Duringthelast5years，thediminutionoftheagriculturalpercentageofthepopulationhasbeenyetmoremarked。Asearlyas1846，PierreDupontinhis"Ouvriers"sang:Malvêtus，logosdansdestrous，Souslescombles，danslesdécombres，NousvivonsavocleshibouxEtleslaffons，amisdesombres。[109]"SixthandlastReportoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，"publishedattheendofMarch，1867。Itdealssolelywiththeagriculturalgang—system。
　　[110]"Child。Emp。Comm。，VI。Report。"Evidence173，p。37。
　　[111]Somegang—masters，however，haveworkedthemselvesuptothepositionoffarmersof500acres，orproprietorsofwholerowsofhouses。
　　[112]"HalfthegirlsofLudfordhavebeenruinedbygoingout"（ingangs）。l。
　　c。，p。6，§32。
　　[113]"They（gangs）havegreatlyincreasedoflateyears。Insomeplacestheyaresaidtohavebeenintroducedatcomparativelylatedates;inotherswheregangs……havebeenknownformanyyears……moreandyoungerchildrenareemployedinthem。"（l。c。，p。79，§174）。
　　[114]"Smallfarmersneveremploygangs。""Itisnotonpoorland，butonlandwhichaffordsrentoffrom40to50shillings，thatwomenandchildrenareemployedinthegreatestnumbers。"（l。c。，pp。17，14。）
　　[115]TooneofthesegentlementhetasteofhisrentwassogratefulthatheindignantlydeclaredtotheCommissionofInquirythatthewholehubbubwasonlyduetothenameofthesystem。Ifinsteadof"gang"itwerecalled"theAgriculturalJuvenileIndustrialSelf—supportingAssociation，"everythingwouldbeallright。
　　[116]"Gangworkischeaperthanotherwork;thatiswhytheyareemployed，"
　　saysaformergang—master（l。c。，p。17，§14）。"Thegang—systemisdecidedlythecheapestforthefarmer，anddecidedlytheworstforthechildren，"saysafarmer（l。c。，p。16，§3。）
　　[117]"Undoubtedlymuchoftheworknowdonebychildreningangsusedtobedonebymenandwomen。Moremenareoutofworknowwherechildrenandwomenareemployedthanformerly。"（l。c。，p。43，n。202。）Ontheotherhand，"thelabourquestioninsomeagriculturaldistricts，particularlythearable，isbecomingsoseriousinconsequenceofemigration，andthefacilityaffordedbyrailwaysforgettingtolargetownsthatI（the"I"
　　isthestewardofagreatlord）thinktheservicesofchildrenaremostindispensable，"（l。c。，p。80，n。180。）Forthe"labourquestion"inEnglishagriculturaldistricts，differentlyfromtherestofthecivilisedworld，meansthelandlords’andfarmers’question，viz。，howisitpossible，despiteanalwaysincreasingexodusoftheagriculturalfolk，tokeepupasufficientrelativesurplus—populationinthecountry，andbymeansofitkeepthewagesoftheagriculturallabourerataminimum？
　　[118]The"PublicHealthReport，"whereindealingwiththesubjectofchildren’smortality，thegang—systemistreatedinpassing，remainsunknowntothepress，and，therefore，totheEnglishpublic。Ontheotherhand，thelastreportofthe"Child。Empl。Comm。"affordedthepresssensationalcopyalwayswelcome。WhilsttheLiberalpressaskedhowthefinegentlemenandladies，andthewell—paidclergyoftheStateChurch，withwhomLincolnshireswarms，couldallowsuchasystemtoariseontheirestates，undertheirveryeyes，theywhosendoutexpresslymissionstotheAntipodes，"fortheimprovementofthemoralsofSouthSeaIslanders"？themorerefinedpressconfineditselftoreflectionsonthecoarsedegradationoftheagriculturalpopulationwhoarecapableofsellingtheirchildrenintosuchslavery！
　　Undertheaccursedconditionstowhichthese"delicate"peoplecondemntheagriculturallabourer，itwouldnotbesurprisingifheatehisownchildren。Whatisreallywonderfulisthehealthyintegrityofcharacter，hehas，ingreatpart，retained。Theofficialreportsprovethattheparents，eveninthegangdistricts，loathethegang—system。"Thereismuchintheevidencethatshowsthattheparentsofthechildrenwould，inmanyinstances，begladtobeaidedbytherequirementsofalegalobligation，toresistthepressureandthetemptationstowhichtheyareoftensubject。Theyareliabletobeurged，attimesbytheparishofficers，attimesbyemployers，underthreatsofbeingthemselvatdischarged，tobetakentoworkatanagewhen……schoolattendance……wouldbemanifestlytotheirgreateradvantage……Allthattimeandstrengthwasted;allthesufferingfromextraandunprofitablefatigueproducedtothelabourerandtohischildren;
　　everyinstanceinwhichtheparentmayhavetracedthemoralruinofhischildtofheunderminingofdelicacybytheover—crowdingofcottages，ortothecontaminatinginfluencesofthepublicgang，musthavebeensomanyincentivestofeelingsinthemindsofthelabouringpoorwhichcanbewellunderstood，andwhichitwouldbeneedlesstoparticularise。Theymustbeconsciousthatmuchbodilyandmentalpainhasthusbeeninflicteduponthemfromcausesforwhichtheywereinnowayanswerable;towhich，haditbeenintheirpower，theywouldhaveinnowayconsented;andagainstwhichtheywerepowerlesstostruggle。"（l。c。，p。xx。，§82，andxxiii。，n。96。）
　　[119]PopulationofIreland，1801，5，319，867persons;1811，6，084，996;1821，6，869，544;1831，7，828，347;1841，8，222，664。
　　[120]Theresultwouldbefoundyetmoreunfavourableifwewentfurtherback。
　　Thus:Sheepin1865，3，688，742，butin1856，3，694，294。Pigsin1865，1，299，893，butin1858，1，409，883。
　　[121]Thedataofthetextareputtogetherfromthematerialsofthe"AgriculturalStatistics，Ireland，GeneralAbstracts，Dublin，"fortheyears1860，elseq。，and"AgriculturalStatistics，Ireland。Tablesshowingtheestimatedaverageproduce，&c。，Dublin，1866。"Thesestatisticsareofficial，andlaidbeforeParliamentannually。
　　Noteto2ndedition。Theofficialstatisticsfortheyear1872
　　show，ascomparedwith1871，adecreaseinareaundercultivationof134，915
　　acres。Anincreaseoccurredinthecultivationofgreencrops，turnips，mangold—wurzel，andthelike;adecreaseintheareaundercultivationforwheatof16，000acres;oats，14，000;barleyandrye，4，000;potatoes，66，632;flax，34，667;grass，clover，vetches，rape—seed，30，000。Thesoilundercultivationforwheatshowsforthelast5yearsthefollowingstagesofdecrease:？1868，285，000acres;1869，280，000;1870，259，000;1871，244，000;1872，228，000。For1872wefind，inroundnumbers，anincreaseof2，600horses，80，000hornedcattle，68，609sheep，andadecreaseof236，000pigs。
　　[122]ThetotalyearlyincomeunderScheduleD。isdifferentinthistablefromthatwhichappearsintheprecedingones，becauseofcertaindeductionsallowedbylaw。
　　[123]Iftheproductalsodiminishesrelativelyperacre，itmustnotbeforgottenthatforacenturyandahalfEnglandhasindirectlyexportedthesoilofIreland，withoutasmuchasallowingitscultivatorsthemeansformakinguptheconstituentsofthesoilthathadbeenexhausted。
　　[124]AsIrelandisregardedasthepromisedlandofthe"principleofpopulation，"
　　Th。Sadler，beforethepublicationofhisworkonpopulation，issuedhisfamousbook，"Ireland，itsEvilsandtheirRemedies。"2ndedition，London，1829。Here，bycomparisonofthestatisticsoftheindividualprovinces，andoftheindividualcountiesineachprovince，heprovesthatthemiserythereisnot，asMalthuswouldhaveit，inproportiontothenumberofthepopulation，butininverseratiotothis。
　　[125]Between1851and1874，thetotalnumberofemigrantsamountedto2，325，922。
　　[126]AccordingtoatableinMurphy’s"IrelandIndustrial，PoliticalandSocial，"
　　1870，94。6percent。ortheholdingsdonotreach100acres，5。4exceed100acres。
　　[127]"ReportsfromthePoorLawInspectorsontheWagesofAgriculturalLabourersinDublin，"1870。Seealso"Agriculturallabourers（Ireland）。Return，etc。"
　　8March，1861，London，1862。
　　[128]l。c。，pp。29，1。
　　[129]l。c。，p。12。
　　[130]l。c。，p。12。
　　[131]l。c。，p。25。
　　[132]l。c。，p。27。
　　[133]l。c。，p。25。
　　[134]l。c。，p。1。
　　[135]l。c。，pp。31，32。
　　[136]l。c。，p……25。
　　[137]l。c。，p。30。
　　[138]l。c。，pp。21，13。
　　[139]"Rept。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1866，"p。96。
　　[140]Thetotalareaincludesalsopeat，bogs，andwasteland。
　　[141]Howthefamineanditsconsequenceshavebeendeliberatelymadethemostof，bothbytheindividuallandlordsandbytheEnglishlegislature，toforciblycarryouttheagriculturalrevolutionandtothinthepopulationofIrelanddowntotheproportionsatisfactorytothelandlords，IshallshowmorefullyinVol。III。ofthiswork，inthesectiononlandedproperty。
　　TherealsoIreturntotheconditionofthesmallfarmersandtheagriculturallabourers。Atpresent，onlyonequotation。NassauW。Seniorsays，withotherthings，inhisposthumouswork，"Journals，ConversationsandEssaysrelatingtoIreland。"2vols。London，1868;Vol。II。，p。282。"Well，"saidDr。G。，"wehavegotourPoorLawanditisagreatinstrumentforgivingthevictorytothelandlords。Another，andastillmorepowerfulinstrumentisemigration……NofriendtoIrelandcanwishthewartobeprolonged[betweenthelandlordsandthesmallCelticfarmers]？stillless，thatitshouldendbythevictoryofthetenants。Thesooneritisover？thesoonerIrelandbecomesagrazingcountry，withthecomparativelythinpopulationwhichagrazingcountryrequires，thebetterforallclasses。"TheEnglishCornLawsof1815securedIrelandthemonopolyofthefreeimportationofcornintoGreatBritain。Theyfavouredartificially，therefore，thecultivationofcorn。WiththeabolitionoftheCornLawsin1846，thismonopolywassuddenlyremoved。Apartfromallothercircumstances，thiseventalonewassufficienttogiveagreatimpulsetotheturningofIrisharableintopastureland，totheconcentrationofarms，andtotheevictionofsmallcultivators。AfterthefruitfulnessoftheIrishsoilhadbeenpraisedfrom1815to1846，andproclaimedloudlyasbyNatureherselfdestinedforthecultivationofwheat，Englishagronomists，economists，politicians，discoversuddenlythatitisgoodfornothingbuttoproduceforage。M。
　　LéoncedeLavergnehashastenedtorepeatthisontheothersideoftheChannel。Ittakesa"serious"man，àlaLavergne，tobecaughtbysuchchildishness。
　　ChapterTwenty—SixKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
　　PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTWENTY—SIX:
　　THESECRETOFPRIMATIVEACCUMULATION
　　Wehaveseenhowmoneyischangedintocapital;howthroughcapitalsurplus—valueismade，andfromsurplus—valuemorecapital。Buttheaccumulationofcapitalpre—supposessurplus—value;surplus—valuepre—supposescapitalisticproduction;capitalisticproductionpresupposesthepre—existenceofconsiderablemassesofcapitalandoflabor—powerinthehandsofproducersofcommodities。
　　Thewholemovement，therefore，seemstoturninaviciouscircle，outofwhichwecanonlygetbysupposingaprimitiveaccumulation（previousaccumulationofAdamSmith）precedingcapitalisticaccumulation;anaccumulationnottheresultofthecapitalisticmodeofproduction，butitsstartingpoint。
　　ThisprimitiveaccumulationplaysinPoliticalEconomyaboutthesamepartasoriginalsinintheology。Adambittheapple，andthereuponsinfellonthehumanrace。Itsoriginissupposedtobeexplainedwhenitistoldasananecdoteofthepast。Intimeslonggone—bythereweretwosortsofpeople;one，thediligent，intelligent，and，aboveall，frugalelite;theother，lazyrascals，spendingtheirsubstance，andmore，inriotousliving。Thelegendoftheologicaloriginalsintellsuscertainlyhowmancametobecondemnedtoeathisbreadinthesweatofhisbrow;
　　butthehistoryofeconomicoriginalsinrevealstousthattherearepeopletowhomthisisbenomeansessential。Nevermind！Thusitcametopassthattheformersortaccumulatedwealth，andthelattersorthadatlastnothingtosellexcepttheirownskins。Andfromthisoriginalsindatesthepovertyofthegreatmajoritythat，despiteallitslabor，hasuptonownothingtosellbutitself，andthewealthofthefewthatincreasesconstantlyalthoughtheyhavelongceasedtowork。Suchinsipidchildishnessiseverydaypreachedtousinthedefenceofproperty。M。Thiers，e。g。，hadtheassurancetorepeatitwithallthesolemnityofastatesmantotheFrenchpeople，oncesospirituel。Butassoonasthequestionofpropertycropsup，itbecomesasacreddutytoproclaimtheintellectualfoodoftheinfantastheonethingfitforallagesandforalltagesofdevelopment。Inactualhistoryitisnotoriousthatconquest，enslavement，robbery，murder，brieflyforce，playthegreatpart。InthetenderannalsofPoliticalEconomy，theidyllicreignsfromtimeimmemorial。Rightand"labor"werefromalltimethesolemeansofenrichment，thepresentyearofcoursealwaysexcepted。Asamatteroffact，themethodsofprimitiveaccumulationareanythingbutidyllic。
　　Inthemselvesmoneyandcommoditiesarenomorecapitalthanarethemeansofproductionandofsubsistence。Theywanttransformingintocapital。Butthistransformationitselfcanonlytakeplaceundercertaincircumstancesthatcentreinthis，viz。，thattwoverydifferentkindsofcommodity—possessorsmustcomefacetofaceandintocontact，ontheonehand，theownersofmoney，meansofproduction，meansofsubsistence，whoareeagertoincreasethesumofvaluestheypossess，bybuyingotherpeople’slabor—power;ontheotherhand，freelaborers，thesellersoftheirownlabor—power，andthereforethesellersoflabor。Freelaborers，inthedoublesensethatneithertheythemselvesformpartandparcelofthemeansofproduction，asinthecaseofslaves，bondsmen，&c。，nordothemeansofproductionbelongtothem，asinthecaseofpeasant—proprietors;
　　theyare，therefore，freefrom，unencumberedby，anymeansofproductionoftheirown。Withthispolarizationofthemarketforcommodities，thefundamentalconditionsofcapitalistproductionaregiven。Thecapitalistsystempre—supposesthecompleteseparationofthelaborersfromallpropertyinthemeansbywhichtheycanrealizetheirlabor。Assoonascapitalistproductionisonceonitsownlegs，itnotonlymaintainsthisseparation，butreproducesitonacontinuallyextendingscale。Theprocess，therefore，thatclearsthewayforthecapitalistsystem，canbenoneotherthantheprocesswhichtakesawayfromthelaborerthepossessionofhismeansofproduction;aprocessthattransforms，ontheonehand，thesocialmeansofsubsistenceandofproductionintocapital，ontheother，theimmediateproducersintowage—laborers。Theso—calledprimitiveaccumulation，therefore，isnothingelsethanthehistoricalprocessofdivorcingtheproducerfromthemeansofproduction。Itappearsasprimitive，becauseitformsthepre—historicstageofcapitalandofthemodeofproductioncorrespondingwithit。
　　Theeconomicstructureofcapitalistsocietyhasgrownoutoftheeconomicstructureoffeudalsociety。Thedissolutionofthelattersetfreetheelementsoftheformer。
　　Theimmediateproducer，thelaborer，couldonlydisposeofhisownpersonafterhehadceasedtobeattachedtothesoilandceasedtobetheslaver，serf，orbondsmanofanother。Tobecomeafreeselleroflabor—power，whocarrieshiscommoditywhereverhefindsamarket，hemustfurtherhaveescapedfromtheregimeoftheguilds，theirrulesforapprenticesandjourneymen，andtheimpedimentsoftheirlaborregulations。Hence，thehistoricalmovementwhichchangestheproducersintowage—workers，appears，ontheonehand，astheiremancipationfromserfdomandfromthefettersoftheguilds，andthissidealoneexistsforourbourgeoishistorians。
　　But，ontheotherhand，thesenewfreedmenbecamesellersofthemselvesonlyaftertheyhadbeenrobbedofalltheirownmeansofproduction，andofalltheguaranteesofexistenceaffordedbytheoldfeudalarrangements。
　　Andthehistoryofthis，theirexpropriation，iswrittenintheannalsofmankindinlettersofbloodandfire。
　　Theindustrialcapitalists，thesenewpotentates，hadontheirpartnotonlytodisgracetheguildmatersofhandicrafts，butalsothefeudallords，thepossessorsofthesourcesofwealth。Inthisrespect，theirconquestofsocialpowerappearsasthefruitofavictoriousstrugglebothagainstfeudallordshipanditsrevoltingprerogatives，andagainsttheguildsandthefetterstheylaidonthefreedevelopmentofproductionandthefreeexploitationofmanbyman。Thechevaliersd’industrie，however，onlysucceededinsupplantingthechevaliersoftheswordbymakinguseofeventsofwhichtheythemselveswerewhollyinnocent。TheyhaverisenbymeansasvileasthosebywhichtheRomanfreedmanonceonatimemadehimselfthemasterofhispatronus。
　　Thestarting—pointofthedevelopmentthatgaverisetothewage—laboreraswellastothecapitalist，wastheservitudeofthelaborer。Theadvanceconsistedinachangeofformofthisservitude，inthetransformationoffeudalexploitationintocapitalistexploitation。Tounderstanditsmarch，weneednotgobackveryfar。Althoughwecomeacrossthefirstbeginningsofcapitalistproductionasearlyasthe14thor15thcentury，sporadically，incertaintownsoftheMediterranean，thecapitalisticeradatesfromthe16thcentury。Whereveritappears，theabolitionofserfdomhasbeenlongeffected，andthehighestdevelopmentofthemiddleages，theexistenceofsovereigntowns，hasbeenlongonthewane。
　　Inthehistoryofprimitiveaccumulation，allrevolutionsareepoch—makingthatactasleversforthecapitalclassincourseofformation;
　　but，aboveall，thosemomentswhengreatmassesofmenaresuddenlyandforciblytornfromtheirmeansofsubsistence，andhurledasfreeand"unattached"
　　proletariansonthelabormarket。Theexpropriationoftheagriculturalproducer，ofthepeasant，fromthesoil，isthebasisofthewholeprocess。
　　Thehistoryofthisexpropriation，indifferentcountries，assumesdifferentaspects，andrunsthroughitsvariousphasesindifferentordersofsuccession，ndatdifferentperiods。InEnglandalone，whichwetakeasourexample，hasittheclassicform。[1]
　　Footnotes[1]InItaly，wherecapitalisticproductiondevelopedearliest，thedissolutionofserfdomalsotookplaceearlierthanelsewhere。Theserfwasemancipatedinthatcountrybeforehehadacquiredanyprescriptiverighttothesoil。
　　Hisemancipationatoncetransformedhimintoafreeproletarian，who，moreover，foundhismasterreadyandwaitingforhiminthetowns，forthemostparthandeddownaslegaciesfromtheRomantime。Whentherevolutionoftheworld—market，abouttheendofthe15thcentury，annihilatedNorthernItaly’scommercialsupremacy，amovementinthereversedirectionsetin。
　　Thelaborersofthetownsweredrivenenmasseintothecountry，andgaveanimpulse，neverbeforeseen，tothepetiteculture，carriedonintheformofgardening。
　　ChapterTwenty—SevenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
　　PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTWENTY—SEVEN:
　　EXPROPRIATIONOFTHEAGRICULTURALPOPULATIONFROMTHELAND
　　InEngland，serfdomhadpracticallydisappearedinthelastpartofthe14thcentury。Theimmensemajorityofthepopulation[1]consistedthen，andtoastilllargerextent，inthe15thcentury，offreepeasantproprietors，whateverwasthefeudaltitleunderwhichtheirrightofpropertywashidden。Inthelargerseignorialdomains，theoldbailiff，himselfaserf，wasdisplacedbythefreefarmer。Thewage—labourersofagricultureconsistedpartlyofpeasants，whoutilisedtheirleisuretimebyworkingonthelargeestates，partlyofanindependentspecialclassofwage—labourers，relativelyandabsolutelyfewinnumbers。Thelatteralsowerepracticallyatthesame，timepeasantfarmers，since，besidestheirwages，theyhadallottedtothemarablelandtotheextentof4ormoreacres，togetherwiththeircottages，Besidesthey，withtherestofthepeasants，enjoyedtheusufructofthecommonland，whichgavepasturetotheircattle，furnishedthemwithtimber，fire—wood，turf，&c。[2]InallcountriesofEurope，feudalproductionischaracterisedbydivisionofthesoilamongstthegreatestpossiblenumberofsub—feudatories。
　　Themightofthefeudallord，likethatofthesovereign，dependednotonthelengthofhisrent—roll，butonthenumberofhissubjects，andthelatterdependedonthenumberofpeasantproprietors。[3]Although，therefore，theEnglishland，aftertheNormanConquest，wasdistributedingiganticbaronies，oneofwhichoftenincludedsome900oftheoldAnglo—Saxonlordships，itwasbestrewnwithsmallpeasantproperties，onlyhereandthereinterspersedwithgreatseignorialdomains。Suchconditions，togetherwiththeprosperityofthetownssocharacteristicofthe15thcentury，allowedofthatwealthofthepeoplewhichChancellorFortescuesoeloquentlypaintsinhis"LaudeslegumAngliae";butitexcludedthepossibilityofcapitalisticwealth。
　　Thepreludeoftherevolutionthatlaidthefoundationofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，wasplayedinthelastthirdofthe15th，andthefirstdecadeofthe16thcentury。Amassoffreeproletarianswashurledonthelabour—marketbythebreaking—upofthebandsoffeudalretainers，who，asSirJamesSteuartwellsays，"everywhereuselesslyfilledhouseandcastle。"Althoughtheroyalpower，itselfaproductofbourgeoisdevelopment，initsstrifeafterabsolutesovereigntyforciblyhastenedonthedissolutionofthesebandsofretainers，itwasbynomeansthesolecauseofit。Ininsolentconflictwithkingandparliament，thegreatfeudallordscreatedanincomparablylargerproletariatbytheforcibledrivingofthepeasantryfromtheland，towhichthelatterhadthesamefeudalrightasthelordhimself，andbytheusurpationofthecommonlands。TherapidriseoftheFlemishwoolmanufactures，andthecorrespondingriseinthepriceofwoolinEngland，gavethedirectimpulsetotheseevictions。Theoldnobilityhadbeendevouredbythegreatfeudalwars。Thenewnobilitywasthechildofitstime，forwhichmoneywasthepowerofallpowers。Transformationofarablelandintosheep—walkswas，therefore，itscry。Harrison，inhis"DescriptionofEngland，prefixedtoHolinshed’sChronicles，"describeshowtheexpropriationofsmallpeasantsisruiningthecountry。"Whatcareourgreatencroachers？"Thedwellingsofthepeasantsandthecottagesofthelabourerswererazedtothegroundordoomedtodecay。"If，"saysHarrison，"theoldrecordsofeueriemanourbesoughtitwillsoonappearthatinsomemanourseventeene，eighteene，ortwentiehousesareshrunk……thatEnglandwasneuerlessfurnishedwithpeoplethanatthepresent……Ofcitiesandtowneseitherutterlydecaiedormorethanaquarterorhalfdiminished，thoughsomeonebealittleincreasedhereorthere;oftownespulleddowneforsheepe—walks，andnomorebutthelordshipsnowstandinginthem……Icouldsaiesomewhat。"Thecomplaintsoftheseoldchroniclersarealwaysexaggerated，buttheyreflectfaithfullytheimpressionmadeoncontemporariesbytherevolutionintheconditionsofproduction。AcomparisonofthewritingsofChancellorFortescueandThomasMorerevealsthegulfbetweenthe15thand16thcentury。AsThorntonrightlyhasit，theEnglishworking—classwasprecipitatedwithoutanytransitionfromitsgoldenintoitsironage。
　　Legislationwasterrifiedatthisrevolution。Itdidnotyetstandonthatheightofcivilizationwherethe"wealthofthenation"（i。e。，theformationofcapital，andtherecklessexploitationandimpoverishingofthemassofthepeople）figureas，theultimaThuleofallstate—craft。
　　InhishistoryofHenryVII。，Baconsays:"Inclosuresatthattime（1489）
　　begantobemorefrequent，wherebyarableland（whichcouldnotbemanuredwithoutpeopleandfamilies）wasturnedintopasture，whichwaseasilyridbyafewherdsmen;andtenanciesforyears，lives，andatwill（whereuponmuchoftheyeomanrylived）wereturnedintodemesnes。Thisbredadecayofpeople，and（byconsequence）adecayoftowns，churches，tithes，andthelike……Inremedyingofthisinconveniencetheking’swisdomwasadmirable，andtheparliament’satthattime……theytookacoursetotakeawaydepopulatingenclosures，anddepopulatingpasturage。"AnActofHenryVII。，1489，cap。19，forbadthedestructionofall"housesofhusbandry"towhichatleast20acresoflandbelonged。ByanAct，25HenryVIII。，thesamelawwasrenewed。itrecites，amongotherthings，thatmanyfarmsandlargeflocksofcattle，especiallyofsheep，areconcentratedinthehandsofafewmen，wherebytherentoflandhasmuchrisenandtillagehasfallenoff，churchesandhouseshavebeenpulleddown，andmarvellousnumbersofpeoplehavebeendeprivedofthemeanswherewithtomaintainthemselvesandtheirfamilies。TheAct，therefore，ordainstherebuildingofthedecayedfarmsteads，andfixesaproportionbetweencornlandandpastureland，&c。AnActof1533
　　recitesthatsomeownerspossess24，000sheep，andlimitsthenumbertobeownedto2，000。[4]Thecryofthepeopleandthelegislationdirected，for150yearsafterHenryVII。，againsttheexpropriationofthesmallfarmersandpeasants，werealikefruitless。ThesecretoftheirinefficiencyBacon，withoutknowingit，revealstous。"ThedeviceofKingHenryVII。，"
　　saysBacon，inhis"Essays，CivilandMoral，"Essay29，"wasprofoundandadmirable，inmakingfarmsandhousesofhusbandryofastandard;thatis，maintainedwithsuchaproportionoflanduntothemasmaybreedasubjecttoliveinconvenientplenty，andnoservilecondition，andtokeeptheploughinthehandsoftheownersandnotmerehirelings。"[5]Whatthecapitalistsystemdemandedwas，ontheotherhand，adegradedandalmostservileconditionofthemassofthepeople。thetransformationofthemintomercenaries。andoftheirmeansoflabourintocapital。Duringthistransformationperiod，legislationalsostrovetoretainthe4acresoflandbythecottageoftheagriculturalwage—labourer，andforbadhimtotakelodgersintohiscottage。InthereignofJamesI。，1627，RogerCrockerofFrontMill，wascondemnedforhavingbuiltacottageonthemanorofFrontMillwithout4acresoflandattachedtothesameinperpetuity。
　　AslateasCharlesI。’sreign，1638，aroyalcommissionwasappointedtoenforcethecarryingoutoftheoldlaws，especiallythatreferringtothe4acresofland。EveninCromwell’stime，thebuildingofahousewithin4milesofLondonwasforbiddenunlessitwasendowedwith4acresofland。Aslateasthefirsthalfofthe18thcenturycomplaintismadeifthecottageoftheagriculturallabourerhasnotanadjunctofoneortwoacresoflaud。Nowadaysheisluckyifitisfurnishedwithalittlegarden，orifhemayrent，farawayfromhiscottage，afewroods。"Landlordsandfarmers，"saysDr。Hunter，"workherehandinhand。
　　Afewacrestothecottagewouldmakethelabourerstooindependent。"[6]
　　Theprocessofforcibleexpropriationofthepeoplereceivedinthe]6thcenturyanewandfrightfulimpulsefromtheReformation，andfromtheconsequentcolossalspoliationofthechurchproperty。TheCatholicchurchwas，atthetimeoftheReformation，feudalproprietorofagreatpartoftheEnglishland。Thesuppressionofthemonasteries，&c。，hurledtheirinmatesintotheproletariat。Theestatesofthechurchweretoalargeextentgivenawaytorapaciousroyalfavourites，orsoldatanominalpricetospeculatingfarmersandcitizens，whodroveout，enmasse，thehereditarysub—tenantsandthrewtheirholdingsintoone。Thelegallyguaranteedpropertyofthepoorerfolkinapartofthechurch’stitheswastacitlyconfiscated。[7]"Pauperubiquejacet，"criedQueenElizabeth，afterajourneythroughEngland。
　　Inthe43rdyearofherreignthenationwasobligedtorecognisepauperismofficiallybytheintroductionofapoor—rate。"Theauthorsofthislawseemtohavebeenashamedtostatethegroundsofit，for[contrarytotraditionalusage]ithasnopreamblewhatever。"[8]Bythe16thofCharlesI。，ch。4，itwasdeclaredperpetual，andinfactonlyin1834didittakeanewandharsherform。[9]TheseimmediateresultsoftheReformationwerenotitsmostlastingones。Thepropertyofthechurchformedthereligiousbulwarkofthetraditionalconditionsoflandedproperty。Withitsfallthesewerenolongertenable。[10]
　　Eveninthelastdecadeofthe17thcentury，theyeomanry，theclassofindependentpeasants，Weremorenumerousthantheclassoffarmers。
　　TheyhadformedthebackboneofCromwell’sstrength，and，evenaccordingtotheconfessionofMacaulay，stoodinfavourablecontrasttothedrunkensquiresandtotheirservants，thecountryclergy，whohadtomarrytheirmasters’cast—offmistresses。About1750，theyeomanryhaddisappeared，[11]andsohad，inthelastdecadeofthe18thcentury，thelasttraceofthecommonlandoftheagriculturallabourer。Weleaveononesideherethepurelyeconomiccausesoftheagriculturalrevolution。Wedealonlywiththeforciblemeansemployed。
　　AftertherestorationoftheStuarts，thelandedproprietorscarried，bylegalmeans，anactofusurpation，effectedeverywhereontheContinentwithoutanylegalformality。Theyabolishedthefeudaltenureofland，i。e。，theygotridofallitsobligationstotheState，"indemnified"
　　theStatebytaxesonthepeasantryandtherestofthemassofthepeople，vindicatedforthemselvestherightsofmodemprivatepropertyinestatestowhichtheyhadonlyafeudaltitle，and，finally，passedthoselawsofsettlement，which，mulatismulandis，hadthesameeffectontheEnglishagriculturallabourer，astheedictoftheTartarBorisGodunofontheRussianpeasantry。
　　The"gloriousRevolution"broughtintopower，alongwithWilliamofOrange，thelandlordandcapitalistappropriatorsofsurplus—value。[12]Theyinauguratedthenewerabypractisingonacolossalscaletheftsofstatelands，theftsthathadbeenhithertomanagedmoremodestly。Theseestatesweregivenaway，soldataridiculousfigure，orevenannexedtoprivateestatesbydirectseizure。[13]Allthishappenedwithouttheslightestobservationoflegaletiquette。
　　TheCrownlandsthusfraudulentlyappropriated，togetherwiththerobberyoftheChurchestates，asfarasthesehadnotbeenlostagainduringtherepublicanrevolution，formthebasisoftheto—dayprincelydomainsoftheEnglisholigarchy。[14]Thebourgeoiscapitalistsfavouredtheoperationwiththeview，amongothers，topromotingfreetradeinland，toextendingthedomainofmodernagricultureonthelargefarm—system，andtoincreasingtheirsupplyofthefreeagriculturalproletariansreadytohand。Besides，thenewlandedaristocracywasthenaturalallyofthenewbankocracy，ofthenewly—hatchedhautefinance，andofthelargemanufacturers，thendependingonprotectiveduties。TheEnglishbourgeoisieactedforitsowninterestquiteaswiselyasdidtheSwedishbourgeoisiewho，reversingtheprocess，handinhandwiththeireconomicallies，thepeasantry，helpedthekingsintheforcibleresumptionoftheCrownlandsfromtheoligarchy。Thishappenedsince1604underCharlesX。andCharlesXI。
　　Communalproperty？alwaysdistinctfromtheStatepropertyjustdealtwith？wasanoldTeutonicinstitutionwhichlivedonundercoveroffeudalism。