，andtheywillstillbeable，thoughindifferentdegrees，toindulgeinthepursuitsandpleasuresoftheintellect。Inthosepleasurestheywillindulge;forifitbetruethatthehumanmindleansononesidetothenarrow，thepractical，andtheuseful，itnaturallyrisesontheothertotheinfinite，thespiritual，andthebeautiful。Physicalwantsconfineittotheearth;but，assoonasthetieisloosened，itwillunbenditselfagain。
　　Notonlywillthenumberofthosewhocantakeaninterestintheproductionsofthemindbeenlarged，butthetasteforintellectualenjoymentwilldescend，stepbystep，eventothosewho，inaristocraticsocieties，seemtohaveneithertimenorabilitytoinindulgeinthem。Whenhereditarywealth，theprivilegesofrank，andtheprerogativesofbirthhaveceasedtobe，andwheneverymanderiveshisstrengthfromhimselfalone，itbecomesevidentthatthechiefcauseofdisparitybetweenthefortunesofmenisthemind。Whatevertendstoinvigorate，toextend，ortoadornthemind，instantlyrisestogreatvalue。
　　Theutilityofknowledgebecomessingularlyconspicuouseventotheeyesofthemultitude:thosewhohavenotasteforitscharmssetstoreuponitsresults，andmakesomeeffortstoacquireit。
　　Infreeandenlighteneddemocraticages，thereisnothingtoseparatemenfromeachotherortoretainthemintheirpeculiarsphere;theyriseorsinkwithextremerapidity。Allclassesliveinperpetualintercoursefromtheirgreatproximitytoeachother。Theycommunicateandintermingleeveryday—theyimitateandenvyoneother:thissuggeststothepeoplemanyideas，notions，anddesireswhichitwouldneverhaveentertainedifthedistinctionsofrankhadbeenfixedandsocietyatrest。Insuchnationstheservantneverconsidershimselfasanentirestrangertothepleasuresandtoilsofhismaster，northepoormantothoseoftherich;theruralpopulationassimilatesitselftothatofthetowns，andtheprovincestothecapital。Nooneeasilyallowshimselftobereducedtothemerematerialcaresoflife;andthehumblestartisancastsattimesaneagerandafurtiveglanceintothehigherregionsoftheintellect。Peopledonotreadwiththesamenotionsorinthesamemannerastheydoinanaristocraticcommunity;butthecircleofreadersisunceasinglyexpanded，tillitincludesallthecitizens。
　　Assoonasthemultitudebeginstotakeaninterestinthelaborsofthemind，itfindsoutthattoexcelinsomeofthemisapowerfulmethodofacquiringfame，power，orwealth。Therestlessambitionwhichequalitybegetsinstantlytakesthisdirectionasitdoesallothers。Thenumberofthosewhocultivatescience，letters，andthearts，becomesimmense。Theintellectualworldstartsintoprodigiousactivity:everyoneendeavorstoopenforhimselfapaththere，andtodrawtheeyesofthepublicafterhim。SomethinganalogousoccurstowhathappensinsocietyintheUnitedStates，politicallyconsidered。
　　Whatisdoneisoftenimperfect，buttheattemptsareinnumerable;and，althoughtheresultsofindividualeffortarecommonlyverysmall，thetotalamountisalwaysverylarge。
　　Itisthereforenottruetoassertthatmenlivingindemocraticagesarenaturallyindifferenttoscience，literature，andthearts:onlyitmustbeacknowledgedthattheycultivatethemaftertheirownfashion，andbringtothetasktheirownpeculiarqualificationsanddeficiencies。
　　BookOne—ChaptersX—XII
　　ChapterX:WhyTheAmericansAreMoreAddictedToPracticalThanToTheoreticalScienceIfademocraticstateofsocietyanddemocraticinstitutionsdonotstopthecareerofthehumanmind，theyincontestablyguideitinonedirectioninpreferencetoanother。Theireffects，thuscircumscribed，arestillexceedinglygreat;andI
　　trustImaybepardonedifIpauseforamomenttosurveythem。
　　Wehadoccasion，inspeakingofthephilosophicalmethodoftheAmericanpeople，tomakeseveralremarkswhichmustherebeturnedtoaccount。
　　Equalitybegetsinmanthedesireofjudgingofeverythingforhimself:itgiveshim，inallthings，atasteforthetangibleandthereal，acontemptfortraditionandforforms。
　　Thesegeneraltendenciesareprincipallydiscernibleinthepeculiarsubjectofthischapter。Thosewhocultivatethesciencesamongstademocraticpeoplearealwaysafraidoflosingtheirwayinvisionaryspeculation。Theymistrustsystems;theyadherecloselytofactsandthestudyoffactswiththeirownsenses。Astheydonoteasilydefertothemerenameofanyfellow—man，theyareneverinclinedtorestuponanyman’sauthority;but，onthecontrary，theyareunremittingintheireffortstopointouttheweakerpointsoftheirneighbors’
　　opinions。Scientificprecedentshaveverylittleweightwiththem;theyareneverlongdetainedbythesubtilityoftheschools，norreadytoacceptbigwordsforsterlingcoin;theypenetrate，asfarastheycan，intotheprincipalpartsofthesubjectwhichengagesthem，andtheyexpoundtheminthevernaculartongue。Scientificpursuitsthenfollowafreerandasafercourse，butalessloftyone。
　　Themindmay，asitappearstome，dividescienceintothreeparts。Thefirstcomprisesthemosttheoreticalprinciples，andthosemoreabstractnotionswhoseapplicationiseitherunknownorveryremote。Thesecondiscomposedofthosegeneraltruthswhichstillbelongtopuretheory，butlead，nevertheless，byastraightandshortroadtopracticalresults。Methodsofapplicationandmeansofexecutionmakeupthethird。Eachofthesedifferentportionsofsciencemaybeseparatelycultivated，althoughreasonandexperienceshowthatnoneofthemcanprosperlong，ifitbeabsolutelycutofffromthetwoothers。
　　InAmericathepurelypracticalpartofscienceisadmirablyunderstood，andcarefulattentionispaidtothetheoreticalportionwhichisimmediatelyrequisitetoapplication。OnthisheadtheAmericansalwaysdisplayaclear，free，original，andinventivepowerofmind。ButhardlyanyoneintheUnitedStatesdevoteshimselftotheessentiallytheoreticalandabstractportionofhumanknowledge。InthisrespecttheAmericanscarrytoexcessatendencywhichis，Ithink，discernible，thoughinalessdegree，amongstalldemocraticnations。
　　Nothingismorenecessarytothecultureofthehighersciences，orofthemoreelevateddepartmentsofscience，thanmeditation;andnothingislesssuitedtomeditationthanthestructureofdemocraticsociety。Wedonotfindthere，asamongstanaristocraticpeople，oneclasswhichclingstoastateofreposebecauseitiswelloff;andanotherwhichdoesnotventuretostirbecauseitdespairsofimprovingitscondition。
　　Everyoneisactivelyinmotion:someinquestofpower，othersofgain。Inthemidstofthisuniversaltumult—thisincessantconflictofjarringinterests—thiscontinualstrideofmenafterfortune—whereisthatcalmtobefoundwhichisnecessaryforthedeepercombinationsoftheintellect？Howcantheminddwelluponanysinglepoint，wheneverythingwhirlsaroundit，andmanhimselfissweptandbeatenonwardsbytheheadycurrentwhichrollsallthingsinitscourse？Butthepermanentagitationwhichsubsistsinthebosomofapeaceableandestablisheddemocracy，mustbedistinguishedfromthetumultuousandrevolutionarymovementswhichalmostalwaysattendthebirthandgrowthofdemocraticsociety。Whenaviolentrevolutionoccursamongstahighlycivilizedpeople，itcannotfailtogiveasuddenimpulsetotheirfeelingsandtheiropinions。Thisismoreparticularlytrueofdemocraticrevolutions，whichstirupalltheclassesofwhichapeopleiscomposed，andbeget，atthesametime，inordinateambitioninthebreastofeverymemberofthecommunity。TheFrenchmademostsurprisingadvancesintheexactsciencesattheverytimeatwhichtheywerefinishingthedestructionoftheremainsoftheirformerfeudalsociety;yetthissuddenfecundityisnottobeattributedtodemocracy，buttotheunexampledrevolutionwhichattendeditsgrowth。Whathappenedatthatperiodwasaspecialincident，anditwouldbeunwisetoregarditasthetestofageneralprinciple。
　　Greatrevolutionsarenotmorecommonamongstdemocraticnationsthanamongstothers:Iameveninclinedtobelievethattheyarelessso。Butthereprevailsamongstthosepopulationsasmalldistressingmotion—asortofincessantjostlingofmen—
　　whichannoysanddisturbsthemind，withoutexcitingorelevatingit。Menwholiveindemocraticcommunitiesnotonlyseldomindulgeinmeditation，buttheynaturallyentertainverylittleesteemforit。Ademocraticstateofsocietyanddemocraticinstitutionsplungethegreaterpartofmeninconstantactivelife;andthehabitsofmindwhicharesuitedtoanactivelife，arenotalwayssuitedtoacontemplativeone。Themanofactionisfrequentlyobligedtocontenthimselfwiththebesthecanget，becausehewouldneveraccomplishhispurposeifhechosetocarryeverydetailtoperfection。Hehasperpetuallyoccasiontorelyonideaswhichhehasnothadleisuretosearchtothebottom;forheismuchmorefrequentlyaidedbytheopportunityofanideathanbyitsstrictaccuracy;and，inthelongrun，heriskslessinmakinguseofsomefalseprinciples，thaninspendinghistimeinestablishingallhisprinciplesonthebasisoftruth。Theworldisnotledbylongorlearneddemonstrations;
　　arapidglanceatparticularincidents，thedailystudyofthefleetingpassionsofthemultitude，theaccidentsofthetime，andtheartofturningthemtoaccount，decideallitsaffairs。
　　Intheagesinwhichactivelifeistheconditionofalmosteveryone，menarethereforegenerallyledtoattachanexcessivevaluetotherapidburstsandsuperficialconceptionsoftheintellect;and，ontheotherhand，todepreciatebelowtheirtruestandarditssloweranddeeperlabors。Thisopinionofthepublicinfluencesthejudgmentofthemenwhocultivatethesciences;theyarepersuadedthattheymaysucceedinthosepursuitswithoutmeditation，ordeterredfromsuchpursuitsasdemandit。
　　Thereareseveralmethodsofstudyingthesciences。Amongstamultitudeofmenyouwillfindaselfish，mercantile，andtradingtasteforthediscoveriesofthemind，whichmustnotbeconfoundedwiththatdisinterestedpassionwhichiskindledintheheartofthefew。Adesiretoutilizeknowledgeisonething;thepuredesiretoknowisanother。Idonotdoubtthatinafewmindsandfarbetween，anardent，inexhaustibleloveoftruthspringsup，self—supported，andlivinginceaselessfruitionwithouteverattainingthesatisfactionwhichitseeks。
　　Thisardentloveitis—thisproud，disinterestedloveofwhatistrue—whichraisesmentotheabstractsourcesoftruth，todrawtheirmother—knowledgethence。IfPascalhadhadnothinginviewbutsomelargegain，orevenifhehadbeenstimulatedbytheloveoffamealone，Icannotconceivethathewouldeverhavebeenabletorallyallthepowersofhismind，ashedid，forthebetterdiscoveryofthemosthiddenthingsoftheCreator。WhenIseehim，asitwere，tearhissoulfromthemidstofallthecaresoflifetodevoteitwhollytotheseresearches，and，prematurelysnappingthelinkswhichbindtheframetolife，dieofoldagebeforeforty，Istandamazed，andIperceivethatnoordinarycauseisatworktoproduceeffortssoextra—ordinary。
　　Thefuturewillprovewhetherthesepassions，atoncesorareandsoproductive，comeintobeingandintogrowthaseasilyinthemidstofdemocraticasinaristocraticcommunities。Formyself，IconfessthatIamslowtobelieveit。Inaristocraticsociety，theclasswhichgivesthetonetoopinion，andhasthesupremeguidanceofaffairs，beingpermanentlyandhereditarilyplacedabovethemultitude，naturallyconceivesaloftyideaofitselfandofman。Itlovestoinventforhimnoblepleasures，tocarveoutsplendidobjectsforhisambition。Aristocraciesoftencommitverytyrannicalandveryinhumanactions;buttheyrarelyentertaingrovellingthoughts;andtheyshowakindofhaughtycontemptoflittlepleasures，evenwhilsttheyindulgeinthem。Theeffectisgreatlytoraisethegeneralpitchofsociety。Inaristocraticagesvastideasarecommonlyentertainedofthedignity，thepower，andthegreatnessofman。Theseopinionsexerttheirinfluenceonthosewhocultivatethesciences，aswellasontherestofthecommunity。Theyfacilitatethenaturalimpulseofthemindtothehighestregionsofthought，andtheynaturallyprepareittoconceiveasublime—
　　nay，almostadivine—loveoftruth。Menofscienceatsuchperiodsareconsequentlycarriedawaybytheory;anditevenhappensthattheyfrequentlyconceiveaninconsideratecontemptforthepracticalpartoflearning。"Archimedes，"saysPlutarch，"wasofsoloftyaspirit，thathenevercondescendedtowriteanytreatiseonthemannerofconstructingalltheseenginesofoffenceanddefence。Andasheheldthisscienceofinventingandputtingtogetherengines，andallartsgenerallyspeakingwhichtendedtoanyusetulendinpractice，tobevile，low，andmercenary，hespenthistalentsandhisstudioushoursinwritingofthosethingsonlywhosebeautyandsubtiltyhadinthemnoadmixtureofnecessity。"Suchisthearistocraticaimofscience;
　　indemocraticnationsitcannotbethesame。
　　Thegreaterpartofthemenwhoconstitutethesenationsareextremelyeagerinthepursuitofactualandphysicalgratification。Astheyarealwaysdissatisfiedwiththepositionwhichtheyoccupy，andarealwaysfreetoleaveit，theythinkofnothingbutthemeansofchangingtheirfortune，orofincreasingit。Tomindsthuspredisposed，everynewmethodwhichleadsbyashorterroadtowealth，everymachinewhichspareslabor，everyinstrumentwhichdiminishesthecostofproduction，everydiscoverywhichfacilitatespleasuresoraugmentsthem，seemstobethegrandesteffortofthehumanintellect。Itischieflyfromthesemotivesthatademocraticpeopleaddictsitselftoscientificpursuits—thatitunderstands，andthatitrespectsthem。Inaristocraticages，scienceismoreparticularlycalledupontofurnishgratificationtothemind;indemocracies，tothebody。Youmaybesurethatthemoreanationisdemocratic，enlightened，andfree，thegreaterwillbethenumberoftheseinterestedpromotersofscientificgenius，andthemorewilldiscoveriesimmediatelyapplicabletoproductiveindustryconfergain，fame，andevenpowerontheirauthors。Forindemocraciestheworkingclasstakesapartinpublicaffairs;andpublichonors，aswellaspecuniaryremuneration，maybeawardedtothosewhodeservethem。Inacommunitythusorganizeditmayeasilybeconceivedthatthehumanmindmaybeledinsensiblytotheneglectoftheory;andthatitisurged，onthecontrary，withunparalleledvehemencetotheapplicationsofscience，oratleasttothatportionoftheoreticalsciencewhichisnecessarytothosewhomakesuchapplications。Invainwillsomeinnatepropensityraisethemindtowardstheloftierspheresoftheintellect;interestdrawsitdowntothemiddlezone。Thereitmaydevelopallitsenergyandrestlessactivity，thereitmayengenderallitswonders。TheseveryAmericans，whohavenotdiscoveredoneofthegenerallawsofmechanics，haveintroducedintonavigationanenginewhichchangestheaspectoftheworld。
　　AssuredlyIdonotcontentthatthedemocraticnationsofourtimearedestinedtowitnesstheextinctionofthetranscendentluminariesofman’sintelligence，noreventhatnonewlightswilleverstartintoexistence。Attheageatwhichtheworldhasnowarrived，andamongstsomanycultivatednations，perpetuallyexcitedbythefeverofproductiveindustry，thebondswhichconnectthedifferentpartsofsciencetogethercannotfailtostriketheobservation;andthetasteforpracticalscienceitself，ifitbeenlightened，oughttoleadmennottoneglecttheory。Inthemidstofsuchnumberlessattemptedapplicationsofsomanyexperiments，repeatedeveryday，itisalmostimpossiblethatgenerallawsshouldnotfrequentlybebroughttolight;sothatgreatdiscoverieswouldbefrequent，thoughgreatinventorsberare。Ibelieve，moreover，inthehighcallingofscientificminds。Ifthedemocraticprincipledoesnot，ontheonehand，inducementocultivatescienceforitsownsake，ontheotheritenormouslyincreasesthenumberofthosewhodocultivateit。Norisitcrediblethat，fromamongstsogreatamultitudenospeculativegeniusshouldfromtimetotimearise，inflamedbytheloveoftruthalone。Suchaone，wemaybesure，woulddiveintothedeepestmysteriesofnature，whateverbethespiritofhiscountryorhisage。Herequiresnoassistanceinhiscourse—enoughthathebenotcheckedinit。
　　AllthatImeantosayisthis:—permanentinequalityofconditionsleadsmentoconfinethemselvestothearrogantandsterileresearchofabstracttruths;whilstthesocialconditionandtheinstitutionsofdemocracypreparethemtoseektheimmediateandusefulpracticalresultsofthesciences。Thistendencyisnaturalandinevitable:itiscurioustobeacquaintedwithit，anditmaybenecessarytopointitout。Ifthosewhoarecalledupontoguidethenationsofourtimeclearlydiscernedfromafaroffthesenewtendencies，whichwillsoonbeirresistible，theywouldunderstandthat，possessingeducationandfreedom，menlivingindemocraticagescannotfailtoimprovetheindustrialpartofscience;andthathenceforwardalltheeffortsoftheconstitutedauthoritiesoughttobedirectedtosupportthehighestbranchesoflearning，andtofosterthenoblerpassionforscienceitself。Inthepresentagethehumanmindmustbecoercedintotheoreticalstudies;itrunsofitsownaccordtopracticalapplications;and，insteadofperpetuallyreferringittotheminuteexaminationofsecondaryeffects，itiswelltodivertitfromthemsometimes，inordertoraiseituptothecontemplationofprimarycauses。BecausethecivilizationofancientRomeperishedinconsequenceoftheinvasionofthebarbarians，weareperhapstooapttothinkthatcivilizationcannotperishinanyothermanner。Ifthelightbywhichweareguidediseverextinguished，itwilldwindlebydegrees，andexpireofitself。Bydintofcloseadherencetomereapplications，principleswouldbelostsightof;andwhentheprincipleswerewhollyforgotten，themethodsderivedfromthemwouldbeill—pursued。Newmethodscouldnolongerbeinvented，andmenwouldcontinuetoapply，withoutintelligence，andwithoutart，scientificprocessesnolongerunderstood。
　　WhenEuropeansfirstarrivedinChina，threehundredyearsago，theyfoundthatalmostalltheartshadreachedacertaindegreeofperfectionthere;andtheyweresurprisedthatapeoplewhichhadattainedthispointshouldnothavegonebeyondit。Atalaterperiodtheydiscoveredsometracesofthehigherbranchesofsciencewhichwerelost。Thenationwasabsorbedinproductiveindustry:thegreaterpartofitsscientificprocesseshadbeenpreserved，butscienceitselfnolongerexistedthere。
　　Thisservedtoexplainthestrangelymotionlessstateinwhichtheyfoundthemindsofthispeople。TheChinese，infollowingthetrackoftheirforefathers，hadforgottenthereasonsbywhichthelatterhadbeenguided。Theystillusedtheformula，withoutaskingforitsmeaning:theyretainedtheinstrument，buttheynolongerpossessedtheartofalteringorrenewingit。TheChinese，then，hadlostthepowerofchange;forthemtoimprovewasimpossible。Theywerecompelled，atalltimesandinallpoints，toimitatetheirpredecessors，lesttheyshouldstrayintoutterdarkness，bydeviatingforaninstantfromthepathalreadylaiddownforthem。Thesourceofhumanknowledgewasallbutdry;andthoughthestreamstillranon，itcouldneitherswellitswatersnoralteritschannel。Notwithstandingthis，Chinahadsubsistedpeaceablyforcenturies。Theinvaderswhohadconqueredthecountryassumedthemannersoftheinhabitants，andorderprevailedthere。Asortofphysicalprosperitywaseverywherediscernible:revolutionswererare，andwarwas，sotospeak，unknown。
　　Itisthenafallacytoflatterourselveswiththereflectionthatthebarbariansarestillfarfromus;foriftherebesomenationswhichallowcivilizationtobetornfromtheirgrasp，thereareotherswhotrampleitthemselvesundertheirfeet。
　　ChapterXI:OfTheSpiritInWhichTheAmericansCultivateTheArtsItwouldbetowastethetimeofmyreadersandmyownifI
　　strovetodemonstratehowthegeneralmediocrityoffortunes，theabsenceofsuperfluouswealth，theuniversaldesireofcomfort，andtheconstanteffortsbywhicheveryoneattemptstoprocureit，makethetastefortheusefulpredominateovertheloveofthebeautifulintheheartofman。Democraticnations，amongstwhichallthesethingsexist，willthereforecultivatetheartswhichservetorenderlifeeasy，inpreferencetothosewhoseobjectistoadornit。Theywillhabituallyprefertheusefultothebeautiful，andtheywillrequirethatthebeautifulshouldbeuseful。ButIproposetogofurther;andafterhavingpointedoutthisfirstfeature，tosketchseveralothers。
　　Itcommonlyhappensthatintheagesofprivilegethepracticeofalmostalltheartsbecomesaprivilege;andthateveryprofessionisaseparatewalk，uponwhichitisnotallowableforeveryonetoenter。Evenwhenproductiveindustryisfree，thefixedcharacterwhichbelongstoaristocraticnationsgraduallysegregatesallthepersonswhopractisethesameart，tilltheyformadistinctclass，alwayscomposedofthesamefamilies，whosemembersareallknowntoeachother，andamongstwhomapublicopinionoftheirownandaspeciesofcorporatepridesoonspringup。Inaclassorguildofthiskind，eachartisanhasnotonlyhisfortunetomake，buthisreputationtopreserve。Heisnotexclusivelyswayedbyhisowninterest，orevenbythatofhiscustomer，butbythatofthebodytowhichhebelongs;andtheinterestofthatbodyis，thateachartisanshouldproducethebestpossibleworkmanship。Inaristocraticages，theobjectoftheartsisthereforetomanufactureaswellaspossible—notwiththegreatestdespatch，oratthelowestrate。
　　When，onthecontrary，everyprofessionisopentoall—
　　whenamultitudeofpersonsareconstantlyembracingandabandoningit—andwhenitsseveralmembersarestrangerstoeachother，indifferent，andfromtheirnumbershardlyseenamongstthemselves;thesocialtieisdestroyed，andeachworkman，standingalone，endeavorssimplytogainthegreatestpossiblequantityofmoneyattheleastpossiblecost。Thewillofthecustomeristhenhisonlylimit。Butatthesametimeacorrespondingrevolutiontakesplaceinthecustomeralso。Incountriesinwhichrichesaswellaspowerareconcentratedandretainedinthehandsofthefew，theuseofthegreaterpartofthisworld’sgoodsbelongstoasmallnumberofindividuals，whoarealwaysthesame。Necessity，publicopinion，ormoderatedesiresexcludeallothersfromtheenjoymentofthem。Asthisaristocraticclassremainsfixedatthepinnacleofgreatnessonwhichitstands，withoutdiminutionorincrease，itisalwaysacteduponbythesamewantsandaffectedbytheminthesamemanner。Themenofwhomitiscomposednaturallyderivefromtheirsuperiorandhereditarypositionatasteforwhatisextremelywellmadeandlasting。Thisaffectsthegeneralwayofthinkingofthenationinrelationtothearts。Itoftenoccurs，amongsuchapeople，thateventhepeasantwillrathergowithouttheobjecthecovets，thanprocureitinastateofimperfection。
　　Inaristocracies，then，thehandicraftsmenworkforonlyalimitednumberofveryfastidiouscustomers:theprofittheyhopetomakedependsprincipallyontheperfectionoftheirworkmanship。
　　Suchisnolongerthecasewhen，allprivilegesbeingabolished，ranksareintermingled，andmenareforeverrisingorsinkingupontheladderofsociety。Amongstademocraticpeopleanumberofcitizensalwaysexistwhosepatrimonyisdividedanddecreasing。Theyhavecontracted，undermoreprosperouscircumstances，certainwants，whichremainafterthemeansofsatisfyingsuchwantsaregone;andtheyareanxiouslylookingoutforsomesurreptitiousmethodofprovidingforthem。Ontheotherhand，therearealwaysindemocraciesalargenumberofmenwhosefortuneisupontheincrease，butwhosedesiresgrowmuchfasterthantheirfortunes:andwhogloatuponthegiftsofwealthinanticipation，longbeforetheyhavemeanstocommandthem。Suchmeneagertofindsomeshortcuttothesegratifications，alreadyalmostwithintheirreach。Fromthecombinationofthesecausestheresultis，thatindemocraciestherearealwaysamultitudeofindividualswhosewantsareabovetheirmeans，andwhoareverywillingtotakeupwithimperfectsatisfactionratherthanabandontheobjectoftheirdesires。
　　Theartisanreadilyunderstandsthesepassions，forhehimselfpartakesinthem:inanaristocracyhewouldseektosellhisworkmanshipatahighpricetothefew;henowconceivesthatthemoreexpeditiouswayofgettingrichistosellthematalowpricetoall。Butthereareonlytwowaysofloweringthepriceofcommodities。Thefirstistodiscoversomebetter，shorter，andmoreingeniousmethodofproducingthem:thesecondistomanufacturealargerquantityofgoods，nearlysimilar，butoflessvalue。Amongstademocraticpopulation，alltheintellectualfacultiesoftheworkmanaredirectedtothesetwoobjects:hestrivestoinventmethodswhichmayenablehimnotonlytoworkbetter，butquickerandcheaper;or，ifhecannotsucceedinthat，todiminishtheintrinsicqualitiesofthethinghemakes，withoutrenderingitwhollyunfitfortheuseforwhichitisintended。Whennonebutthewealthyhadwatches，theywerealmostallverygoodones:fewarenowmadewhichareworthmuch，buteverybodyhasoneinhispocket。Thusthedemocraticprinciplenotonlytendstodirectthehumanmindtotheusefularts，butitinducestheartisantoproducewithgreaterrapidityaquantityofimperfectcommodities，andtheconsumertocontenthimselfwiththesecommodities。
　　Notthatindemocraciestheartsareincapableofproducingverycommendableworks，ifsuchberequired。Thismayoccasionallybethecase，ifcustomersappearwhoarereadytopayfortimeandtrouble。Inthisrivalryofeverykindofindustry—inthemidstofthisimmensecompetitionandthesecountlessexperiments，someexcellentworkmenareformedwhoreachtheutmostlimitsoftheircraft。Buttheyhaverarelyanopportunityofdisplayingwhattheycando;theyarescrupulouslysparingoftheirpowers;theyremaininastateofaccomplishedmediocrity，whichcondemnsitself，and，thoughitbeverywellabletoshootbeyondthemarkbeforeit，aimsonlyatwhatithits。Inaristocracies，onthecontrary，workmenalwaysdoalltheycan;andwhentheystop，itisbecausetheyhavereachedthelimitoftheirattainments。
　　WhenIarriveinacountrywhereIfindsomeofthefinestproductionsofthearts，Ilearnfromthisfactnothingofthesocialconditionorofthepoliticalconstitutionofthecountry。
　　ButifIperceivethattheproductionsoftheartsaregenerallyofaninferiorquality，veryabundantandverycheap，Iamconvincedthat，amongstthepeoplewherethisoccurs，privilegeisonthedecline，andthatranksarebeginningtointermingle，andwillsoonbeconfoundedtogether。
　　Thehandicraftsmenofdemocraticagesendeavornotonlytobringtheirusefulproductionswithinthereachofthewholecommunity，buttheystrivetogivetoalltheircommoditiesattractivequalitieswhichtheydonotinrealitypossess。Intheconfusionofallrankseveryonehopestoappearwhatheisnot，andmakesgreatexertionstosucceedinthisobject。Thissentimentindeed，whichisbuttoonaturaltotheheartofman，doesnotoriginateinthedemocraticprinciple;butthatprincipleappliesittomaterialobjects。Tomimicvirtueisofeveryage;butthehypocrisyofluxurybelongsmoreparticularlytotheagesofdemocracy。
　　Tosatisfythesenewcravingsofhumanvanitytheartshaverecoursetoeveryspeciesofimposture:andthesedevicessometimesgosofarastodefeattheirownpurpose。Imitationdiamondsarenowmadewhichmaybeeasilymistakenforrealones;
　　assoonastheartoffabricatingfalsediamondsshallhavereachedsohighadegreeofperfectionthattheycannotbedistinguishedfromrealones，itisprobablethatbothoneandtheotherwillbeabandoned，andbecomemerepebblesagain。
　　Thisleadsmetospeakofthoseartswhicharecalledthefinearts，bywayofdistinction。Idonotbelievethatitisanecessaryeffectofademocraticsocialconditionandofdemocraticinstitutionstodiminishthenumberofmenwhocultivatethefinearts;butthesecausesexertaverypowerfulinfluenceonthemannerinwhichtheseartsarecultivated。Manyofthosewhohadalreadycontractedatasteforthefineartsareimpoverished:ontheotherhand，manyofthosewhoarenotyetrichbegintoconceivethattaste，atleastbyimitation;andthenumberofconsumersincreases，butopulentandfastidiousconsumersbecomemorescarce。SomethinganalogoustowhatIhavealreadypointedoutintheusefulartsthentakesplaceinthefinearts;theproductionsofartistsaremorenumerous，butthemeritofeachproductionisdiminished。Nolongerabletosoartowhatisgreat，theycultivatewhatisprettyandelegant;andappearanceismoreattendedtothanreality。Inaristocraciesafewgreatpicturesareproduced;indemocraticcountries，avastnumberofinsignificantones。Intheformer，statuesareraisedofbronze;inthelatter，theyaremodelledinplaster。