WeshallseeinanotherpartofthisworkthatthefirstofthetwoauthorswhomIhavecitedis，inspiteofhisuncompromisingJacobinism，bynomeansindulgenttowardthemenformerlyqualifiedasthe``GiantsoftheConvention。’’
ThejudgmentsofforeignersuponourRevolutionareusuallydistinctlysevere，andwecannotbesurprisedwhenwerememberhowEuropesufferedduringthetwentyyearsofupheavalinFrance。
TheGermansinparticularhavebeenmostsevere。TheiropinionissummedupinthefollowinglinesbyM。Faguet：——
``Letussayitcourageouslyandpatriotically，forpatriotismconsistsaboveallintellingthetruthtoone’sowncountry：
GermanyseesinFrance，withregardtothepast，apeoplewho，withthegreatwords`liberty’and`fraternity’initsmouth，oppressed，trampled，murdered，pillaged，andfleecedherforfifteenyears；andwithregardtothepresent，apeoplewho，withthesamewordsonitsbanners，isorganisingadespotic，oppressive，mischievous，andruinousdemocracy，whichnonewouldseektoimitate。ThisiswhatGermanymaywellseeinFrance；
andthis，accordingtoherbooksandjournals，is，wemayassureourselves，whatshedoessee。’’
Fortherest，whatevertheworthoftheverdictspronouncedupontheFrenchRevolution，wemaybecertainthatthewritersofthefuturewillconsideritasaneventaspassionatelyinterestingasitisinstructive。
AGovernmentbloodthirstyenoughtoguillotineoldmenofeightyyears，younggirls，andlittlechildren：whichcoveredFrancewithruins，andyetsucceededinrepulsingEuropeinarms；anarchduchessofAustria，QueenofFrance，dyingonthescaffold，andafewyearslateranotherarchduchess，herrelative，replacingheronthesamethroneandmarryingasub—
lieutenant，turnedEmperor——herearetragediesuniqueinhumanhistory。Thepsychologists，aboveall，willderivelessonsfromahistoryhithertosolittlestudiedbythem。Nodoubttheywillfinallydiscoverthatpsychologycanmakenoprogressuntilitrenounceschimericaltheoriesandlaboratoryexperimentsinordertostudytheeventsandthemenwhosurroundus。[7]
[7]Thisadviceisfarfrombeingbanal。Thepsychologistsofthedaypayverylittleattentiontotheworldaboutthem，andareevensurprisedthatanyoneshouldstudyit。IhavecomeacrossaninterestingproofofthisindifferentframeofmindinareviewofoneofmybookswhichappearedintheRevuephilosophiqueandwasinspiredbytheeditorofthereview。Theauthorreproachesmewith``exploringtheworldandthenewspapersratherthanbooks。’’
Imostgladlyacceptthisreproach。ThemanifoldfactsofthejournalsandtherealitiesoftheworldarefarmoreinstructivethanphilosophicallucubrationssuchastheRevueisstuffedwith。
Philosophersarebeginningtoseethepuerilityofsuchreproaches。ItwascertainlyofthefortyvolumesofthisfastidiouspublicationthatMr。WilliamJameswasthinkingwhenhewrotethatallthesedissertationssimplyrepresented``astringoffactsclumsilyobservedandafewquarrelsomediscussions。’’Althoughheistheauthorofthebestknowntreatiseonpsychologyextant，theeminentthinkerrealises``thefragilityofasciencethatoozesmetaphysicalcriticismateveryjoint。’’FormorethantwentyyearsIhavetriedtointerestpsychologistsinthestudyofrealities，butthestreamofuniversitymetaphysicsishardlyyetturnedaside，althoughithaslostitsformerforce4。ImpartialityinHistory。
Impartialityhasalwaysbeenconsideredasthemostessentialqualityofthehistorian。AllhistorianssinceTacitushaveassuredusthattheyareimpartial。
Inrealitythewriterseeseventsasthepainterseesalandscape——thatis，throughhisowntemperament；throughhischaracterandthemindoftherace。
Anumberofartists，placedbeforethesamelandscape，wouldnecessarilyinterpretitinasmanydifferentfashions。Somewouldlaystressupondetailsneglectedbyothers。Eachreproductionwouldthusbeapersonalwork——thatistosay，wouldbeinterpretedbyacertainformofsensibility。
Itisthesamewiththewriter。Wecannomorespeakoftheimpartialityofthehistorianthanwecanspeakoftheimpartialityofthepainter。
Certainlythehistorianmayconfinehimselftothereproductionofdocuments，andthisisthepresenttendency。Butthesedocuments，forperiodsasnearusastheRevolution，aresoabundantthataman’swholelifewouldnotsufficetogothroughthem。Thereforethehistorianmustmakeachoice。
Consciouslysometimes，butmoreoftenunconsciously，theauthorwillselectthematerialwhichbestcorrespondswithhispolitical，moral，andsocialopinions。
Itisthereforeimpossible，unlesshecontentshimselfwithsimplechronologiessummingupeacheventwithafewwordsandadate，toproduceatrulyimpartialvolumeofhistory。Noauthorcouldbeimpartial；anditisnottoberegretted。Theclaimtoimpartiality，socommonto—day，resultsinthoseflat，gloomy，andprodigiouslywearisomeworkswhichrenderthecomprehensionofaperiodcompletelyimpossible。
Shouldthehistorian，underapretextofimpartiality，abstainfromjudgingmen——thatis，fromspeakingintonesofadmirationorreprobation？
Thisquestion，Iadmit，allowsoftwoverydifferentsolutions，eachofwhichisperfectlycorrect，accordingtothepointofviewassumed——thatofthemoralistorthatofthepsychologist。
Themoralistmustthinkexclusivelyoftheinterestofsociety，andmustjudgemenonlyaccordingtothatinterest。Bytheveryfactthatitexistsandwishestocontinuetoexistasocietyisobligedtoadmitacertainnumberofrules，tohaveanindestructiblestandardofgoodandevil，andconsequentlytocreateverydefinitedistinctionsbetweenviceandvirtue。Itthusfinallycreatesaveragetypes，towhichthemanoftheperiodapproachesmoreorlessclosely，andfromwhichhecannotdepartverywidelywithoutperiltosociety。
Itisbysuchsimilartypesandtherulesderivedfromsocialnecessitiesthatthemoralistmustjudgethemenofthepast。
Praisingthosewhichwereusefulandblamingtherest，hethushelpstoformthemoraltypeswhichareindispensabletotheprogressofcivilisationandwhichmayserveothersasmodels。
PoetssuchasCorneille，forexample，createheroessuperiortothemajorityofmen，andpossiblyinimitable；buttheytherebyhelpgreatlytostimulateourefforts。Theexampleofheroesmustalwaysbesetbeforeapeopleinordertoennobleitsmind。
Suchisthemoralist’spointofview。Thatofthepsychologistwouldbequitedifferent。Whileasocietyhasnorighttobetolerant，becauseitsfirstdutyistolive，thepsychologistmayremainindifferent。Consideringthingsasascientist，henolongeraskstheirutilitarianvalue，butseeksmerelytoexplainthem。
Hissituationisthatoftheobserverbeforeanyphenomenon。ItisobviouslydifficulttoreadincoldbloodthatCarrierorderedhisvictimstobeburieduptothenecksothattheymightthenbeblindedandsubjectedtohorribletorments。Yetifwewishtocomprehendsuchactswemustbenomoreindignantthanthenaturalistbeforethespiderslowlydevouringafly。Assoonasthereasonismoveditisnolongerreason，andcanexplainnothing。
Thefunctionsofthehistorianandthepsychologistarenot，aswesee，identical，butofbothwemaydemandtheendeavour，byawiseinterpretationofthefacts，todiscover，underthevisibleevidences，theinvisibleforceswhichdeterminethem。
CHAPTERII
THEPSYCHOLOGICALFOUNDATIONSOFTHEANCIENREGIME
1。TheAbsoluteMonarchyandtheBasesoftheAncienRegime。
ManyhistoriansassureusthattheRevolutionwasdirectedagainsttheautocracyofthemonarchy。InrealitythekingsofFrancehadceasedtobeabsolutemonarchslongbeforeitsoutbreak。
Onlyverylateinhistory——notuntilthereignofLouisXIV。——didtheyfinallyobtainincontestablepower。Alltheprecedingsovereigns，eventhemostpowerful，suchasFrancisI。，forexample，hadtosustainaconstantstruggleeitheragainsttheseigneurs，ortheclergy，ortheparliaments，andtheydidnotalwayswin。FrancishimselfhadnotsufficientpowertoprotecthismostintimatefriendsagainsttheSorbonneandtheParliament。HisfriendandcouncillorBerquin，havingoffendedtheSorbonne，wasarrestedupontheorderofthelatterbody。
Thekingorderedhisrelease，whichwasrefused。HewasobligedtosendarcherstoremovehimfromtheConciergerie，andcouldfindnoothermeansofprotectinghimthanthatofkeepinghimbesidehimintheLouvre。TheSorbonnebynomeansconsidereditselfbeaten。Profitingbytheking’sabsence，itarrestedBerquinagainandhadhimtriedbyParliament。
Condemnedatteninthemorning，hewasburnedaliveatnoon。
Builtupverygradually，thepowerofthekingsofFrancewasnotabsoluteuntilthetimeofLouisXIV。Itthenrapidlydeclined，anditwouldbetrulydifficulttospeakoftheabsolutismofLouisXVI。
Thispretendedmasterwastheslaveofhiscourt，hisministers，theclergy，andthenobles。Hedidwhattheyforcedhimtodoandrarelywhathewished。PerhapsnoFrenchmanwassolittlefreeastheking。
ThegreatpowerofthemonarchyresidedoriginallyintheDivineoriginwhichwasattributedtoit，andinthetraditionswhichhadaccumulatedduringtheages。Theseformedtherealsocialframeworkofthecountry。
Thetruecauseofthedisappearanceoftheancienregimewassimplytheweakeningofthetraditionswhichservedasitsfoundations。Whenafterrepeatedcriticismitcouldfindnomoredefenders，theancienregimecrumbledlikeabuildingwhosefoundationshavebeendestroyed。
2。TheInconveniencesoftheAncienRegimeAlong—establishedsystemofgovernmentwillalwaysfinallyseemacceptabletothepeoplegoverned。Habitmasksitsinconveniences，whichappearonlywhenmenbegintothink。Thentheyaskhowtheycouldeverhavesupportedthem。Thetrulyunhappymanisthemanwhobelieveshimselfmiserable。
ItwaspreciselythisbeliefwhichwasgaininggroundatthetimeoftheRevolution，undertheinfluenceofthewriterswhoseworkweshallpresentlystudy。Thentheimperfectionsoftheancienregimestaredallmenintheface。Theywerenumerous；itisenoughtomentionafew。
Despitetheapparentauthorityofthecentralpower，thekingdom，formedbythesuccessiveconquestofindependentprovinces，wasdividedintoterritorieseachofwhichhaditsownlawsandcustoms，andeachofwhichpaiddifferentimposts。Internalcustoms—housesseparatedthem。TheunityofFrancewasthussomewhatartificial。Itrepresentedanaggregateofvariouscountrieswhichtherepeatedeffortsofthekings，includingLouisXIV。，hadnotsucceededinwhollyunifying。ThemostusefuleffectoftheRevolutionwasthisveryunification。
Tosuchmaterialdivisionswereaddedsocialdivisionsconstitutedbydifferentclasses——nobles，clergy，andtheThirdEstate，whoserigidbarrierscouldonlywiththeutmostdifficultybecrossed。
Regardingthedivisionoftheclassesasoneofitssourcesofpower，theancienregimehadrigorouslymaintainedthatdivision。Thisbecametheprincipalcauseofthehatredswhichthesysteminspired。Muchoftheviolenceofthetriumphantbourgeoisierepresentedvengeanceforalongpastofdisdainandoppression。Thewoundsofself—lovearethemostdifficultofalltoforget。TheThirdEstatehadsufferedmanysuchwounds。AtameetingoftheStatesGeneralin1614，atwhichitsrepresentativeswereobligedtoremainbareheadedontheirknees，onememberoftheThirdEstatehavingdaredtosaythatthethreeorderswerelikethreebrothers，thespokesmanofthenoblesreplied``thattherewasnofraternitybetweenitandtheThird；
thatthenoblesdidnotwishthechildrenofcobblersandtannerstocallthemtheirbrothers。’’
Despitethemarchofenlightenmentthenoblesandtheclergyobstinatelypreservedtheirprivilegesandtheirdemands，nolongerjustifiablenowthattheseclasseshadceasedtorenderservices。
Keptfromtheexerciseofpublicfunctionsbytheroyalpower，whichdistrustedthem，andprogressivelyreplacedbyabourgeoisiewhichwasmoreandmorelearnedandcapable，thesocialroleofnobilityandclergywasonlyanemptyshow。
ThispointhasbeenluminouslyexpoundedbyTaine：——
``Sincethenobility，havinglostitsspecialcapacity，andtheThirdEstate，havingacquiredgeneralcapacity，werenowonalevelinrespectofeducationandaptitudes，theinequalitywhichdividedthemhadbecomehurtfulanduseless。Institutedbycustom，itwasnolongerratifiedbytheconsciousness，andtheThirdEstatewaswithreasonangeredbyprivilegeswhichnothingjustified，neitherthecapacityofthenoblesnortheincapacityofthebourgeoisie。’’
Byreasonoftherigidityofcastesestablishedbyalongpastwecannotseewhatcouldhavepersuadedthenoblesandtheclergytorenouncetheirprivileges。Certainlytheydidfinallyabandonthemonememorableevening，wheneventsforcedthemtodoso；butthenitwastoolate，andtheRevolution，unchained，waspursuingitscourse。
ItiscertainthatmodernprogresswouldsuccessivelyhaveestablishedallthattheRevolutioneffected——theequalityofcitizensbeforethelaw，thesuppressionoftheprivilegesofbirth，&c。DespitetheconservativespiritoftheLatins，thesethingswouldhavebeenwon，astheywerebythemajorityofthepeoples。Wemightinthismannerhavebeensavedtwentyyearsofwarfareanddevastation；butwemusthavehadadifferentmentalconstitution，and，aboveall，differentstatesmen。
TheprofoundhostilityofthebourgeoisieagainsttheclassesmaintainedaboveitbytraditionwasoneofthegreatfactorsoftheRevolution，andperfectlyexplainswhy，afteritstriumph，thefirstclassdespoiledthevanquishedoftheirwealth。Theybehavedasconquerors——likeWilliamtheConqueror，who，aftertheconquestofEngland，distributedthesoilamonghissoldiers。
Butalthoughthebourgeoisiedetestedthenobilitytheyhadnohatredforroyalty，anddidnotregarditasrevocable。Themaladdressofthekingandhisappealstoforeignpowersonlyverygraduallymadehimunpopular。
ThefirstAssemblyneverdreamedoffoundingarepublic。
Extremelyroyalist，infact，itthoughtsimplytosubstituteaconstitutionalforanabsolutemonarchy。Onlytheconsciousnessofitsincreasingpowerexasperateditagainsttheresistanceoftheking；butitdarednotoverthrowhim。
3。LifeundertheAncienRegime。
Itisdifficulttoformaveryclearideaoflifeundertheancienregime，and，aboveall，oftherealsituationofthepeasants。
ThewriterswhodefendtheRevolutionastheologiansdefendreligiousdogmasdrawsuchgloomypicturesoftheexistenceofthepeasantsundertheancienregimethatweaskourselveshowitwasthatalltheseunhappycreatureshadnotdiedofhungerlongbefore。AgoodexampleofthisstyleofwritingmaybefoundinabookbyM。A。Rambaud，formerlyprofessorattheSorbonne，publishedunderthetitleHistoryoftheFrenchRevolution。Onenoticesespeciallyanengravingbearingthelegend，PovertyofPeasantsunderLouisXIV。Intheforegroundamanisfightingsomedogsforsomebones，whichforthatmatterarealreadyquitefleshless。Besidehimawretchedfellowistwistinghimselfandcompressinghisstomach。Fartherbackawomanlyingonthegroundiseatinggrass。Atthebackofthelandscapefiguresofwhichonecannotsaywhethertheyarecorpsesorpersonsstarvingarealsostretchedonthesoil。Asanexampleoftheadministrationoftheancienregimethesameauthorassuresusthat``aplaceinthepolicecost300
livresandbroughtin400，000。’’Suchfiguressurelyindicateagreatdisinterestednessonthepartofthosewhosoldsuchproductiveemployment！Healsoinformsus``thatitcostonly120livrestogetpeoplearrested，’’andthat``underLouisXV。
morethan150，000lettresdecachetweredistributed。’’
ThemajorityofbooksdealingwiththeRevolutionareconceivedwithaslittleimpartialityandcriticalspirit，whichisonereasonwhythisperiodisreallysolittleknowntous。
Certainlythereisnolackofdocuments，buttheyareabsolutelycontradictory。TothecelebrateddescriptionofLaBruyerewemayopposetheenthusiasticpicturedrawnbytheEnglishtravellerYoungoftheprosperousconditionofthepeasantsofsomeoftheFrenchprovinces。
Weretheyreallycrushedbytaxation，anddidthey，ashasbeenstated，payfour—fifthsoftheirrevenueinsteadofafifthasto—day？Impossibletosaywithcertainty。Onecapitalfact，however，seemstoprovethatundertheancienregimethesituationoftheinhabitantsoftheruraldistrictscouldnothavebeensoverywretched，sinceitseemsestablishedthatmorethanathirdofthesoilhadbeenboughtbypeasants。
Wearebetterinformedastothefinancialsystem。Itwasveryoppressiveandextremelycomplicated。Thebudgetsusuallyshoweddeficits，andtheimpostsofallkindswereraisedbytyrannicalfarmers—general。AttheverymomentoftheRevolutionthisconditionofthefinancesbecamethecauseofuniversaldiscontent，whichisexpressedinthecahiersoftheStatesGeneral。Letusremarkthatthesecahiersdidnotrepresentapreviousstateofaffairs，butanactualconditionduetoacrisisofpovertyproducedbythebadharvestof1788andthehardwinterof1789。Whatwouldthesecahiershavetoldushadtheybeenwrittentenyearsearlier？
Despitetheseunfavourablecircumstancesthecahierscontainednorevolutionaryideas。ThemostadvancedmerelyaskedthattaxesshouldbeimposedonlywiththeconsentoftheStatesGeneralandpaidbyallalike。ThesamecahierssometimesexpressedawishthatthepowerofthekingshouldbelimitedbyaConstitutiondefininghisrightsandthoseofthenation。Ifthesewisheshadbeengrantedaconstitutionalmonarchycouldveryeasilyhavebeensubstitutedfortheabsolutemonarchy，andtheRevolutionwouldprobablyhavebeenavoided。
Unhappily，thenobilityandtheclergyweretoostrongandLouisXVI。tooweakforsuchasolutiontobepossible。
Moreover，itwouldhavebeenrenderedextremelydifficultbythedemandsofthebourgeoisie，whoclaimedtosubstitutethemselvesforthenobles，andweretherealauthorsoftheRevolution。Themovementstartedbythemiddleclassesrapidlyexceededtheirhopes，needs，andaspirations。Theyhadclaimedequalityfortheirownprofit，butthepeoplealsodemandedequality。TheRevolutionthusfinallybecamethepopulargovernmentwhichitwasnotandhadnointentionofbecomingattheoutset。
4。EvolutionofMonarchicalFeelingduringtheRevolution。
Despitetheslowevolutionoftheaffectiveelements，itiscertainthatduringtheRevolutionthesentiments，notofthepeopleonly，butalsooftherevolutionaryAssemblieswithregardtothemonarchy，underwentaveryrapidchange。BetweenthemomentwhenthelegislatorsofthefirstAssemblysurroundedLouisXVI。withrespectandthemomentwhenhisheadwascutoffaveryfewyearshadelapsed。
Thesechanges，superficialratherthanprofound，wereinrealityameretranspositionofsentimentsofthesameorder。ThelovewhichthemenofthisperiodprofessedforthekingwastransferredtothenewGovernmentwhichhadinheritedhispower。
Themechanismofsuchatransfermayeasilybedemonstrated。
Undertheancienregime，thesovereign，holdinghispowerbyDivineright，wasforthisreasoninvestedwithakindofsupernaturalpower。Hispeoplelookeduptohimfromeverycornerofthecountry。
Thismysticbeliefintheabsolutepowerofroyaltywasshatteredonlywhenrepeatedexperienceprovedthatthepowerattributedtotheadoredbeingwasfictitious。Hethenlosthisprestige。
Now，whenprestigeislostthecrowdwillnotforgivethefallenidolfordeludingthem，andseekanewtheidolwithoutwhichtheycannotexist。
FromtheoutsetoftheRevolutionnumerousfacts，whichweredailyrepeated，revealedtothemostferventbelieversthefactthatroyaltynolongerpossessedanypower，andthattherewereotherpowerscapable，notonlyofcontendingwithroyalty，butpossessedofsuperiorforce。
What，forinstance，wasthoughtoftheroyalpowerbythemultitudeswhosawthekingheldincheckbytheAssembly，andincapable，intheheartofParis，ofdefendinghisstrongestfortressagainsttheattacksofarmedbands？
Theroyalweaknessthusbeingobvious，thepoweroftheAssemblywasincreasing。Now，intheeyesofthecrowdweaknesshasnoprestige；itturnsalwaystoforce。
IntheAssembliesfeelingwasveryfluid，butdidnotevolveveryrapidly，forwhichreasonthemonarchicalfaithsurvivedthetakingoftheBastilletheflightoftheking，andhisunderstandingwithforeignsovereigns。
TheroyalistfaithwasstillsopowerfulthattheParisianriotsandtheeventswhichledtotheexecutionofLouisXVI。werenotenoughfinallytodestroy，intheprovinces，thespeciesofsecularpietywhichenvelopedtheoldmonarchy。[8]
[8]Asaninstanceofthedepthofthishereditaryloveofthepeopleforitskings，Micheletrelatesthefollowingfact，whichoccurredinthereignofLouisXV。：``WhenitwasknowninParisthatLouisXV。，whohadleftforthearmy，wasdetainedillatMetz，itwasnight。Peoplegotupandrantumultuouslyhitherandthitherwithoutknowingwheretheyweregoing；thechurcheswereopenedinthemiddleofthenight……peopleassembledateverycross—road，jostlingandquestioningoneanotherwithoutknowingwhattheywereafter。Inseveralchurchesthepriestwhowasrecitingtheprayerfortheking’shealthwasstoppedbyhistears，andthepeoplerepliedbysobsandcries……Thecourierwhobroughtthenewsofhisconvalescencewasembracedandalmoststifled；peoplekissedhishorse，andledhimintriumph……Everystreetresoundedwithacryofjoy：`Thekingishealed。’’’
ItpersistedinagreatpartofFranceduringthewholeoftheRevolution，andwastheoriginoftheroyalistconspiraciesandinsurrectionsinvariousdepartmentswhichtheConventionhadsuchtroubletosuppress。TheroyalistfaithhaddisappearedinParis，wheretheweaknessofthekingwastooplainlyvisible；
butintheprovincestheroyalpower，representingGodonearth，stillretaineditsprestige。
Theroyalistsentimentsofthepeoplemusthavebeendeeplyrootedtosurvivetheguillotine。Theroyalistmovementspersisted，indeed，duringthewholeoftheRevolution，andwereaccentuatedundertheDirectory，whenforty—ninedepartmentssentroyalistdeputiestoParis，whichprovokedtheDirectorytothecoupd’etatofFructidor。
Thismonarchical—feeling，withdifficultyrepressedbytheRevolution，contributedtothesuccessofBonapartewhenhecametooccupythethroneoftheancientkings，andingreatmeasuretore—establishtheancienregime。
CHAPTERIII
MENTALANARCHYATTHETIMEOFTHEREVOLUTIONANDTHEINFLUENCE
ATTRIBUTEDTOTHEPHILOSOPHERS
1。OriginandPropagationofRevolutionaryIdeas。
Theoutwardlifeofmenineveryageismouldeduponaninwardlifeconsistingofaframeworkoftraditions，sentiments，andmoralinfluenceswhichdirecttheirconductandmaintaincertainfundamentalnotionswhichtheyacceptwithoutdiscussion。
Lettheresistanceofthissocialframeworkweaken，andideaswhichcouldhavehadnoforcebeforewillgerminateanddevelop。
CertaintheorieswhosesuccesswasenormousatthetimeoftheRevolutionwouldhaveencounteredanimpregnablewalltwocenturiesearlier。
Theaimoftheseconsiderationsistorecalltothereaderthefactthattheoutwardeventsofrevolutionsarealwaysaconsequenceofinvisibletransformationswhichhaveslowlygoneforwardinmen’sminds。Anyprofoundstudyofarevolutionnecessitatesastudyofthementalsoiluponwhichtheideasthatdirectitscoursehavetogerminate。
Generallyslowintheextreme，theevolutionofideasisofteninvisibleforawholegeneration。Itsextentcanonlybegraspedbycomparingthementalconditionofthesamesocialclassesatthetwoextremitiesofthecurvewhichthemindhasfollowed。TorealisethedifferentconceptionsofroyaltyentertainedbyeducatedmenunderLouisXIV。andLouisXVI。，wemustcomparethepoliticaltheoriesofBossuetandTurgot。
BossuetexpressedthegeneralconceptionsofhistimeconcerningtheabsolutemonarchywhenhebasedtheauthorityofaGovernmentuponthewillofGod，``solejudgeoftheactionsofkings，alwaysirresponsiblebeforemen。’’Religiousfaithwasthenasstrongasthemonarchicalfaithfromwhichitseemedinseparable，andnophilosophercouldhaveshakenit。
ThewritingsofthereformingministersofLouisXVI。，thoseofTurgot，forinstance，areanimatedbyquiteanotherspirit。OftheDivinerightofkingsthereishardlyaword，andtherightsofthepeoplesbegintobeclearlydefined。
Manyeventshadcontributedtoprepareforsuchanevolution——
unfortunatewars，famines，imposts，generalpovertyattheendofthereignofLouisXV。，&c。Slowlydestroyed，respectformonarchicalauthoritywasreplacedbyamentalrevoltwhichwasreadytomanifestitselfassoonasoccasionshouldarise。
Whenoncethementalframeworkcommencestocrumbletheendcomesrapidly。ThisiswhyatthetimeoftheRevolutionideasweresoquicklypropagatedwhichwerebynomeansnew，butwhichuntilthenhadexertednoinfluence，astheyhadnotfallenonfruitfulground。
Yettheideaswhichwerethensoattractiveandeffectualhadoftenbeenexpressed。ForalongtimetheyhadinspiredthepoliticsofEngland。TwothousandyearsearliertheGreekandLatinauthorshadwrittenindefenceofliberty，hadcursedtyrants，andproclaimedtherightsofpopularsovereignty。
ThemiddleclasseswhoeffectedtheRevolution，although，liketheirfathers，theyhadlearnedallthesethingsintext—books，werenotinanydegreemovedbythem，becausethemomentwhensuchideascouldmovethemhadnotarrived。Howshouldthepeoplehavebeenimpressedbythematatimewhenallmenwereaccustomedtoregardallhierarchiesasnaturalnecessities？
TheactualinfluenceofthephilosophersinthegenesisoftheRevolutionwasnotthatwhichwasattributedtothem。Theyrevealednothingnew，buttheydevelopedthecriticalspiritwhichnodogmacanresistoncethewayispreparedforitsdownfall。