Wehaveseenhowtheforcibleusurpationofthis，generallyaccompaniedbytheturningofarableintopastureland，beginsattheendofthe15thandextendsintothe16thcentury。But，atthattime，theprocesswascarriedonbymeansofindividualactsofviolenceagainstwhichlegislation，forahundredandfiftyyears，foughtinvain。Theadvancemadebythe18thcenturyshowsitselfinthis，thatthelawitsep;becomesnowtheinstrumentofthetheftofthepeople’sland，althoughthelargefarmersmakeuseoftheirlittleindependentmethodsaswell。[15]TheparliamentaryformoftherobberyisthatofActsforenclosuresofCommons，inotherwords，decreesbywhichthelandlordsgrantthemselvesthepeople’slandasprivateproperty，decreesofexpropriationofthepeople。SirF。M。Edenrefuteshisowncraftyspecialpleading，inwhichhetriestorepresentcommunalpropertyastheprivatepropertyofthegreatlandlordswhohavetakentheplaceofthefeudallords，whenhe，himself，demandsa"generalActofParliamentfortheenclosureofCommons"
　　（admittingtherebythataparliamentarycoupd’étatisnecessaryforitstransformationintoprivateproperty），andmoreovercallsonthelegislaturefortheindemnificationfortheexpropriatedpoor。[16]
　　Whilsttheplaceoftheindependentyeomanwastakenbytenantsatwill，smallfarmersonyearlyleases，aservilerabbledependentonthepleasureofthelandlords，thesystematicrobberyoftheCommunallandshelpedespecially，nexttothetheftoftheStatedomains，toswellthoselargefarms，thatwerecalledinthe18thcenturycapitalfarms[17]ormerchantfarms，[18]andto"setfree"theagriculturalpopulationasproletariansformanufacturingindustry。
　　The18thcentury，however，didnotyetrecogniseasfullyasthe19th，theidentitybetweennationalwealthandthepovertyofthepeople。Hencethemostvigorouspolemic，intheeconomicliteratureofthattime，onthe"enclosureofcommons。"Fromthemassofmaterialsthatliebeforeme，Igiveafewextractsthatwillthrowastronglightonthecircumstancesofthetime。"InseveralparishesofHertfordshire，"writesoneindignantperson，"24farms，numberingontheaverage50—150acres，havebeenmeltedupintothreefarms。"[19]"InNorthamptonshireandLeicestershiretheenclosureofcommonlandshastakenplaceonaverylargescale，andmostofthenewlordships，resultingfromtheenclosure，havebeenturnedintopasturage，inconsequenceofwhichmanylordshipshavenotnow50acresploughedyearly，inwhich1，500wereploughedformerly。Theruinsofformerdwelling—houses，barns，stables，&c。，"arethesoletracesoftheformerinhabitants。"Anhundredhousesandfamilieshaveinsomeopen—fieldvillagesdwindledtoeightorten……
　　Thelandholdersinmostparishesthathavebeenenclosedonly15or20
　　years，areveryfewincomparisonofthenumberswhooccupiedthemintheiropen—fieldstate。Itisnouncommonthingfor4or5wealthygrazierstoengrossalargeenclosedlordshipwhichwasbeforeinthehandsof20or30farmers，andasmanysmallertenantsandproprietors。Alltheseareherebythrownoutoftheirlivingswiththeirfamiliesandmanyotherfamilieswhowerechieflyemployedandsupportedbythem。"[20]Itwasnotonlythelandthatlaywaste，butoftenlandcultivatedeitherincommonorheldunderadefiniterentpaidtothecommunity，thatwasannexedbytheneighbouringlandlordsunderpretextofenclosure。"Ihavehereinviewenclosuresofopenfieldsandlandsalreadyimproved。Itisacknowledgedbyeventhewritersindefenceofenclosuresthatthesediminishedvillagesincreasethemonopoliesoffarms，raisethepricesofprovisions，andproducedepopulation……andeventheenclosureofwastelands（asnowcarriedon）bearshardonthepoor，bydeprivingthemofapartoftheirsubsistence，andonlygoestowardsincreasingfarmsalreadytoolarge。"[21]"When，"saysDr。Price，"thislandgetsintothehandsofafewgreatfarmers，theconsequencemustbethatthelittlefarmers"（earlierdesignatedbyhim"amultitudeoflittleproprietorsandtenants，whomaintainthemselvesandfamiliesbytheproduceofthegroundtheyoccupybysheepkeptonacommon，bypoultry，hogs，&c。，andwhothereforehavelittleoccasiontopurchaseanyofthemeansofsubsistence"）"willbeconvertedintoabodyofmenwhoearntheirsubsistencebyworkingforothers，andwhowillbeunderanecessityofgoingtomarketforalltheywant……Therewill，perhaps，bemorelabour，becausetherewillbemorecompulsiontoit……
　　Townsandmanufactureswillincrease，becausemorewillbedriventotheminquestofplacesandemployment。Thisisthewayinwhichtheengrossingoffarmsnaturallyoperates。Andthisisthewayinwhich，formanyyears，ithasbeenactuallyoperatinginthiskingdom。"[22]Hesumsuptheeffectoftheenclosuresthus:"Uponthewhole，thecircumstancesofthelowerranksofmenarealteredinalmosteveryrespectfortheworse。Fromlittleoccupiersofland，theyarereducedtothestateofday—labourersandhirelings;and，atthesametime，theirsubsistenceinthatstatehasbecomemoredifficult。"[23]Infact，usurpationofthecommonlandsandtherevolutioninagricultureaccompanyingthis，toldsoacutelyontheagriculturallabourersthat，evenaccordingtoEden，between1765and1780，theirwagesbegantofallbelowtheminimum，andtobesupplementedbyofficialpoor—lawrelief。
　　Theirwages，hesays，"werenotmorethanenoughfortheabsolutenecessariesoflife。"
　　LetushearforamomentadefenderofenclosuresandanopponentofDr。Price。"Notisitaconsequencethattheremustbedepopulation，becausemenarenotseenwastingtheirlabourintheopenfield……If，byconvertingthelittlefarmersintoabodyofmenwhomustworkforothers，morelabourisproduced，itisanadvantagewhichthenation"（towhich，ofcourse，the"converted"onesdonotbelong）"shouldwishfor……theproducebeinggreaterwhentheirjointlaboursareemployedononefarm，therewillbeasurplusformanufactures，andbythismeansmanufactures，oneoftheminesofthenation，willincrease，inproportiontothequantityofcornproduced。"[24]
　　Thestoicalpeaceofmindwithwhichthepoliticaleconomistregardsthemostshamelessviolationofthe"sacredrightsofproperty"andthegrossestactsofviolencetopersons，assoonastheyarenecessarytolaythefoundationsofthecapitalisticmodeofproduction，isshownbySirF。M。Eden，philanthropistandtorytoboot。Thewholeseriesofthefts，outrages，andpopularmisery，thataccompaniedtheforcibleexpropriationofthepeople，fromthelastthirdofthe15thtotheendofthe18thcentury，leadhimmerelytothecomfortableconclusion:"Thedueproportionbetweenarablelandandpasturehadtobeestablished。Duringthewholeofthe14thandthegreaterpartofthe15thcentury，therewasoneacreofpastureto2，3，andeven4ofarableland。Aboutthemiddleofthe16thcenturytheproportionwaschangedof2acresofpastureto2，lateron，of2acresofpasturetooneofarable，untilatlastthejustproportionof3acresofpasturetooneofarablelandwasattained。"
　　Inthe19thcentury，theverymemoryoftheconnexionbetweentheagriculturallabourerandthecommunalpropertyhad，ofcourse，vanished。Tosaynothingofmorerecenttimes，havetheagriculturalpopulationreceivedafarthingofcompensationforthe3，511，770acresofcommonlandwhichbetween1801
　　and1831werestolenfromthemandbyparliamentarydevicespresentedtothelandlordsbythelandlords？
　　Thelastprocessofwholesaleexpropriationoftheagriculturalpopulationfromthesoilis，finally，theso—calledclearingofestates，i。e。，thesweepingmenoffthem。AlltheEnglishmethodshithertoconsideredculminatedin"clearing。"Aswesawinthepictureofmodernconditionsgiveninaformerchapter，wheretherearenomoreindependentpeasantstogetridof，the"clearing"ofcottagesbegins;sothattheagriculturallabourersdonotfindonthesoilcultivatedbythemeventhespotnecessaryfortheirownhousing。Butwhat"clearingofestates"reallyandproperlysignifies，welearnonlyinthepromisedlandofmodernromance，theHighlandsofScotland。Theretheprocessisdistinguishedbyitssystematiccharacter，bythemagnitudeofthescaleonwhichitiscarriedoutatoneblow（inIrelandlandlordshavegonetothelengthofsweepingawayseveralvillagesatonce;inScotlandareasaslargeasGermanprincipalitiesaredealtwith），finallybythepeculiarformofproperty，underwhichtheembezzledlandswereheld。
　　TheHighlandCeltswereorganisedinclans，eachofwhichwastheownerofthelandonwhichitwassettled。Therepresentativeoftheclan，itschiefor"greatman，"wasonlythetitularownerofthisproperty，justastheQueenofEnglandisthetitularownerofallthenationalsoil。
　　WhentheEnglishgovernmentsucceededinsuppressingtheintestinewarsofthese"greatmen，"andtheirconstantincursionsintotheLowlandplains，thechiefsoftheclansbynomeansgaveuptheirtime—honoredtradeasrobbers;theyonlychangeditsform。Ontheirownauthoritytheytransformedtheirnominalrightintoarightofprivateproperty，andasthisbroughtthemintocollisionwiththeirclansmen，resolvedtodrivethemoutbyopenforce。"AkingofEnglandmightaswellclaimtodrivehissubjectsintothesea，"saysProfessorNewman。[25]Thisrevolution，whichbeganinScotlandafterthelastrisingofthefollowersofthePretender，canbefollowedthroughitsfirstphasesinthewritingsofSirJamesSteuart[26]andJamesAnderson。[27]Inthe18thcenturythehunted—outGaelswereforbiddentoemigratefromthecountry，withaviewtodrivingthembyforcetoGlasgowandothermanufacturingtowns。[28]Asanexampleofthemethod[29]obtaininginthe19thcentury，the"clearing"madebytheDuchessofSutherlandwillsufficehere。Thisperson，wellinstructedineconomy，resolved，onenteringuponhergovernment，toeffectaradicalcure，andtoturnthewholecountry，whosepopulationhadalreadybeen，byearlierprocessesofthelikekind，reducedto15，000，intoasheep—walk。
　　From1814to1820these15，000inhabitants，about3，000families，weresystematicallyhuntedandrootedout。Alltheirvillagesweredestroyedandburnt，alltheirfieldsturnedintopasturage。Britishsoldiersenforcedthiseviction，andcametoblowswiththeinhabitants。Oneoldwomanwasburnttodeathintheflamesofthehut，whichsherefusedtoleave。Thusthisfineladyappropriated794，000acresoflandthathadfromtimeimmemorialbelongedtotheclan。Sheassignedtotheexpelledinhabitantsabout6，000acresonthesea—shore？2acresperfamily。The6，000acreshaduntilthistimelainwaste，andbroughtinnoincometotheirowners。TheDuchess，inthenobilityofherheart，actuallywentsofarastolettheseatanaveragerentof2s。6d。peracretotheclansmen，whoforcenturieshadshedtheirbloodforherfamily。Thewholeofthestolenclanlandshedividedinto29greatsheepfarms，eachinhabitedbyasinglefamily，forthemostpartimportedEnglishfarm—servants。Intheyear1835the15，000Gaelswerealreadyreplacedby131，000sheep。Theremnantoftheaboriginesflungonthesea—shoretriedtolivebycatchingfish。Theybecameamphibiousandlived，asanEnglishauthorsays，halfonlandandhalfonwater，andwithalonlyhalfonboth;[30]
　　ButthebraveGaelsmustexpiateyetmorebitterlytheiridolatry，romanticandofthemountains，forthe"greatmen"oftheclan。Thesmelloftheirfishrosetothenosesofthegreatmen。Theyscentedsomeprofitinit，andletthesea—shoretothegreatfishmongersofLondon。ForthesecondtimetheGaelswerehuntedout。[31]
　　But，finally，partofthesheep—walksareturnedintodeerpreserves。
　　EveryoneknowsthattherearenorealforestsinEngland。Thedeerintheparksofthegreataredemurelydomesticcattle，fatasLondonaldermen。
　　Scotlandisthereforethelastrefugeofthe"noblepassion。""IntheHighlands，"
　　saysSomersin1848，"newforestsarespringinguplikemushrooms。Here，ononesideofGaick，youhavethenewforestofGlenfeshie;andthereontheotheryouhavethenewforestofArdverikie。InthesamelineyouhavetheBlackMount，animmensewastealsorecently。erected。Fromeasttowest？fromtheneighbourhoodofAberdeentothecragsofOban？youhavenowacontinuouslip;offorests;whileinotherpartsoftheHighlandstherearethenewforestsofLochArchaig，Glengarry，Glenmoriston，&c。Sheepwereintroducedintoglenswhichhadbeentheseatsofcommunitiesofsmallfarmers;andthelatterweredriventoseeksubsistenceoncoarserandmoresteriletracksofsoil。
　　Nowdeeraresupplantingsheep;andtheseareoncemoredispossessingthesmalltenants，whowillnecessarilybedrivendownuponstillcoarserlandandtomoregrindingpenury。Deer—forests[32]andthepeoplecannotco—exist。Oneorotherofthetwomustyield。Lettheforestsheincreasedinnumberandextentduringthenextquarterofacentury，astheyhavebeeninthelast，andtheGaelswillperishfromtheirnativesoil……ThismovementamongtheHighlandproprietorsiswithsomeamatterofambition……withsomeloveofsport……whileothers，ofamorepracticalcast，followthetradeindeerwithaneyesolelytoprofit。Foritisafact，thatamountainrangelaidoutinforestis，inmanycases，moreprofitabletotheproprietorthanwhenletasasheep—walk……Thehuntsmanwhowantsadeer—forestlimitshisoffersbynoothercalculationthantheextentofhispurse……SufferingshavebeeninflictedintheHighlandsscarcelylessseverethanthoseoccasionedbythepolicyoftheNormankings。Deerhavereceivedextendedranges，whilemenhavebeenhuntedwithinanarrowerandstillnarrowercircle……Oneafteronethelibertiesofthepeoplehavebeenclovendown……Andtheoppressionsaredailyontheincrease……Theclearanceanddispersionofthepeopleispursuedbytheproprietorsasasettledprinciple，asanagriculturalnecessity，justastreesandbrushwoodareclearedfromthewastesofAmericaorAustralia;
　　andtheoperationgoesoninaquiet，businesslikeway，&c。"[33]
　　Thespoliationofthechurch’sproperty，thefraudulentalienationoftheStatedomains，therobberyofthecommonlands，theusurpationoffeudalandclanproperty，anditstransformationintomodernprivatepropertyundercircumstancesofrecklessterrorism，werejustsomanyidyllicmethodsofprimitiveaccumulation。Theyconqueredthefieldforcapitalisticagriculture，madethesoilpartandparcelofcapital，andcreatedforthetownindustriesthenecessarysupplyofa"free"andoutlawedproletariat。
　　Footnotes[1]"Thepettyproprietorswhocultivatedtheirownfieldswiththeirownhands，andenjoyedamodestcompetence……thenformedamuchmoreimportantpartofthenationthanatpresent。Ifwemaytrustthebeststatisticalwritersofthatage，notlessthan160，000proprietorswho，withtheirfamilies，musthavemadeupmorethanaseventhofthewholepopulation，derivedtheirsubsistencefromlittlefreeholdestates。Theaverageincomeofthesesmalllandlords……wasestimatedatbetween£60and£70ayear。Itwascomputedthatthenumberofpersonswhotilledtheirownlandwasgreaterthanthenumberofthosewhofarmedthelandofothers。"Macaulay:
　　"HistoryofEngland，"10thed，1854，I。pp。333，334’。Eveninthelastthirdofthe17thcentury，4/5oftheEnglishpeoplewereagricultural。
　　（l。c。，p。413。）IquoteMacaulay，becauseassystematicfalsifierofhistoryheminimisesasmuchaspossiblefactsofthiskind。
　　[2]Wemustneverforgetthateventheserfwasnotonlytheowner，ifbutatribute—payingowner，ofthepieceoflandattachedtohishouse，butalsoaco—possessorofthecommonland。"Lepaysan（inSilesia，underFrederickII。）estserf。"Nevertheless，theseserfspossesscommonlands。"onn’apaspuencoreengagerlesSilésiensaupartagedescommunes，tandisquedanslaNouvelleMarche，iin’yaguàredevillageoú
　　cepartagenesoitexécutéavecleplusgrandsuccés。"
　　（Mirabeau:"DelaMonarchicPrussienne。"Londres，1788，t。ii，pp。125，126。）
　　[3]Japan，withitspurelyfeudalorganisationoflandedpropertyanditsdevelopedpetiteculture，givesamuchtruerpictureoftheEuropeanmiddleagesthanallourhistorybooks，dictatedastheseare，forthemostpart，bybourgeoisprejudices。Itisveryconvenienttobe"liberal"attheexpenseofthemiddleages。
　　[4]Inhis"Utopia，"ThomasMoresays，thatinEngland"yourshepethatwerewonttobesomekeandtame，andsosmaleaters，now，asIhearesaye，becomesogreatdevourersandsowyldethattheyeateup，andswallowdowne，theverymenthemselfes。""Utopia，"transl。byRobinson，ed。，Arber，Lond。，1869，p。41。
　　[5]Baconshowstheconnexionbetweenafree，well—to—dopeasantryandgoodinfantry。"Thisdidwonderfullyconcernthemightandmannerhoodofthekingdomtohavefarmsasitwereofastandardsufficienttomaintainanablebodyoutofpenury，anddidineffectamortiseagreatpartofthelandsofthekingdomuntotheholdandoccupationoftheyeomanryormiddlepeople，ofaconditionbetweengentlemen，andcottagersandpeasants……
　　Forithathbeenheldbythegeneralopinionofmenofbestjudgmentinthewars……thattheprincipalstrengthofanarmyconsistethintheinfantryorfoot。Andtomakegoodinfantryitrequirethmenbred，notinaservileorindigentfashion，butinsomefreeandplentifulmanner。Therefore，ifastaterunmosttonoblemenandgentlemen，andthatthehusbandmanandploughmenbebutastheirworkfolkandlabourers，orelsemerecottagers（whicharebuthous’dbeggars），youmayhaveagoodcavalry，butnevergoodstablebandsoffoot……AndthisistobeseeninFrance，andItaly，andsomeotherpartsabroad，whereineffectallisnoblesseorpeasantry……insomuchthattheyareinforcedtoemploymercenarybandsofSwitzersandthelike，fortheirbattalionsoffoot;wherebyalsoitcomestopassthatthosenationshavemuchpeopleandfewsoldiers。"（"TheReignofHenryVll。"VerbatimreprintfromKennet’sEngland。Ed。1719。Lond。，1870，p。
　　308。）
　　[6]Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。134。"Thequantityoflandassigned（intheoldlaws）
　　wouldnowbejudgedtoogreatforlabourers，andratheraslikelytoconvertthemintosmallfarmers。"（GeorgeRoberts:"TheSocialHistoryofthePeopleoftheSouthernCountiesofEnglandinPastCenturies。"Lond。，1856，pp。
　　184—185。）
　　[7]"Therightofthepoortoshareinthetithe，isestablishedbythetenourofancientstatutes。"（Tuckett，l。c。，Vol。II。，pg。804—805。）
　　[8]WilliamCobbett:"AHistoryoftheProtestantReformation，"§471。
　　[9]The"spirit"ofProtestantismmaybeseenfromthefollowing，amongotherthings。InthesouthofEnglandcertainlandedproprietorsandwell—to—dofarmersputtheirheadstogetherandpropoundedtenquestionsastotherightinterpretationofthepoor—lawofElizabeth。Thesetheylaidbeforeacelebratedjuristofthattime，SergeantSnigge（laterajudgeunderJamesI。）forhisopinion。"Question9？SomeofthemorewealthyfarmersintheparishhavedevisedaskilfulmodebywhichallthetroubleofexecutingthisAct（the43rdofElizabeth）mightbeavoided。Theyhaveproposedthatwe，shallerectaprisonintheparish，andthengivenoticetotheneighbourhood，thatifanypersonsaredisposedtofarmthepoorofthisparish，theydogiveinsealedproposals，onacertainday，ofthelowestpriceatwhichtheywilltakethemoffourhands;andthattheywillbeauthorisedtorefusetoanyoneunlesshebeshutupintheaforesaidprison。Theproposersofthisplanconceivethattherewillbefoundintheadjoiningcounties，persons，who，beingunwillingtolabourandnotpossessingsubstanceorcredittotakeafarmorship，soastolivewithoutlabour，maybeinducedtomakeaveryadvantageousoffertotheparish。Ifanyofthepoorperishunderthecontractor’scare，thesinwilllieathisdoor，astheparishwillhavedoneitsdutybythem。Weare，however，apprehensivethatthepresentAct（43rdofElizabeth）willnotwarrantaprudentialmeasureofthiskind;butyouaretolearnthattherestofthefreeholders。ofthecounty，andoftheadjoiningcountyofB，willveryreadilyjoinininstructingtheirmemberstoproposeanActtoenabletheparishtocontractwithapersontolockupandworkthepoor;andtodeclarethatifanypersonshallrefusetobesolockedupandworked，heshallbeentitledtonorelief。This，itis。hoped，willpreventpersonsindistressfromwantingrelief，andbethemeansofkeepingdownparishes。"（R。Blakey:
　　"TheHistoryofPoliticalLiteraturefromtheEarliestTimes。"。Lond。，1855，Vol。II。，pp。84—85。）In，Scotland，theabolitionofserfdomtookplacesomecenturieslaterthaninEngland。Evenin1698，FletcherofSaltoun，declaredintheScotchparliament，"ThenumberofbeggarsinScotlandisreckonedatnotlessthan200，000。TheonlyremedythatI，arepublicanonprinciple，cansuggest，istorestoretheoldstateofserfdom，tomakeslavesofallthosewhoareunabletoprovidefortheirownsubsistence。"
　　Eden，l。c。，BookI。，ch。1，pp。60—61，says，"Thedecreaseofvillenageseemsnecessarilytohavebeentheeraoftheoriginofthepoor。Manufacturesandcommercearethetwoparentsofournationalpoor。"Eden，likeourScotchrepublicanonprinciple，errsonlyinthis:nottheabolitionofvillenage，buttheabolitionofthepropertyoftheagriculturallabourerinthesoilmadehimaproletarian，andeventuallyapauper。InFrance，wheretheexpropriationwaseffectedinanotherway，theordonnanceofMoulins，1566，andtheEdictof1656，correspondtotheEnglishpoor—laws。
　　[10]ProfessorRogers，althoughformerlyProfessorofPoliticalEconomyintheUniversityofOxford，thehotbedofProtestantorthodoxy，inhisprefacetothe"HistoryofAgriculture"laysstressonthefactofthepauperisationofthemassofthepeoplebytheReformation。
　　[11]"ALettertoSir。T。C。Bunbury，Bart。，ontheHighPriceofProvisions。
　　ByaSuffolkGentleman。"Ipswich，1795，p。4。Eventhefanaticaladvocateofthesystemoflargefarms，theauthorofthe"InquiryintotheConnexionbetweenthePresentPriceofProvisions，"London，1773，p。139，says:"I
　　mostlamentthelossofouryeomanry，thatsetofmenwhoreallykeptuptheindependenceofthisnation;andsorryIamtoseetheirlandsnowinthehandsofmonopolisinglords，tenantedouttosmallfarmers，whoholdtheirleasesonsuchconditionsastobelittlebetterthanvassalsreadytoattendasummonsoneverymischievousoccasion。"
　　[12]Ontheprivatemoralcharacterofthisbourgeoishero，amongotherthings:
　　"ThelargegrantoflandsinIrelandtoLadyOrkney，in1695，isapublicinstanceoftheking’saffection，andthelady’sinfluence……LadyOrkney’sendearingofficesaresupposedtohavebeen？foedalabiorumministerial（IntheSloaneManuscriptCollection，attheBritishMuseum，No。4224。
　　TheManuscriptisentitled:"ThecharacterandbehaviourofKingWilliam，Sunderland，etc。，asrepresentedinOriginalLetterstotheDukeofShrewsburyfromSomersHalifax，Oxford，SecretaryVernon，etc。"Itisfullofcuriosa。）
　　[13]"TheillegalalienationoftheCrownEstates，partlybysaleandpartlybygift，isascandalouschapterinEnglishhistory……agiganticfraudonthenation。"（F。W。Newman，"LecturesonPoliticalEconomy。"London，1851，pp。129，130。）[FordetailsastohowthepresentlargelandedproprietorsofEnglandcameintotheirpossessionssee"OurOldNobility。ByNoblesseOblige。"London，1879。？F。E。
　　[14]Read，e。g。，E。Burke’sPamphletontheducalhouseofBedford，whoseoffshootwasLordJohnRussell，the"tomtitofLiberalism。"
　　[15]"Thefarmersforbidcottagerstokeepanylivingcreaturesbesidesthemselvesandchildren，underthepretencethatiftheykeepanybeastsorpoultry，theywillstealfromthefarmers’barnsfortheirsupport;theyalsosay，keepthecottagerspoorandyouwillkeepthemindustrious，&c。，buttherealfactIbelieve，isthatthefarmersmayhavethewholerightofcommontothemselves。"（"APoliticalInquiryintotheConsequencesofEnclosingWasteLands。"London，1785，p。75。）
　　[16]Eden，l。c。，preface。
　　[17]"CapitalFarms。"TwolettersontheFlourTradeandtheDearnessofCorn。
　　Byapersoninbusiness。London，1767，pp。19，20。
　　[18]"MerchantFarms。""AnEnquiryintotheCausesofthePresentHighPriceofProvisions。"London，1767，p。11。Note。—Thisexcellentwork，thatwaspublishedanonymously，isbytheRev。NathanielForster。
　　[19]ThomasWright:"AShortAddresstothePublicontheMonopolyofLargeFarms，"1779，pp。2，3。
　　[20]Rev。Addington:"InquiryintotheReasonsfororagainstEnclosingOpenFields，"London，1772，pp。37，43passim。
　　[21]Dr。R。Price，l。c。，v。ii。，p。155，Forster，Addington，Kent，Price，andJamesAnderson，shouldbereadandcomparedwiththemiserableprattleofSycophantMacCullochinhiscatalogue:"TheLiteratureofPoliticalEconomy，"London，1845。
　　[22]Price，l。c。，p。147。
　　[23]Price，l。c。，p。159。Weareremindedofancient。Rome。"Therichhadgotpossession，ofthegreaterpartoftheundividedland。Theytrustedintheconditionsofthetime，thatthesepossessionswouldnotbeagaintakenfromthem，andbought，therefore，someofthepiecesoflandlyingneartheirs，andbelongingtothepoor，withtheacquiescenceoftheirowners，andtooksomebyforce，sothattheynowwerecultivatingwidelyextendeddomains，insteadofisolatedfields。Thentheyemployedslavesinagricultureandcattle—breeding，becausefreemenwouldhavebeentakenfromtabourformilitaryservice。Thepossessionofslavesbroughtthemgreatgain，inasmuchasthese，onaccountoftheirimmunityfrommilitaryservice，couldfreelymultiplyandhaveamultitudeofchildren。Thusthepowerfulmendrewallwealthtothemselves，andallthelandswarmedwithslaves。
　　TheItalians，ontheotherhand，werealwaysdecreasinginnumber，destroyedastheywerebypoverty，taxes，andmilitaryservice。Evenwhentimesofpeacecame，theyweredoomedtocompleteinactivity，becausetherichwereinpossessionofthesoil，andusedslavesinsteadoffreemeninthetillingofit。"（Appian:"CivilWars，"I。7。）ThispassagereferstothetimebeforetheLicinianrogations。Militaryservice，whichhastenedtosogreatanextenttheruinoftheRomanplebeians，wasalsothechiefmeansbywhich，asinaforcing—house，CharlemagnebroughtaboutthetransformationoffreeGermanpeasantsintoserfsandbondsman。
　　[24]"AnInquiryintotheConnexionbetweenthePresentPriceofProvisions，&c。，"pp。124，129。Tothelikeeffect，butwithanoppositetendency:
　　"Working—menaredrivenfromtheircottagesandforcedintothetownstoseekforemployment;butthenalargersurplusisobtained，andthuscapitalisaugmented。"（"ThePerilsoftheNation，"2nded。London，1843，p。14。）
　　[25]l。c。，p。132。
　　[26]Steuartsays:"Ifyoucomparetherentoftheselands"（heerroneouslyincludesinthiseconomiccategorythetributeofthetaskmentotheclanchief）
　　"withtheextent，itappearsverysmall。Ifyoucompareitwiththenumbersfeduponthefarm，youwillfindthatanestateintheHighlandsmaintains，perhaps，tentimesasmanypeopleasanotherofthesamevalueingoodandfertileprovince。"（l。c。，vol。i。，ch。xvi。，p。104。）
　　[27]JamesAnderson:"ObservationsontheMeansofExcitingaSpiritofNationalIndustry，&c。，"Edinburgh，1777。
　　[28]In1860thepeopleexpropriatedbyforcewereexportedtoCanadaunderfalsepretences。Somefledtothemountainsandneighbouringislands。Theywerefollowedbythepolice，cametoblowswiththemandescaped。
　　[29]"IntheHighlandsofScotland，"saysBuchanan，thecommentatoronAdamSmith，1814，"theancientstateofpropertyisdailysubverted……Thelandlord，withoutregardtothehereditarytenant（acategoryusedinerrorhere），nowoffershislandtothehighestbidder，who，ifheisanimprover，instantlyadoptsanewsystemofcultivation。Theland，formerlyoverspreadwithsmalltenantsorlabourers，waspeopledinproportiontoitsproduce，butunderthenewsystemofimprovedcultivationandincreasedrents，thelargestpossibleproduceisobtainedattheleastpossibleexpense:andtheuselesshandsbeing，withthisview，removed，thepopulationisreduced，nottowhatthelandwillmaintain，buttowhatitwillemploy。Thedispossessedtenantseitherseekasubsistenceintheneighbouringtowns，"&c。（DavidBuchanan？"Observationson，&c。，A。Smith’sWealthofNations。"Edinburgh，1814，vol。iv。，p。144。）"TheScotchgrandeesdispossessedfamiliesastheywouldgrubupcoppice—wood，andtheytreatedvillagesandtheirpeopleasIndiansharassedwithwildbeastsdo，intheirvengeance，ajunglewithtigers……Manisbarteredforafleeceoracarcaseofmutton，nay，heldcheaper……Why，howmuchworseisitthantheintentionoftheMoguls，who，whentheyhadbrokenintothenorthernprovincesofChina，proposedincounciltoexterminatetheinhabitants，andconvertthelandintopasture。
　　ThisproposalmanyHighlandproprietorshaveeffectedintheirowncountryagainsttheirowncountrymen。"（GeorgeEnsor:"AnInquiryConcerningthePopulationofNations。"Lond，。1818，pp。215，216。）
　　[30]WhenthepresentDuchessofSutherlandentertainedMrs。BeecherStowe，authoressof"UncleTom’sCabin，"withgreatmagnificenceinLondontoshowhersympathyfortheNegroslavesoftheAmericanrepublicssympathythatsheprudentlyforgot，withherfellow—aristocrats，duringthecivilwar，inwhichevery"noble"Englishheartbeatfortheslave—owner？I
　　gaveintheNewYorkTribunethefactsabouttheSutherlandslaves。
　　（EpitomisedinpartbyCareyin"TheSlaveTrade。"Philadelphia，1853，pp。203，204。）MyarticlewasreprintedinaScotchnewspaper，andledtoaprettypolemicbetweenthelatterandthesycophantsoftheSutherlands。
　　[31]InterestingdetailsonthisfishtradewillbefoundinMr。DavidUrquhart’sPortfolio，series。NassauW。Senior，inhisposthumouswork，alreadyquoted，terms"theproceedingsin。Sutherlandshireoneofthemostbeneficentclearingssincethememoryofman。"（l。c。）
　　[32]Thedeer—forestsofScotlandcontainnotasingletree。Thesheeparedrivenfrom，andthenthedeerdrivento，thenakedhills，andthenitiscalledadeer—forest。Noteventimber—plantingandrealforestculture。
　　[33]RobertSomers:"LettersfromtheHighlands:ortheFamineof1847。"London，1848，pp。12—28passim。TheselettersoriginallyappearedinTheTimes。TheEnglisheconomistsofcourseexplainedthefamineoftheGaelsin1847，bytheirover—population。Atallevents，they"werepressingontheirfood—supply。"
　　The"clearingofestates，"orasitiscalledinGermany，"Bauernlegen，"
　　occurredinGermanyespeciallyafterthe30years’war，andledtopeasant—revoltsaslateas1790inKursachsen。ItobtainedespeciallyinEastGermany。
　　InmostofthePrussianprovinces，FrederickII。forthefirsttimesecuredrightofpropertyforthepeasants。AftertheconquestofSilesiaheforcedthelandlordstorebuildthehuts，barns，etc。，andtoprovidethepeasantswithcattleandimplements。Hewantedsoldiersforhisarmyandtax—payersforhistreasury。Fortherest，thepleasantlifethatthetledunderFrederick’ssystemoffinanceandhodgepodgeruleofdespotism，bureaucracyandfeudalism，maybeseenfromthefollowingquotationfromhisadmirer，Mirabeau:"LelinfaitdoneunedesgrandesrichessesducultivateurdansleNorddeI’Allemagne。Malheureusementpourl’espècehumaine，cen’estqu’uneressourcecontrelamiséreetnonunmoyendebien—être。
　　Lesimpôtsdirects，lescorvées，lesservitudesdetoutgenre，écrasentIecultivateurallemand，quipaieencoredesimpôtsindirectsdanstoutcequ’ilachète……etpourcomblederuine，iln’osepasvendreseaproductionsoùetcommeilleveut;itn’osepasachetercedontitabesoinauxmarchandsquipourraienileluilivreraumeilleurprix。Toutescescausesleruinentinsensiblement，etifsetrouveraithorsd’étatdepayerlesimpôtsdirectsà