Norwasthisall。Hewasnotcontentwithbooksorconversations;
steadilyhewentoncollecting，collating，andtestingoriginaldocumentsbearinguponthegreateventsofhistime。Theresultofallthistheworldwastoseelater。
Hehadarrivedatmiddlelifeandwonwiderecognitionasascholar，scientificinvestigator，andjurist，whentherecamethesuprememomentofastrugglewhichhadinvolvedEuropeforcenturies，——astruggleinterestingnotonlytheItalyandEuropeofthosedays，butuniversalhumanityforalltime。
DuringtheperiodfollowingthefalloftheRomanEmpireoftheWesttherehadbeenevolvedthetemporalpoweroftheRomanBishop。Ithadmanyvicissitudes。Sometimes，asinthedaysofSt。LeoandSt。Gregory，itbaseditsclaimsuponnobleassertionsofrightandjustice，andsometimes，asinthehandsofpontiffslikeInnocentVIII。andPaulV。，itsoughttoforceitswaybyfanaticism。Sometimesitstrengtheneditsauthoritybyrealservicestohumanity，andsometimesbysuchmonstrousfraudsastheForgedDecretals。Sometimes，asunderPopeslikeGregoryVII。andInnocentIII。，itlaidclaimtothemastershipoftheworld，andsometimes，aswiththemajorityofthepontiffsduringthetwocenturiesbeforetheReformation，itbecamemainlytheappanageofapartyorfactionorfamily。
Throughoutallthishistory，thereappearedintheChurchtwogreatcurrentsofefficientthought。Ononesidehadbeendevelopedatheocratictheory，givingthepapacyapowersupremeintemporalaswellasinspiritualmattersthroughouttheworld。
LeadersinthisduringtheMiddleAgeswereSt。ThomasAquinasandtheDominicans;leadersinSarpi’sdaysweretheJesuits，representedespeciallyinthetreatisesofBellarmineatRomeandinthespeechesofLaynezattheCouncilofTrent。[1]
[1]ThishasbeenadmirablyshownbyN。R。F。BrowninhisTaylorianLecture，pages229—234，involumefor1889—99。
Butanothertheory，hostiletothedespotismoftheChurchovertheState，hadbeendevelopedthroughtheMiddleAgesandtheRenaissance;——ithadbeenstrengthenedmainlybytheutterancesofsuchmenasDante，aegidioColonna，JohnofParis，Ockham，MarsilioofPadua，andLaurentiusValla。Sarpirangedhimselfwiththelatteroftheseforces。Thoughdeeplyreligious，herecognizedtheGod—givenrightofearthlygovernmentstodischargetheirdutiesindependentofchurchcontrol。
AmongthemanycentresofthisstrugglewasVenice。Shewassplendidlyreligious——asreligionwasthenunderstood。Shewasmadesobyherwholeenvironment。Fromthebeginningshehadbeenaseafaringpower，andseafaringmen，fromtheirconstantwrestlewithdangersillunderstood，arepronetoseekandfindsupernaturalforces。Norwasthisall。Later，whenshehadbecomerich，powerful，luxurious，licentious，andrefractorytothepriesthood，hermostpowerfulcitizensfeltaneedofatoningfortheirmanysinsbysplendidreligiousfoundations。Soherpeoplecametoliveinanatmosphereofreligiousobservance，andthebloomandfruitageoftheirreligioushopesandfearsareseeninthewholehistoryofVenetianart，——fromtherudesculpturesofTorcelloandthenaivemosaicsofSanMarcototheglowingaltarpiecesandceilingsofJohnBellini，Titian，andTintorettoandtheilluminationsoftheGrimaniPsalter。NoclassinVeniceroseabovethisenvironment。DogesandSenatorswereassusceptibletoitaswerethehumblestfishermenontheLido。IneveryoneofthosegloriousfrescoesinthecorridorsandhallsoftheDucalPalacewhichcommemoratethevictoriesoftheRepublic，thetriumphantDogeorAdmiralorGeneralisseenonhiskneesmakingacknowledgmentofthedivineassistance。OneveryVenetiansequin，fromthedayswhenVenicewasapowerthroughouttheearthtothatfatalyearwhentheyoungBonapartetossedtheRepublicovertotheHouseofAustria，theDoge，crownedandrobed，kneelshumblybeforetheSaviour，theVirgin，orSt。Mark。InthatvastHalloftheFiveHundred，themostsumptuousroomintheworld，thereisspreadabovetheheadsoftheDogeandSenatorsandCouncilors，asanincentivetothedischargeoftheirdutiesonearth，arepresentationoftheblessedinHeaven。
Fromhighesttolowest，theVenetianslived，moved，andhadtheirbeinginthisreligiousenvironment，and，hadtheirRepublicbeenlooselygoverned，itsexternalpolicywouldhavebeenlargelyswayedbythisall—pervadingreligiousfeeling，andwouldhavebecometheplaythingoftheRomanCourt。Butademocracyhasneverbeenmaintainedsavebythedelegationofgreatpowerstoitschosenleaders。ItwastheremarkofoneoftheforemostAmericanDemocratsofthenineteenthcentury，amanwhoreceivedthehighesthonorswhichhispartycouldbestow，thattheConstitutionoftheUnitedStateswasmade，nottopromoteDemocracy，buttocheckit。Thisstatementistrue，anditisastrueoftheVenetianConstitutionasoftheAmerican。[1]
[1]SeeHoratioSeymour’snotedarticleintheNorthAmericanReview。
ButwhileboththerepublicsrecognizedthenecessityofcurbingDemocracy，thedifferencebetweenthemeansemployedwasworld—wide。ThefoundersoftheAmericanRepublicgavevastpowersandresponsibilitiestoapresidentandunheard—ofauthoritytoasupremecourt;intheVenetianRepublictheDogewasgraduallystrippedofpower，buttherewasevolvedthemysteriousandunlimitedauthorityoftheSenateandCouncilofTen。
InthesesattheforemostVenetians，thoroughlyimbuedwiththereligiousspiritoftheirtime;but，religiousastheywere，theyweremenoftheworld，trainedinthepolitiesofallEuropeandespeciallyofItaly。
Inastrikingpassage，GuizothasshownhowtheCrusaderswhowenttotheOrientbywayofItalyandsawthepapacynearathandcamebackskeptics。ThissameinfluenceshapedthestatesmenofVenice。TheVenetianAmbassadorsweretheforemostinEurope。
TheirRelationsarestillstudiedastheclearest，shrewdest，andwiseststatementsregardingthemenandeventsinEuropeattheirtime。Allwerenotedforskill;butthemostskillfulwerekeptondutyatRome。Therewasthesourceofdanger。TheDoges，Senators，andcontrollingCouncilorshad，asarule，servedintheseembassies，andtheyhadformedlucidjudgmentsastoItaliancourtsingeneralandastotheRomanCourtinparticular。NomenhadknownthePopesandtheCuriamorethoroughly。TheyhadseenInnocentVIII。buythepapacyformoney。TheyhadbeenattheVaticanwhenAlexanderVI。hadwonrenownasasecretmurderer。Theyhadseen，closeathand，themercilesscrueltyofJuliusII。TheyhadcarefullynotedthecrimesofSixtusIV。，whichculminatedintheassassinationofJuliande’MedicibeneaththedomeofFlorenceatthemomenttheHostwasuplifted。TheyhadsatnearLeoX。whileheenjoyedtheobscenitiesoftheCalandriaandtheMandragora，——playswhich，inthemostcorruptofmoderncities，would，inourday，bestoppedbythepolice。Nowonderthat，inoneoftheirdispatches，theyspeakofRomeas"thecloacaoftheworld。"[1]
[1]ForSixtusIV。andhiscareer，withthetragedyintheCathedralofFlorenceseeVillari’sLifeofMachiavelli，EnglishEdition，vol。ii。pp。341，342。Forthepassagesinthedispatchesreferredto，videibid。vol。i。p。198。
Naturally，then，whiletheirreligionshoweditselfinwonderfulmonumentsofeverysort，theirpracticalsensewasshownbyasteadyoppositiontopapalencroachments。
OfthiscombinationofzealforreligionwithhostilitytoecclesiasticismwehavestrikingexamplesthroughoutthehistoryoftheRepublic。While，ineveryotherEuropeanstate，cardinals，bishops，priests，andmonksweregivenleadingpartsinciviladministrationand，insomestates，amonopolyofcivilhonors，theRepublicofVenicenotonlyexcludedallecclesiasticsfromsuchposts，but，incaseswhichtouchedchurchinterests，sheexcludedeventherelativesofecclesiastics。Whenchurchauthoritydecreedthatcommerceshouldnotbemaintainedwithinfidelsandheretics，theVenetianmerchantscontinuedtodealwithTurks，Pagans，Germans，Englishmen，andDutchmenasbefore。
WhentheChurchdecreedthatthetakingofinterestformoneywassin，andgreattheologianspublishedinVenicesomeoftheirmightiesttreatisesdemonstratingthisviewfromHolyScriptureandtheFathers，theVenetianscontinuedborrowingandlendingmoneyonusance。Wheneffortsweremadetoenforcethattremendousinstrumentfortheconsolidationofpapalpower，thebullInCoenaDomini，Veniceevadedandevendefiedit。WhentheChurchfrowneduponanatomicaldissections，theVenetiansallowedAndreasVesaliustomakesuchdissectionsattheirUniversityofPadua。WhenSixtusV。，thestrongestofallthePopes，hadbroughtallhispowers，temporalandspiritual，tobearagainstHenryIV。ofFranceasanexcommunicatedheretic，andseemedreadytohurlthethunderboltsoftheChurchagainstanypowerwhichshouldrecognizehim，theVenetianRepublicnotonlyrecognizedhim，buttreatedhisAmbassadorwithespecialcourtesy。WhentheotherCatholicpowers，saveFrance，yieldedtopapalmandatesandsentnorepresentativestothecoronationofJamesI。ofEngland，Venicewasthererepresented。WhenPopeafterPopeissuedendlessdiatribesagainstthehorrorsoftoleration，theVenetianssteadilytoleratedintheirseveralsortsofworshipJewsandGreeks，MohammedansandArmenians，withProtestantsofeverysortwhocametothemonbusiness。WhentheRomanIndexforbadethepublicationofmostimportantworksofleadingauthors，Venicedemandedandobtainedforherprintersrightswhichwereelsewheredenied。
Astothereligiousrestrictionswhichtouchedtrade，theVenetiansinthepubliccouncils，andindeedthepeopleatlarge，hadcometoknowperfectlywhatthepapaltheorymeant，——withsomeofitspromoters，fanaticism，butwiththecontrollingpoweratRome，revenue，revenuetobederivedfromretailingdispensationstoinfringetheholyrules。
Thispeculiarantithesis——nowheremorestrikingthanatVenice，ontheoneside，religiousfearsandhopes;ontheother，keeninsightintothewaysofecclesiasticism——ledtopeculiarcompromises。Thebankerswhohadtakeninterestuponmoney，themerchantswhohadtradedwithMoslemsandheretics，intheirlasthoursfrequentlythoughtitbesttoperfecttheirtitletosalvationbyturningoverlargeestatestotheChurch。Undertheswayofthisfeeling，andespeciallyoftheterrorsinfusedbypriestsatdeathbeds，mortmainhadbecomeinVenice，asinmanyotherpartsoftheworld，oneofthemostseriousofevils。ThusitwasthattheclergycametopossessbetweenonefourthandonethirdofthewholeterritoryoftheRepublic，andinitsBergamodistrictmorethanonehalf;andallthiswasexemptfromtaxation。HenceitwasthattheVenetianSenatefounditnecessarytodevisealegalcheekwhichshouldmakesuchabsorptionofestatesbytheChurchmoreandmoredifficult。
Therewasasecondcauseoftrouble。InthatreligiousatmosphereofVenice，monasticordersofeverysortgrewluxuriantly，notonlyabsorbingmoreandmorelandtobeheldbythedeadhand，thusescapingthepublicburdens，buteverabsorbingmoreandmoremenandwomen，andthusdeprivingthestateofanyhealthyandnormalservicefromthem。Here，too，theSenatethoughtitbesttointerposeacheck:itinsistedthatallnewstructuresforreligiousordersmustbeauthorizedbytheState。
Yetanotherquestionflamedforth。Ofthemonksofeverysortswarmingthroughthecity，manywereluxuriousandsomewerecriminal。Onthes...完整阅读请扫描二维码下载丁香书院APP免费看：