Assoonasninestateshadconcurred（andtherestfollowedintheordertheirconventionswereelected）,theoldfabricofthefederalgovernmentwastakendown,andthenewoneerected,ofwhichGeneralWashingtonispresident。—InthisplaceI
　　cannothelpremarking,thatthecharacterandservicesofthisgentlemanaresufficienttoputallthosemencalledkingstoshame。Whiletheyarereceivingfromthesweatandlaboursofmankind,aprodigalityofpay,towhichneithertheirabilitiesnortheirservicescanentitlethem,heisrenderingeveryserviceinhispower,andrefusingeverypecuniaryreward。Heacceptednopayascommander—in—chief;heacceptsnoneaspresidentoftheUnitedStates。
　　Afterthenewfederalconstitutionwasestablished,thestateofPennsylvania,conceivingthatsomepartsofitsownconstitutionrequiredtobealtered,electedaconventionforthatpurpose。Theproposedalterationswerepublished,andthepeopleconcurringtherein,theywereestablished。
　　Informingthoseconstitutions,orinalteringthem,littleornoinconveniencetookplace。Theordinarycourseofthingswasnotinterrupted,andtheadvantageshavebeenmuch。Itisalwaystheinterestofafargreaternumberofpeopleinanationtohavethingsright,thantoletthemremainwrong;andwhenpublicmattersareopentodebate,andthepublicjudgmentfree,itwillnotdecidewrong,unlessitdecidestoohastily。
　　Inthetwoinstancesofchangingtheconstitutions,thegovernmentstheninbeingwerenotactorseitherway。Governmenthasnorighttomakeitselfapartyinanydebaterespectingtheprinciplesormodesofforming,orofchanging,constitutions。Itisnotforthebenefitofthosewhoexercisethepowersofgovernmentthatconstitutions,andthegovernmentsissuingfromthem,areestablished。Inallthosematterstherightofjudgingandactingareinthosewhopay,andnotinthosewhoreceive。
　　Aconstitutionisthepropertyofanation,andnotofthosewhoexercisethegovernment。AlltheconstitutionsofAmericaaredeclaredtobeestablishedontheauthorityofthepeople。InFrance,thewordnationisusedinsteadofthepeople;butinbothcases,aconstitutionisathingantecedenttothegovernment,andalwaysdistincttherefrom。
　　InEnglanditisnotdifficulttoperceivethateverythinghasaconstitution,exceptthenation。Everysocietyandassociationthatisestablished,firstagreeduponanumberoforiginalarticles,digestedintoform,whichareitsconstitution。Itthenappointeditsofficers,whosepowersandauthoritiesaredescribedinthatconstitution,andthegovernmentofthatsocietythencommenced。
　　Thoseofficers,bywhatevernametheyarecalled,havenoauthoritytoaddto,alter,orabridgetheoriginalarticles。Itisonlytotheconstitutingpowerthatthisrightbelongs。
　　Fromthewantofunderstandingthedifferencebetweenaconstitutionandagovernment,Dr。Johnson,andallwritersofhisdescription,havealwaysbewilderedthemselves。Theycouldnotbutperceive,thattheremustnecessarilybeacontrollingpowerexistingsomewhere,andtheyplacedthispowerinthediscretionofthepersonsexercisingthegovernment,insteadofplacingitinaconstitutionformedbythenation。Whenitisinaconstitution,ithasthenationforitssupport,andthenaturalandthepoliticalcontrollingpowersaretogether。Thelawswhichareenactedbygovernments,controlmenonlyasindividuals,butthenation,throughitsconstitution,controlsthewholegovernment,andhasanaturalabilitytodoso。Thefinalcontrollingpower,therefore,andtheoriginalconstitutingpower,areoneandthesamepower。
　　Dr。Johnsoncouldnothaveadvancedsuchapositioninanycountrywheretherewasaconstitution;andheishimselfanevidencethatnosuchthingasaconstitutionexistsinEngland。Butitmaybeputasaquestion,notimpropertobeinvestigated,thatifaconstitutiondoesnotexist,howcametheideaofitsexistencesogenerallyestablished？
　　Inordertodecidethisquestion,itisnecessarytoconsideraconstitutioninbothitscases:—First,ascreatingagovernmentandgivingitpowers。Secondly,asregulatingandrestrainingthepowerssogiven。
　　IfwebeginwithWilliamofNormandy,wefindthatthegovernmentofEnglandwasoriginallyatyranny,foundedonaninvasionandconquestofthecountry。Thisbeingadmitted,itwillthenappear,thattheexertionofthenation,atdifferentperiods,toabatethattyranny,andrenderitlessintolerable,hasbeencreditedforaconstitution。
　　MagnaCharta,asitwascalled（itisnowlikeanalmanackofthesamedate）,wasnomorethancompellingthegovernmenttorenounceapartofitsassumptions。Itdidnotcreateandgivepowerstogovernmentinamanneraconstitutiondoes;butwas,asfarasitwent,ofthenatureofare—conquest,andnotaconstitution;
　　forcouldthenationhavetotallyexpelledtheusurpation,asFrancehasdoneitsdespotism,itwouldthenhavehadaconstitutiontoform。
　　ThehistoryoftheEdwardsandtheHenries,anduptothecommencementoftheStuarts,exhibitsasmanyinstancesoftyrannyascouldbeactedwithinthelimitstowhichthenationhadrestrictedit。TheStuartsendeavouredtopassthoselimits,andtheirfateiswellknown。Inallthoseinstancesweseenothingofaconstitution,butonlyofrestrictionsonassumedpower。
　　Afterthis,anotherWilliam,descendedfromthesamestock,andclaimingfromthesameorigin,gainedpossession;andofthetwoevils,JamesandWilliam,thenationpreferredwhatitthoughttheleast;since,fromcircumstances,itmusttakeone。Theact,calledtheBillofRights,comeshereintoview。Whatisit,butabargain,whichthepartsofthegovernmentmadewitheachothertodividepowers,profits,andprivileges？Youshallhavesomuch,andIwillhavetherest;andwithrespecttothenation,itsaid,foryourshare,YOUshallhavetherightofpetitioning。Thisbeingthecase,thebillofrightsismoreproperlyabillofwrongs,andofinsult。Astowhatiscalledtheconventionparliament,itwasathingthatmadeitself,andthenmadetheauthoritybywhichitacted。Afewpersonsgottogether,andcalledthemselvesbythatname。Severalofthemhadneverbeenelected,andnoneofthemforthepurpose。
　　FromthetimeofWilliamaspeciesofgovernmentarose,issuingoutofthiscoalitionbillofrights;andmoreso,sincethecorruptionintroducedattheHanoversuccessionbytheagencyofWalpole;
　　thatcanbedescribedbynoothernamethanadespoticlegislation。Thoughthepartsmayembarrasseachother,thewholehasnobounds;andtheonlyrightitacknowledgesoutofitself,istherightofpetitioning。Wherethenistheconstitutioneitherthatgivesorrestrainspower？
　　Itisnotbecauseapartofthegovernmentiselective,thatmakesitlessadespotism,ifthepersonssoelectedpossessafterwards,asaparliament,unlimitedpowers。Election,inthiscase,becomesseparatedfromrepresentation,andthecandidatesarecandidatesfordespotism。
　　Icannotbelievethatanynation,reasoningonitsownrights,wouldhavethoughtofcallingthesethingsaconstitution,ifthecryofconstitutionhadnotbeensetupbythegovernment。Ithasgotintocirculationlikethewordsboreandquoz[quiz],bybeingchalkedupinthespeechesofparliament,asthosewordswereonwindowshuttersanddoorposts;butwhatevertheconstitutionmaybeinotherrespects,ithasundoubtedlybeenthemostproductivemachineoftaxationthatwaseverinvented。
　　ThetaxesinFrance,underthenewconstitution,arenotquitethirteenshillingsperhead,*[18]andthetaxesinEngland,underwhatiscalleditspresentconstitution,areforty—eightshillingsandsixpenceperhead—men,women,andchildren—amountingtonearlyseventeenmillionssterling,besidestheexpenseofcollecting,whichisupwardsofamillionmore。
　　InacountrylikeEngland,wherethewholeofthecivilGovernmentisexecutedbythepeopleofeverytownandcounty,bymeansofparishofficers,magistrates,quarterlysessions,juries,andassize;withoutanytroubletowhatiscalledthegovernmentoranyotherexpensetotherevenuethanthesalaryofthejudges,itisastonishinghowsuchamassoftaxescanbeemployed。
　　Noteventheinternaldefenceofthecountryispaidoutoftherevenue。
　　Onalloccasions,whetherrealorcontrived,recourseiscontinuallyhadtonewloansandnewtaxes。Nowonder,then,thatamachineofgovernmentsoadvantageoustotheadvocatesofacourt,shouldbesotriumphantlyextolled！Nowonder,thatSt。
　　James'sorSt。Stephen'sshouldechowiththecontinualcryofconstitution;nowonder,thattheFrenchrevolutionshouldbereprobated,andtheres—publicatreatedwithreproach！TheredbookofEngland,liketheredbookofFrance,willexplainthereason。*[19]
　　Iwillnow,bywayofrelaxation,turnathoughtortwotoMr。Burke。
　　Iaskhispardonforneglectinghimsolong。
　　"America,"sayshe（inhisspeechontheCanadaConstitutionbill）,"neverdreamedofsuchabsurddoctrineastheRightsofMan。"
　　Mr。Burkeissuchaboldpresumer,andadvanceshisassertionsandhispremiseswithsuchadeficiencyofjudgment,that,withouttroublingourselvesaboutprinciplesofphilosophyorpolitics,themerelogicalconclusionstheyproduce,areridiculous。
　　Forinstance,Ifgovernments,asMr。Burkeasserts,arenotfoundedontheRightsofMAN,andarefoundedonanyrightsatall,theyconsequentlymustbefoundedontherightofsomethingthatisnotman。Whatthenisthatsomething？
　　Generallyspeaking,weknowofnoothercreaturesthatinhabittheearththanmanandbeast;andinallcases,whereonlytwothingsofferthemselves,andonemustbeadmitted,anegationprovedonanyone,amountstoanaffirmativeontheother;andtherefore,Mr。Burke,byprovingagainsttheRightsofMan,provesinbehalfofthebeast;andconsequently,provesthatgovernmentisabeast;andasdifficultthingssometimesexplaineachother,wenowseetheoriginofkeepingwildbeastsintheTower;fortheycertainlycanbeofnootherusethantoshowtheoriginofthegovernment。Theyareintheplaceofaconstitution。OJohnBull,whathonoursthouhastlostbynotbeingawildbeast。Thoumightest,onMr。Burke'ssystem,havebeenintheTowerforlife。
　　IfMr。Burke'sargumentshavenotweightenoughtokeeponeserious,thefaultislessminethanhis;andasIamwillingtomakeanapologytothereaderforthelibertyIhavetaken,IhopeMr。Burkewillalsomakehisforgivingthecause。
　　HavingthuspaidMr。Burkethecomplimentofrememberinghim,Ireturntothesubject。
　　FromthewantofaconstitutioninEnglandtorestrainandregulatethewildimpulseofpower,manyofthelawsareirrationalandtyrannical,andtheadministrationofthemvagueandproblematical。
　　TheattentionofthegovernmentofEngland（forIratherchoosetocallitbythisnamethantheEnglishgovernment）appears,sinceitspoliticalconnectionwithGermany,tohavebeensocompletelyengrossedandabsorbedbyforeignaffairs,andthemeansofraisingtaxes,thatitseemstoexistfornootherpurposes。
　　Domesticconcernsareneglected;andwithrespecttoregularlaw,thereisscarcelysuchathing。
　　Almosteverycasemustnowbedeterminedbysomeprecedent,bethatprecedentgoodorbad,orwhetheritproperlyappliesornot;andthepracticeisbecomesogeneralastosuggestasuspicion,thatitproceedsfromadeeperpolicythanatfirstsightappears。
　　SincetherevolutionofAmerica,andmoresosincethatofFrance,thispreachingupthedoctrinesofprecedents,drawnfromtimesandcircumstancesantecedenttothoseevents,hasbeenthestudiedpracticeoftheEnglishgovernment。Thegeneralityofthoseprecedentsarefoundedonprinciplesandopinions,thereverseofwhattheyought;andthegreaterdistanceoftimetheyaredrawnfrom,themoretheyaretobesuspected。Butbyassociatingthoseprecedentswithasuperstitiousreverenceforancientthings,asmonksshowrelicsandcallthemholy,thegeneralityofmankindaredeceivedintothedesign。Governmentsnowactasiftheywereafraidtoawakenasinglereflectioninman。
　　Theyaresoftlyleadinghimtothesepulchreofprecedents,todeadenhisfacultiesandcallattentionfromthesceneofrevolutions。
　　Theyfeelthatheisarrivingatknowledgefasterthantheywish,andtheirpolicyofprecedentsisthebarometeroftheirfears。
　　Thispoliticalpopery,liketheecclesiasticalpoperyofold,hashaditsday,andishasteningtoitsexit。Theraggedrelicandtheantiquatedprecedent,themonkandthemonarch,willmouldertogether。
　　Governmentbyprecedent,withoutanyregardtotheprincipleoftheprecedent,isoneofthevilestsystemsthatcanbesetup。
　　Innumerousinstances,theprecedentoughttooperateasawarning,andnotasanexample,andrequirestobeshunnedinsteadofimitated;butinsteadofthis,precedentsaretakeninthelump,andputatonceforconstitutionandforlaw。
　　Eitherthedoctrineofprecedentsispolicytokeepamaninastateofignorance,oritisapracticalconfessionthatwisdomdegeneratesingovernmentsasgovernmentsincreaseinage,andcanonlyhobblealongbythestiltsandcrutchesofprecedents。
　　Howisitthatthesamepersonswhowouldproudlybethoughtwiserthantheirpredecessors,appearatthesametimeonlyastheghostsofdepartedwisdom？Howstrangelyisantiquitytreated！
　　Tosomepurposesitisspokenofasthetimesofdarknessandignorance,andtoanswerothers,itisputforthelightoftheworld。
　　Ifthedoctrineofprecedentsistobefollowed,theexpensesofgovernmentneednotcontinuethesame。Whypaymenextravagantly,whohavebutlittletodo？Ifeverythingthatcanhappenisalreadyinprecedent,legislationisatanend,andprecedent,likeadictionary,determineseverycase。Either,therefore,governmenthasarrivedatitsdotage,andrequirestoberenovated,oralltheoccasionsforexercisingitswisdomhaveoccurred。
　　WenowseealloverEurope,andparticularlyinEngland,thecuriousphenomenonofanationlookingoneway,andthegovernmenttheother—theoneforwardandtheotherbackward。Ifgovernmentsaretogoonbyprecedent,whilenationsgoonbyimprovement,theymustatlastcometoafinalseparation;andthesooner,andthemorecivillytheydeterminethispoint,thebetter。*[20]
　　Havingthusspokenofconstitutionsgenerally,asthingsdistinctfromactualgovernments,letusproceedtoconsiderthepartsofwhichaconstitutioniscomposed。
　　Opinionsdiffermoreonthissubjectthanwithrespecttothewhole。
　　Thatanationoughttohaveaconstitution,asarulefortheconductofitsgovernment,isasimplequestioninwhichallmen,notdirectlycourtiers,willagree。Itisonlyonthecomponentpartsthatquestionsandopinionsmultiply。
　　Butthisdifficulty,likeeveryother,willdiminishwhenputintoatrainofbeingrightlyunderstood。
　　Thefirstthingis,thatanationhasarighttoestablishaconstitution。
　　Whetheritexercisesthisrightinthemostjudiciousmanneratfirstisquiteanothercase。Itexercisesitagreeablytothejudgmentitpossesses;andbycontinuingtodoso,allerrorswillatlastbeexploded。
　　Whenthisrightisestablishedinanation,thereisnofearthatitwillbeemployedtoitsowninjury。Anationcanhavenointerestinbeingwrong。
　　ThoughalltheconstitutionsofAmericaareononegeneralprinciple,yetnotwoofthemareexactlyalikeintheircomponentparts,orinthedistributionofthepowerswhichtheygivetotheactualgovernments。Somearemore,andotherslesscomplex。
　　Informingaconstitution,itisfirstnecessarytoconsiderwhataretheendsforwhichgovernmentisnecessary？Secondly,whatarethebestmeans,andtheleastexpensive,foraccomplishingthoseends？
　　Governmentisnothingmorethananationalassociation;andtheobjectofthisassociationisthegoodofall,aswellindividuallyascollectively。Everymanwishestopursuehisoccupation,andtoenjoythefruitsofhislaboursandtheproduceofhispropertyinpeaceandsafety,andwiththeleastpossibleexpense。
　　Whenthesethingsareaccomplished,alltheobjectsforwhichgovernmentoughttobeestablishedareanswered。
　　Ithasbeencustomarytoconsidergovernmentunderthreedistinctgeneralheads。Thelegislative,theexecutive,andthejudicial。
　　Butifwepermitourjudgmenttoactunincumberedbythehabitofmultipliedterms,wecanperceivenomorethantwodivisionsofpower,ofwhichcivilgovernmentiscomposed,namely,thatoflegislatingorenactinglaws,andthatofexecutingoradministeringthem。Everything,therefore,appertainingtocivilgovernment,classesitselfunderoneorotherofthesetwodivisions。
　　Sofarasregardstheexecutionofthelaws,thatwhichiscalledthejudicialpower,isstrictlyandproperlytheexecutivepowerofeverycountry。Itisthatpowertowhicheveryindividualhasappeal,andwhichcausesthelawstobeexecuted;neitherhaveweanyotherclearideawithrespecttotheofficialexecutionofthelaws。InEngland,andalsoinAmericaandFrance,thispowerbeginswiththemagistrate,andproceedsupthroughallthecourtsofjudicature。
　　Ileavetocourtierstoexplainwhatismeantbycallingmonarchytheexecutivepower。Itismerelyanameinwhichactsofgovernmentaredone;andanyother,ornoneatall,wouldanswerthesamepurpose。Lawshaveneithermorenorlessauthorityonthisaccount。Itmustbefromthejustnessoftheirprinciples,andtheinterestwhichanationfeelstherein,thattheyderivesupport;iftheyrequireanyotherthanthis,itisasignthatsomethinginthesystemofgovernmentisimperfect。Lawsdifficulttobeexecutedcannotbegenerallygood。
　　Withrespecttotheorganizationofthelegislativepower,differentmodeshavebeenadoptedindifferentcountries。InAmericaitisgenerallycomposedoftwohouses。InFranceitconsistsbutofone,butinbothcountries,itiswhollybyrepresentation。
　　Thecaseis,thatmankind（fromthelongtyrannyofassumedpower）havehadsofewopportunitiesofmakingthenecessarytrialsonmodesandprinciplesofgovernment,inordertodiscoverthebest,thatgovernmentisbutnowbeginningtobeknown,andexperienceisyetwantingtodeterminemanyparticulars。
　　Theobjectionsagainsttwohousesare,first,thatthereisaninconsistencyinanypartofawholelegislature,comingtoafinaldeterminationbyvoteonanymatter,whilstthatmatter,withrespecttothatwhole,isyetonlyinatrainofdeliberation,andconsequentlyopentonewillustrations。
　　Secondly,Thatbytakingthevoteoneach,asaseparatebody,italwaysadmitsofthepossibility,andisoftenthecaseinpractice,thattheminoritygovernsthemajority,andthat,insomeinstances,toadegreeofgreatinconsistency。
　　Thirdly,Thattwohousesarbitrarilycheckingorcontrollingeachotherisinconsistent;becauseitcannotbeprovedontheprinciplesofjustrepresentation,thateithershouldbewiserorbetterthantheother。Theymaycheckinthewrongaswellasintheright—thereforetogivethepowerwherewecannotgivethewisdomtouseit,norbeassuredofitsbeingrightlyused,rendersthehazardatleastequaltotheprecaution。*[21]
　　Theobjectionagainstasinglehouseis,thatitisalwaysinaconditionofcommittingitselftoosoon。—Butitshouldatthesametimeberemembered,thatwhenthereisaconstitutionwhichdefinesthepower,andestablishestheprincipleswithinwhichalegislatureshallact,thereisalreadyamoreeffectualcheckprovided,andmorepowerfullyoperating,thananyothercheckcanbe。Forexample,WereaBilltobebroughtintoanyoftheAmericanlegislaturessimilartothatwhichwaspassedintoanactbytheEnglishparliament,atthecommencementofGeorgetheFirst,toextendthedurationoftheassembliestoalongerperiodthantheynowsit,thecheckisintheconstitution,whichineffectsays,Thusfarshaltthougoandnofurther。
　　Butinordertoremovetheobjectionagainstasinglehouse（thatofactingwithtooquickanimpulse）,andatthesametimetoavoidtheinconsistencies,insomecasesabsurdities,arisingfromtwohouses,thefollowingmethodhasbeenproposedasanimprovementuponboth。
　　First,Tohavebutonerepresentation。
　　Secondly,Todividethatrepresentation,bylot,intotwoorthreeparts。
　　Thirdly,Thateveryproposedbillshallbefirstdebatedinthosepartsbysuccession,thattheymaybecomethehearersofeachother,butwithouttakinganyvote。Afterwhichthewholerepresentationtoassembleforageneraldebateanddeterminationbyvote。
　　Tothisproposedimprovementhasbeenaddedanother,forthepurposeofkeepingtherepresentationinthestateofconstantrenovation;whichis,thatone—thirdoftherepresentationofeachcounty,shallgooutattheexpirationofoneyear,andthenumberbereplacedbynewelections。Anotherthirdattheexpirationofthesecondyearreplacedinlikemanner,andeverythirdyeartobeageneralelection。*[22]
　　Butinwhatevermannertheseparatepartsofaconstitutionmaybearranged,thereisonegeneralprinciplethatdistinguishesfreedomfromslavery,whichis,thatallhereditarygovernmentoverapeopleistothemaspeciesofslavery,andrepresentativegovernmentisfreedom。
　　Consideringgovernmentintheonlylightinwhichitshouldbeconsidered,thatofaNationalAssociation,itoughttobesoconstructedasnottobedisorderedbyanyaccidenthappeningamongtheparts;and,therefore,noextraordinarypower,capableofproducingsuchaneffect,shouldbelodgedinthehandsofanyindividual。Thedeath,sickness,absenceordefection,ofanyoneindividualinagovernment,oughttobeamatterofnomoreconsequence,withrespecttothenation,thanifthesamecircumstancehadtakenplaceinamemberoftheEnglishParliament,ortheFrenchNationalAssembly。
　　Scarcelyanythingpresentsamoredegradingcharacterofnationalgreatness,thanitsbeingthrownintoconfusion,byanythinghappeningtooractedbyanyindividual;andtheridiculousnessofthesceneisoftenincreasedbythenaturalinsignificanceofthepersonbywhomitisoccasioned。Wereagovernmentsoconstructed,thatitcouldnotgoonunlessagooseoraganderwerepresentinthesenate,thedifficultieswouldbejustasgreatandasreal,ontheflightorsicknessofthegoose,orthegander,asifitwerecalledaKing。Welaughatindividualsforthesillydifficultiestheymaketothemselves,withoutperceivingthatthegreatestofallridiculousthingsareactedingovernments。*[23]
　　AlltheconstitutionsofAmericaareonaplanthatexcludesthechildishembarrassmentswhichoccurinmonarchicalcountries。
　　Nosuspensionofgovernmentcantheretakeplaceforamoment,fromanycircumstanceswhatever。Thesystemofrepresentationprovidesforeverything,andistheonlysysteminwhichnationsandgovernmentscanalwaysappearintheirpropercharacter。
　　Asextraordinarypoweroughtnottobelodgedinthehandsofanyindividual,sooughttheretobenoappropriationsofpublicmoneytoanyperson,beyondwhathisservicesinastatemaybeworth。
　　Itsignifiesnotwhetheramanbecalledapresident,aking,anemperor,asenator,orbyanyothernamewhichproprietyorfollymaydeviseorarroganceassume;itisonlyacertainservicehecanperforminthestate;andtheserviceofanysuchindividualintheroutineofoffice,whethersuchofficebecalledmonarchical,presidential,senatorial,orbyanyothernameortitle,canneverexceedthevalueoftenthousandpoundsayear。
　　Allthegreatservicesthataredoneintheworldareperformedbyvolunteercharacters,whoacceptnothingforthem;buttheroutineofofficeisalwaysregulatedtosuchageneralstandardofabilitiesastobewithinthecompassofnumbersineverycountrytoperform,andthereforecannotmeritveryextraordinaryrecompense。
　　Government,saysSwift,isaPlainthing,andfittedtothecapacityofmanyheads。
　　Itisinhumantotalkofamillionsterlingayear,paidoutofthepublictaxesofanycountry,forthesupportofanyindividual,whilstthousandswhoareforcedtocontributethereto,arepiningwithwant,andstrugglingwithmisery。Governmentdoesnotconsistinacontrastbetweenprisonsandpalaces,betweenpovertyandpomp;itisnotinstitutedtorobtheneedyofhismite,andincreasethewretchednessofthewretched。—ButonthispartofthesubjectIshallspeakhereafter,andconfinemyselfatpresenttopoliticalobservations。
　　Whenextraordinarypowerandextraordinarypayareallottedtoanyindividualinagovernment,hebecomesthecenter,roundwhicheverykindofcorruptiongeneratesandforms。Givetoanymanamillionayear,andaddtheretothepowerofcreatinganddisposingofplaces,attheexpenseofacountry,andthelibertiesofthatcountryarenolongersecure。Whatiscalledthesplendourofathroneisnootherthanthecorruptionofthestate。
　　Itismadeupofabandofparasites,livinginluxuriousindolence,outofthepublictaxes。
　　Whenoncesuchavicioussystemisestablisheditbecomestheguardandprotectionofallinferiorabuses。Themanwhoisinthereceiptofamillionayearisthelastpersontopromoteaspiritofreform,lest,intheevent,itshouldreachtohimself。Itisalwayshisinteresttodefendinferiorabuses,assomanyoutworkstoprotectthecitadel;andonthisspeciesofpoliticalfortification,allthepartshavesuchacommondependencethatitisnevertobeexpectedtheywillattackeachother。*[24]
　　Monarchywouldnothavecontinuedsomanyagesintheworld,haditnotbeenfortheabusesitprotects。Itisthemaster—fraud,whichsheltersallothers。Byadmittingaparticipationofthespoil,itmakesitselffriends;andwhenitceasestodothisitwillceasetobetheidolofcourtiers。