Thelabourofthe12hours’working—dayisrepresentedbytheremaining93/5articles。Sincethepriceofthelabour—powerisfiveshillings，6articlesrepresentthenecessarylabour—time，and33/5
　　articlesthesurplus—labour。Theratioofthenecessarylabourtothesurplus—labour，whichunderaveragesocialconditionswas5:1，isnowonly5:3。Thesameresultmaybearrivedatinthefollowingway。Thevalueoftheproductoftheworking—dayof12hoursistwentyshillings。Ofthissum，twelveshillingsbelongtothevalueofthemeansofproduction，avaluethatmerelyre—appears。Thereremaineightshillings，whicharetheexpressioninmoney，ofthevaluenewlycreatedduringtheworking—day。Thissumisgreaterthanthesuminwhichaveragesociallabourofthesamekindisexpressed:twelvehoursofthelatterlabourareexpressedbysixshillingsonly。Theexceptionallyproductivelabouroperatesasintensifiedlabour;
　　itcreatesinequalperiodsoftimegreatervaluesthanaveragesociallabourofthesamekind。（SeeCh。I。Sect2。p。44。）Butourcapitaliststillcontinuestopayasbeforeonlyfiveshillingsasthevalueofaday’slabour—power。Hence，insteadof10hours，thelabourerneednowworkonly7½hours，inordertoreproducethisvalue。Hissurplus—labouris，therefore，increasedby2½hours，andthesurplus—valueheproducesgrowsfromone，intothreeshillings。Hence，thecapitalistwhoappliestheimprovedmethodofproduction，appropriatestosurplus—labouragreaterportionoftheworking—day，thantheothercapitalistsinthesametrade。Hedoesindividually，whatthewholebodyofcapitalistsengagedinproducingrelativesurplus—value，docollectively。
　　Ontheotherhand，however，thisextrasurplus—valuevanishes，sosoonasthenewmethodofproductionhasbecomegeneral，andhasconsequentlycausedthedifferencebetweentheindividualvalueofthecheapenedcommodityanditssocialvaluetovanish。Thelawofthedeterminationofvaluebylabour—time，alawwhichbringsunderitsswaytheindividualcapitalistwhoappliesthenewmethodofproduction，bycompellinghimtosellhisgoodsundertheirsocialvalue，thissamelaw，actingasacoercivelawofcompetition，forceshiscompetitorstoadoptthenewmethod。[5]Thegeneralrateofsurplus—valueis，therefore，ultimatelyaffectedbythewholeprocess，onlywhentheincreaseintheproductivenessoflabour，hasseizeduponthosebranchesofproductionthatareconnectedwith，andhascheapenedthosecommoditiesthatformpartof，thenecessarymeansofsubsistence，andarethereforeelementsofthevalueoflabour—power。
　　Thevalueofcommoditiesisininverseratiototheproductivenessoflabour。Andso，too，isthevalueoflabour—power，becauseitdependsonthevaluesofcommodities。Relativesurplus—valueis，onthecontrary，directlyproportionaltothatproductiveness。Itriseswithrisingandfallswithfallingproductiveness。Thevalueofmoneybeingassumedtobeconstant，anaveragesocialworking—dayof12hoursalwaysproducesthesamenewvalue，sixshillings，nomatterhowthissummaybeapportionedbetweensurplus—valueandwages。Butif，inconsequenceofincreasedproductiveness，thevalueofthenecessariesoflifefall，andthevalueofaday’slabour—powerbetherebyreducedfromfiveshillingstothree，thesurplus—valueincreasesfromoneshillingtothree。Tenhourswerenecessaryforthereproductionofthevalueofthelabour—power;nowonlysixarerequired。Fourhourshavebeensetfree，andcanbeannexedtothedomainofsurplus—labour。
　　Hencethereisimmanentincapitalaninclinationandconstanttendency，toheightentheproductivenessoflabour，inordertocheapencommodities，andbysuchcheapeningtocheapenthelabourerhimself。[6]
　　Thevalueofacommodityis，initself，ofnointeresttothecapitalist。Whataloneinterestshim，isthesurplus—valuethatdwellsinit，andisrealisablebysale。Realisationofthesurplus—valuenecessarilycarrieswithittherefundingofthevaluethatwasadvanced。Now，sincerelativesurplus—valueincreasesindirectproportiontothedevelopmentoftheproductivenessoflabour，while，ontheotherhand，thevalueofcommoditiesdiminishesinthesameproportion;sinceoneandthesameprocesscheapenscommodities，andaugmentsthesurplus—valuecontainedinthem;
　　wehaveherethesolutionoftheriddle:whydoesthecapitalist，whosesoleconcernistheproductionofexchange—value，continuallystrivetodepresstheexchange—valueofcommodities？AriddlewithwhichQuesnay，oneofthefoundersofPoliticalEconomy，tormentedhisopponents，andtowhichtheycouldgivehimnoanswer。"Youacknowledge，"
　　hesays，"thatthemoreexpensesandthecostoflabourcan，inthemanufactureofindustrialproducts，bereducedwithoutinjurytoproduction，themoreadvantageousissuchreduction，becauseitdiminishesthepriceofthefinishedarticle。Andyet，youbelievethattheproductionofwealth，whicharisesfromthelabouroftheworkpeople，consistsintheaugmentationoftheexchange—valueoftheirproducts。"[7]
　　Theshorteningoftheworking—dayis，therefore，bynomeanswhatisaimedat，incapitalistproduction，whenlabouriseconomisedbyincreasingitsproductiveness。[8]Itisonlytheshorteningofthelabour—time，necessaryfortheproductionofadefinitequantityofcommodities，thatisaimedat。Thefactthattheworkman，whentheproductivenessofhislabourhasbeenincreased，produces，say10timesasmanycommoditiesasbefore，andthusspendsone—tenthasmuchlabour—timeoneach，bynomeanspreventshimfromcontinuingtowork12hoursasbefore，norfromproducinginthose12hours1，200articlesinsteadof120。Nay，more，hisworking—daymaybeprolongedatthesametime，soastomakehimproduce，say1，400articlesin14hours。Inthetreatises，therefore，ofeconomistsofthestampofMacCulloch，Ure，Senior，andtuttiquanti，wemayreadupononepage，thatthelabourerowesadebtofgratitudetocapitalfordevelopinghisproductiveness，becausethenecessarylabour—timeistherebyshortened，andonthenextpage，thathemustprovehisgratitudebyworkinginfuturefor15hoursinsteadof10。Theobjectofalldevelopmentoftheproductivenessoflabour，withinthelimitsofcapitalistproduction，istoshortenthatpartoftheworking—day，duringwhichtheworkmanmustlabourforhisownbenefit，andbythatveryshortening，tolengthentheotherpartoftheday，duringwhichheisatlibertytoworkgratisforthecapitalist。Howfarthisresultisalsoattainable，withoutcheapeningcommodities，willappearfromanexaminationoftheparticularmodesofproducingrelativesurplus—value，towhichexaminationwenowproceed。
　　Footnotes[1]Thevalueofhisaveragedailywagesisdeterminedbywhatthelabourerrequires"soastolive，labour，andgenerate。"（Wm。Petty:"PoliticalAnatomyofIreland，"1672，p。64。）"ThepriceofLabourisalwaysconstitutedofthepriceofnecessaries……whenever……thelabouringman’swageswillnot，suitablytohislowrankandstation，asalabouringman，supportsuchafamilyasisoftenthelotofmanyofthemtohave，"hedoesnotreceiveproperwages。（J。Vanderlint，l。c。，p。15。）"Lesimpleouvrier，quin’aquesesbrasetsonindustries，n’arienqu’autantqu’ilparvientàvendreàd’autressapeine……Entoutgenredetravailildoitarriver，etilarriveeneffet，quelesalairedel’ouvrierseborneàcequiluiestnécessairepourluiprocurersasubsistance。"
　　（Turgot，"Réflexions，&c。，"Oeuvres，éd。Dairet。I，p。10。）"Thepriceofthenecessariesoflifeis，infact，thecostofproducinglabour。"（Malthus，"Inquiryinto，&c。，Rent，"London，1815，p。48，note。）
　　[2]"Quandosiperfezionanolearti，chenonèaltrochelascopertadinuovevie，ondesipossacompiereunamanufatturaconmenogenteo（cheèlostesso）inminortempodiprima。"（Galiani，l。c。，p。159。）
　　"L’économiesurlesfraisdeproductionnepeudoncêtreautrechosequel’économiesurlaquantitédetravailemployé
　　pourproduire。"（Sismondi，"Etudes，"t。I。p。22。）
　　[3]"Letussuppose……theproducts……ofthemanufactureraredoubledbyimprovementinmachinery……hewillbeabletoclothehisworkmenbymeansofasmallerproportionoftheentirereturn……andthushisprofitwillberaised。Butinnootherwaywillitbeinfluenced。"（Ramsay，l。c。，pp。168，169。）
　　[4]"Aman’sprofitdoesnotdependuponhiscommandoftheproduceofothermen’slabour，butuponhiscommandoflabouritself。Ifhecansellhisgoodsatahigherprice，whilehisworkmen’swagesremainunaltered，heisclearlybenefited……Asmallerproportionofwhatheproducesissufficienttoputthatlabourintomotion，andalargerproportionconsequentlyremainsforhimself。"（"OutlinesofPol。Econ。"London，1832，pp。49，50。）
　　[5]"Ifmyneighbourbydoingmuchwithlittlelabour，cansellcheap，Imustcontrivetosellascheapashe。Sothateveryart，trade，orengine，doingworkwithlabouroffewerhands，andconsequentlycheaper，begetsinothersakindofnecessityandemulation，eitherofusingthesameart，trade，orengine，orofinventingsomethinglikeit，thateverymanmaybeuponthesquare，thatnomanmaybeabletoundersellhisneighbour。"（"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTradetoEngland"，London，1720，p。67。）
　　[6]"Inwhateverproportiontheexpensesofalabourerarediminished，inthesameproportionwillhiswagesbediminished，iftherestraintsuponindustryareatthesametimetakenoff。"（"ConsiderationsConcerningTakingofftheBountyonCornExported，"&c。，London，1753，p。7。）"Theinterestoftraderequires，thatcornandallprovisionsshouldbeascheapaspossible;
　　forwhatevermakesthemdear，mustmakelabourdearalso……inallcountries，whereindustryisnotrestrained，thepriceofprovisionsmustaffectthepriceoflabour。Thiswillalwaysbediminishedwhenthenecessariesoflifegrowcheaper。"（I。c。，p。3。）"Wagesaredecreasedinthesameproportionasthepowersofproductionincrease。Machinery，itistrue，cheapensthenecessariesoflife，butitalsocheapensthelabourer。"（"APrizeEssayontheComparativeMeritsofCompetitionandCo—operation。"London，1834，p。27。）
　　[7]"Ilsconviennentqueplusonpeut，sanspréjudice，épargnerdefraisoudetravauxdispendieuxdanslafabricationdesouvragesdesartisans，pluscetteépargneestprofitableparladiminutiondesprixdecesouvrages。Cependantilscroientquelaproductionderichessequirésultedestravauxdesartisansconsistedansl’augmentationdelavaleurvénaledeleursouvrages。"（Quesnay:"DialoguessurleCommerceetlesTravauxdesArtisans。"pp。188，189。）
　　[8]"Cesspéculateurssiéconomesdutravaildesouvriersqu’ilfaudraitqu’ilspayassent。"（J。N。Bidaut:"DuMonopolequis’établitdanslesartsindustrielsetlecommerce。"Paris，1828，p。13。）"Theemployerwillbealwaysonthestretchtoeconomisetimeandlabour。"（DugaldStewart:
　　Worksed。bySirW。Hamilton，Edinburgh，v。，viii。，1855。"LecturesonPolit。Econ。，"p。318。）"Their（thecapitalists’）interestisthattheproductivepowersofthelabourerstheyemployshouldbethegreatestpossible。
　　Onpromotingthatpowertheirattentionisfixedandalmostexclusivelyfixed。"（R。Jones:l。c。，LectureIII。）
　　ChapterThirteenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIV:
　　ProductionofRelativeSurplusValueCHAPTERTHIRTEEN:
　　CO—OPERATION
　　Capitalistproductiononlythenreallybegins，aswehavealreadyseen，wheneachindividualcapitalemployssimultaneouslyacomparativelylargenumberoflabourers;whenconsequentlythelabour—processiscarriedononanextensivescaleandyields，relatively，largequantitiesofproducts。
　　Agreaternumberoflabourersworkingtogether，atthesametime，inoneplace（or，ifyouwill，inthesamefieldoflabour），inordertoproducethesamesortofcommodityunderthemastershipofonecapitalist，constitutes，bothhistoricallyandlogically，thestarting—pointofcapitalistproduction。
　　Withregardtothemodeofproductionitself，manufacture，initsstrictmeaning，ishardlytobedistinguished，initsearlieststages，fromthehandicrafttradesoftheguilds，otherwisethanbythegreaternumberofworkmensimultaneouslyemployedbyoneandthesameindividualcapital。
　　Theworkshopofthemedievalmasterhandicraftsmanissimplyenlarged。
　　Atfirst，therefore，thedifferenceispurelyquantitative。Wehaveshownthatthesurplus—valueproducedbyagivencapitalisequaltothesurplus—valueproducedbyeachworkmanmultipliedbythenumberofworkmensimultaneouslyemployed。Thenumberofworkmeninitselfdoesnoraffect，eithertherateofsurplus—value，orthedegreeofexploitationoflabour—power。
　　Ifaworking—dayof12hoursbeembodiedinsixshillings，1，200suchdayswillbeembodiedin1，200times6shillings。Inonecase12x1，200working—hours，andintheother12suchhoursareincorporatedintheproduct。Intheproductionofvalueanumberofworkmenrankmerelyassomanyindividualworkmen;anditthereforemakesnodifferenceinthevalueproducedwhetherthe1，200menworkseparately，orunitedunderthecontrolofonecapitalist。
　　Nevertheless，withincertainlimits，amodificationtakesplace。Thelabourrealisedinvalue，islabourofanaveragesocialquality;isconsequentlytheexpenditureofaveragelabour—power。Anyaveragemagnitude，however，ismerelytheaverageofanumberofseparatemagnitudesallofonekind，butdifferingastoquantity。Ineveryindustry，eachindividuallabourer，behePeterorPaul，differsfromtheaveragelabourer。
　　Theseindividualdifferences，or"errors"astheyarecalledinmathematics，compensateoneanother，andvanish，wheneveracertainminimumnumberofworkmenareemployedtogether。Thecelebratedsophistandsycophant，EdmundBurke，goessofarastomakethefollowingassertion，basedonhispracticalobservationsasafarmer;viz。，that"insosmallaplatoon"asthatoffivefarmlabourers，allindividualdifferencesinthelabourvanish，andthatconsequentlyanygivenfiveadultfarmlabourerstakentogether，willinthesametimedoasmuchworkasanyotherfive。[1]But，howeverthatmaybe，itisclear，thatthecollectiveworking—dayofalargenumberofworkmensimultaneouslyemployed，dividedbythenumberoftheseworkmen，givesonedayofaveragesociallabour。Forexample，lettheworking—dayofeachindividualbe12hours。Thenthecollectiveworking—dayof12mensimultaneouslyemployed，consistsof144hours;andalthoughthelabourofeachofthedozenmenmaydeviatemoreorlessfromaveragesociallabour，eachofthemrequiringadifferenttimeforthesameoperation，yetsincetheworking—dayofeachisone—twelfthofthecollectiveworking—dayof144hours，itpossessesthequalitiesofanaveragesocialworking—day。Fromthepointofview，however，ofthecapitalistwhoemploysthese12men，theworking—dayisthatofthewholedozen。Eachindividualman’sdayisanaliquotpartofthecollectiveworking—day，nomatterwhetherthe12menassistoneanotherintheirwork，orwhethertheconnexionbetweentheiroperationsconsistsmerelyinthefact，thatthemenareallworkingforthesamecapitalist。Butifthe12menareemployedinsixpairs，byasmanydifferentsmallmasters，itwillbequiteamatterofchance，whethereachofthesemastersproducesthesamevalue，andconsequentlywhetherherealisesthegeneralrateofsurplus—value。
　　Deviationswouldoccurinindividualcases。Ifoneworkmanrequiredconsiderablymoretimefortheproductionofacommoditythanissociallynecessary，thedurationofthenecessarylabour—timewould，inhiscase，sensiblydeviatefromthelabour—timesociallynecessaryonanaverage;andconsequentlyhislabourwouldnotcountasaveragelabour，norhislabour—powerasaveragelabour—power。Itwouldeitherbenotsaleableatall，oronlyatsomethingbelowtheaveragevalueoflabour—power。Afixedminimumofefficiencyinalllabouristhereforeassumed，andweshallsee，lateron，thatcapitalistproductionprovidesthemeansoffixingthisminimum。Nevertheless，thisminimumdeviatesfromtheaverage，althoughontheotherhandthecapitalisthastopaytheaveragevalueoflabour—power。Ofthesixsmallmasters，onewouldthereforesqueezeoutmorethantheaveragerateofsurplus—value，anotherless。Theinequalitieswouldbecompensatedforthesocietyatlarge，butnotfortheindividualmasters。Thusthelawsoftheproductionofvalueareonlyfullyrealisedfortheindividualproducer，whenheproducesasacapitalist，andemploysanumberofworkmentogether，whoselabour，byitscollectivenature，isatoncestampedasaveragesociallabour。[2]
　　Evenwithoutanalterationinthesystemofworking，thesimultaneousemploymentofalargenumberoflabourerseffectsarevolutioninthematerialconditionsofthelabour—process。Thebuildingsinwhichtheywork，thestore—housesfortherawmaterial，theimplementsandutensilsusedsimultaneouslyorinturnsbytheworkmen;inshort，aportionofthemeansofproduction，arenowconsumedincommon。Ontheonehand，theexchange—valueofthesemeansofproductionisnotincreased;fortheexchange—valueofacommodityisnotraisedbyitsuse—valuebeingconsumedmorethoroughlyandtogreateradvantage。Ontheotherhand，theyareusedincommon，andthereforeonalargerscalethanbefore。Aroomwheretwentyweaversworkattwentyloomsmustbelargerthantheroomofasingleweaverwithtwoassistants。
　　Butitcostslesslabourtobuildoneworkshopfortwentypersonsthantobuildtentoaccommodatetwoweaverseach;thusthevalueofthemeansofproductionthatareconcentratedforuseincommononalargescaledoesnotincreaseindirectproportiontotheexpansionandtotheincreasedusefuleffectofthosemeans。Whenconsumedincommon，theygiveupasmallerpartoftheirvaluetoeachsingleproduct;partlybecausethetotalvaluetheypartwithisspreadoveragreaterquantityofproducts，andpartlybecausetheirvalue，thoughabsolutelygreater，is，havingregardtotheirsphereofactionintheprocess，relativelylessthanthevalueofisolatedmeansofproduction。Owingtothis，thevalueofapartoftheconstantcapitalfalls，andinproportiontothemagnitudeofthefall，thetotalvalueofthecommodityalsofalls。Theeffectisthesameasifthemeansofproductionhadcostless。Theeconomyintheirapplicationisentirelyowingtotheirbeingconsumedincommonbyalargenumberofworkmen。Moreover，thischaracterofbeingnecessaryconditionsofsociallabour，acharacterthatdistinguishesthemfromthedispersedandrelativelymorecostlymeansofproductionofisolated，independentlabourers，orsmallmasters，isacquiredevenwhenthenumerousworkmenassembledtogetherdonotassistoneanother，butmerelyworksidebyside。Aportionoftheinstrumentsoflabouracquiresthissocialcharacterbeforethelabour—processitselfdoesso。
　　Economyintheuseofthemeansofproductionhastobeconsideredundertwoaspects。First，ascheapeningcommodities，andtherebybringingaboutafallinthevalueoflabour—power。Secondly，asalteringtheratioofthesurplus—valuetothetotalcapitaladvanced，i。e。，tothesumofthevaluesoftheconstantandvariablecapital。Thelatteraspectwillnotbeconsidereduntilwecometothethirdbook，towhich，withtheobjectoftreatingthemintheirproperconnexion，wealsorelegatemanyotherpointsthatrelatetothepresentquestion。Themarchofouranalysiscompelsthissplittingupofthesubject—matter，asplittingupthatisquiteinkeepingwiththespiritofcapitalistproduction。Forsince，inthismodeofproduction，theworkmanfindstheinstrumentsoflabourexistingindependentlyofhimasanotherman’sproperty，economyintheiruseappears，withregardtohim，tobeadistinctoperation，onethatdoesnotconcernhim，andwhich，therefore，hasnoconnexionwiththemethodsbywhichhisownpersonalproductivenessisincreased。
　　Whennumerouslabourersworktogethersidebyside，whetherinoneandthesameprocess，orindifferentbutconnectedprocesses，theyaresaidtoco—operate，ortoworkinco—operation。[3]
　　Justastheoffensivepowerofasquadronofcavalry，orthedefensivepowerofaregimentofinfantryisessentiallydifferentfromthesumoftheoffensiveordefensivepowersoftheindividualcavalryorinfantrysoldierstakenseparately，sothesumtotalofthemechanicalforcesexertedbyisolatedworkmendiffersfromthesocialforcethatisdeveloped，whenmanyhandstakepartsimultaneouslyinoneandthesameundividedoperation，suchasraisingaheavyweight，turningawinch，orremovinganobstacle。[4]Insuchcasestheeffectofthecombinedlabourcouldeithernotbeproducedatallbyisolatedindividuallabour，oritcouldonlybeproducedbyagreatexpenditureoftime，oronaverydwarfedscale。
　　Notonlyhavewehereanincreaseintheproductivepoweroftheindividual，bymeansofco—operation，butthecreationofanewpower，namely，thecollectivepowerofmasses。[5]
　　Apartfromthenewpowerthatarisesfromthefusionofmanyforcesintoonesingleforce，meresocialcontactbegetsinmostindustriesanemulationandastimulationoftheanimalspiritsthatheightentheefficiencyofeachindividualworkman。Henceitisthatadozenpersonsworkingtogetherwill，intheircollectiveworking—dayof144hours，producefarmorethantwelveisolatedmeneachworking12hours，orthanonemanwhoworkstwelvedaysinsuccession。[6]Thereasonofthisisthatmanis，ifnotasAristotlecontends，apolitical，[7]atalleventsasocialanimal。
　　Althoughanumberofmenmaybeoccupiedtogetheratthesametimeonthesame，orthesamekindofwork，yetthelabourofeach，asapartofthecollectivelabour，maycorrespondtoadistinctphaseofthelabour—process，throughallwhosephases，inconsequenceofco—operation，thesubjectoftheirlabourpasseswithgreaterspeed。Forinstance，ifadozenmasonsplacethemselvesinarow，soastopassstonesfromthefootofaladdertoitssummit，eachofthemdoesthesamething;nevertheless，theirseparateactsformconnectedpartsofonetotaloperation;theyareparticularphases，whichmustbegonethroughbyeachstone;andthestonesarethuscarriedupquickerbythe24handsoftherowofmenthantheycouldbeifeachmanwentseparatelyupanddowntheladderwithhisburden。[8]Theobjectiscarriedoverthesamedistanceinashortertime。Again，acombinationoflabouroccurswheneverabuilding，forinstance，istakeninhandondifferentsidessimultaneously;althoughherealsotheco—operatingmasonsaredoingthesame，orthesamekindofwork。The12masons，intheircollectiveworking—dayof144hours，makemuchmoreprogresswiththebuildingthanonemasoncouldmakeworkingfor12days，or144hours。Thereasonis，thatabodyofmenworkinginconcerthashandsandeyesbothbeforeandbehind，andis，toacertaindegree，omnipresent。
　　Thevariouspartsoftheworkprogresssimultaneously。
　　Intheaboveinstanceswehavelaidstressuponthepointthatthemendothesame，orthesamekindofwork，becausethis，themostsimpleformoflabourincommon，playsagreatpartinco—operation，eveninitsmostfullydevelopedstage。Iftheworkbecomplicated，thenthemerenumberofthemenwhoco—operateallowsofthevariousoperationsbeingapportionedtodifferenthands，and，consequently，ofbeingcarriedonsimultaneously。
　　Thetimenecessaryforthecompletionofthewholeworkistherebyshortened。[9]
　　Inmanyindustries，therearecriticalperiods，determinedbythenatureoftheprocess，duringwhichcertaindefiniteresultsmustbeobtained。
　　Forinstance，ifaflockofsheephastobeshorn，orafieldofwheattobecutandharvested，thequantityandqualityoftheproductdependsontheworkbeingbegunandendedwithinacertaintime。Inthesecases，thetimethatoughttobetakenbytheprocessisprescribed，justasitisinherringfishing。Asinglepersoncannotcarveaworking—dayofmorethan，say12hours，outofthenaturalday，but100menco—operatingextendtheworking—dayto1，200hours。Theshortnessofthetimeallowedfortheworkiscompensatedforbythelargemassoflabourthrownuponthefieldofproductionatthedecisivemoment。Thecompletionofthetaskwithinthepropertimedependsonthesimultaneousapplicationofnumerouscombinedworking—days;theamountofusefuleffectdependsonthenumberoflabourers;
　　thisnumber，however，isalwayssmallerthanthenumberofisolatedlabourersrequiredtodothesameamountofworkinthesameperiod。[10]Itisowingtotheabsenceofthiskindofco—operationthat，inthewesternpartoftheUnitedStates，quantitiesofcorn，andinthosepartsofEastIndiawhereEnglishrulehasdestroyedtheoldcommunities，quantitiesofcotton，areyearlywasted。[11]
　　Ontheonehand，co—operationallowsoftheworkbeingcarriedonoveranextendedspace;itisconsequentlyimperativelycalledforincertainundertakings，suchasdraining，constructingdykes，irrigationworks，andthemakingofcanals，roadsandrailways。Ontheotherhand，whileextendingthescaleofproduction，itrenderspossiblearelativecontractionofthearena。Thiscontractionofarenasimultaneouswith，andarisingfrom，extensionofscale，wherebyanumberofuselessexpensesarecutdown，isowingtotheconglomerationoflabourers，totheaggregationofvariousprocesses，andtotheconcentrationofthemeansofproduction。[12]
　　Thecombinedworking—dayproduces，relativelytoanequalsumofisolatedworking—days，agreaterquantityofuse—values，and，consequently，diminishesthelabour—timenecessaryfortheproductionofagivenusefuleffect。
　　Whetherthecombinedworking—day，inagivencase，acquiresthisincreasedproductivepower，becauseitheightensthemechanicalforceoflabour，orextendsitssphereofactionoveragreaterspace，orcontractsthefieldofproductionrelativelytothescaleofproduction，oratthecriticalmomentsetslargemassesoflabourtowork，orexcitesemulationbetweenindividualsandraisestheiranimalspirits，orimpressesonthesimilaroperationscarriedonbyanumberofmenthestampofcontinuityandmany—sidedness，orperformssimultaneouslydifferentoperations，oreconomisesthemeansofproductionbyuseincommon，orlendstoindividuallabourthecharacterofaveragesociallabourwhicheverofthesebethecauseoftheincrease，thespecialproductivepowerofthecombinedworking—dayis，underallcircumstances，thesocialproductivepoweroflabour，ortheproductivepowerofsociallabour。Thispowerisduetoco—operationitself。Whenthelabourerco—operatessystematicallywithothers，hestripsoffthefettersofhisindividuality，anddevelopsthecapabilitiesofhisspecies。[13]
　　Asageneralrule，labourerscannotco—operatewithoutbeingbroughttogether:theirassemblageinoneplaceisanecessaryconditionoftheirco—operation。Hencewage—labourerscannotco—operate，unlesstheyareemployedsimultaneouslybythesamecapital，thesamecapitalist，andunlessthereforetheirlabour—powersareboughtsimultaneouslybyhim。Thetotalvalueoftheselabour—powers，ortheamountofthewagesoftheselabourersforaday，oraweek，asthecasemaybe，mustbereadyinthepocketofthecapitalist，beforetheworkmenareassembledfortheprocessofproduction。
　　Thepaymentof300workmenatonce，thoughonlyforoneday，requiresagreateroutlayofcapital，thandoesthepaymentofasmallernumberofmen，weekbyweek，duringawholeyear。Hencethenumberofthelabourersthatco—operate，orthescaleofco—operation，depends，inthefirstinstance，ontheamountofcapitalthattheindividualcapitalistcanspareforthepurchaseoflabour—power;inotherwords，ontheextenttowhichasinglecapitalisthascommandoverthemeansofsubsistenceofanumberoflabourers。
　　Andaswiththevariable，soitiswiththeconstantcapital。Forexample，theoutlayonrawmaterialis30timesasgreat，forthecapitalistwhoemploys300men，asitisforeachofthe30capitalistswhoemploy10
　　men。Thevalueandquantityoftheinstrumentsoflabourusedincommondonot，itistrue，increaseatthesamerateasthenumberofworkmen，buttheydoincreaseveryconsiderably。Hence，concentrationoflargemassesofthemeansofproductioninthehandsofindividualcapitalists，isamaterialconditionfortheco—operationofwage—labourers，andtheextentoftheco—operationorthescaleofproduction，dependsontheextentofthisconcentration。
　　Wesawinaformerchapter，thatacertainminimumamountofcapitalwasnecessary，inorderthatthenumberoflabourerssimultaneouslyemployed，and，consequently，theamountofsurplus—valueproduced，mightsufficetoliberatetheemployerhimselffrommanuallabour，toconverthimfromasmallmasterintoacapitalist，andthusformallytoestablishcapitalistproduction。Wenowseethatacertainminimumamountisanecessaryconditionfortheconversionofnumerousisolatedandindependentprocessesintoonecombinedsocialprocess。
　　Wealsosawthatatfirst，thesubjectionoflabourtocapitalwasonlyaformalresultofthefact，thatthelabourer，insteadofworkingforhimself，worksforandconsequentlyunderthecapitalist。Bytheco—operationofnumerouswage—labourers，theswayofcapitaldevelopsintoarequisiteforcarryingonthelabour—processitself，intoarealrequisiteofproduction。
　　Thatacapitalistshouldcommandonthefieldofproduction，isnowasindispensableasthatageneralshouldcommandonthefieldofbattle。
　　Allcombinedlabouronalargescalerequires，moreorless，adirectingauthority，inordertosecuretheharmoniousworkingoftheindividualactivities，andtoperformthegeneralfunctionsthathavetheiroriginintheactionofthecombinedorganism，asdistinguishedfromtheactionofitsseparateorgans。Asingleviolinplayerishisownconductor;anorchestrarequiresaseparateone。Theworkofdirecting，superintending，andadjusting，becomesoneofthefunctionsofcapital，fromthemomentthatthelabourunderthecontrolofcapital，becomesco—operative。Onceafunctionofcapital，itacquiresspecialcharacteristics。
　　Thedirectingmotive，theendandaimofcapitalistproduction，istoextractthegreatestpossibleamountofsurplus—value，[14]andconsequentlytoexploitlabour—powertothegreatestpossibleextent。
　　Asthenumberoftheco—operatinglabourersincreases，sotoodoestheirresistancetothedominationofcapital，andwithit，thenecessityforcapitaltoovercomethisresistancebycounterpressure。Thecontrolexercisedbythecapitalistisnotonlyaspecialfunction，duetothenatureofthesociallabour—process，andpeculiartothatprocess，butitis，atthesametime，afunctionoftheexploitationofasociallabour—process，andisconsequentlyrootedintheunavoidableantagonismbetweentheexploiterandthelivingandlabouringrawmaterialheexploits。
　　Again，inproportiontotheincreasingmassofthemeansofproduction，nownolongerthepropertyofthelabourer，butofthecapitalist，thenecessityincreasesforsomeeffectivecontrolovertheproperapplicationofthosemeans。[15]Moreover，theco—operationofwage—labourersisentirelybroughtaboutbythecapitalthatemploysthem。Theirunionintoonesingleproductivebodyandtheestablishmentofaconnexionbetweentheirindividualfunctions，aremattersforeignandexternaltothem，arenottheirownact，buttheactofthecapitalthatbringsandkeepsthemtogether。Hencetheconnexionexistingbetweentheirvariouslaboursappearstothem，ideally，intheshapeofapreconceivedplanofthecapitalist，andpracticallyintheshapeoftheauthorityofthesamecapitalist，intheshapeofthepowerfulwillofanother，whosubjectstheiractivitytohisaims。If，then，thecontrolofthecapitalistisinsubstancetwo—foldbyreasonofthetwo—foldnatureoftheprocessofproductionitself，which，ontheonehand，isasocialprocessforproducinguse—values，ontheother，aprocessforcreatingsurplus—valueinformthatcontrolisdespotic。Asco—operationextendsitsscale，thisdespotismtakesformspeculiartoitself。Justasatfirstthecapitalistisrelievedfromactuallaboursosoonashiscapitalhasreachedthatminimumamountwithwhichcapitalistproduction，assuch，begins，sonow，hehandsovertheworkofdirectandconstantsupervisionoftheindividualworkmen，andgroupsofworkmen，toaspecialkindofwage—labourer。Anindustrialarmyofworkmen，underthecommandofacapitalist，requires，likearealarmy，officers（managers），andsergeants（foremen，overlookers），who，whiletheworkisbeingdone，commandinthenameofthecapitalist。Theworkofsupervisionbecomestheirestablishedandexclusivefunction。Whencomparingthemodeofproductionofisolatedpeasantsandartisanswithproductionbyslave—labour，thepoliticaleconomistcountsthislabourofsuperintendenceamongthefauxfraisofproduction。[16]But，whenconsideringthecapitalistmodeofproduction，he，onthecontrary，treatstheworkofcontrolmadenecessarybytheco—operativecharacterofthelabour—processasidenticalwiththedifferentworkofcontrol，necessitatedbythecapitalistcharacterofthatprocessandtheantagonismofinterestsbetweencapitalistandlabourer。[17]Itisnotbecauseheisaleaderofindustrythatamanisacapitalist;