Although300Frenchand200Prussiansonlywerekilledinthisbattle，ithadverysignificantresults。Thefactthatanarmyreputedinvinciblehadbeenforcedtoretreatgaveboldnesstotheyoungrevolutionarytroops，andeverywheretheytooktheoffensive。InafewweeksthesoldiersofValmyhadchasedtheAustriansoutofBelgium，wheretheywerewelcomedasliberators。
　　ButitwasundertheConventionthatthewarassumedsuchimportance。Atthebeginningof1793theAssemblydeclaredthatBelgiumwasunitedtoFrance。FromthisresultedaconflictwithEnglandwhichlastedfortwenty—twoyears。
　　AssembledatAntwerpinApril，1793，therepresentativesofEngland，Prussia，andAustriaresolvedtodismemberFrance。ThePrussiansweretoseizeAlsaceandLorraine；theAustrians，FlandersandArtois；theEnglish，Dunkirk。TheAustrianambassadorproposedtocrushtheRevolutionbyterror，``byexterminatingpracticallythewholeofthepartydirectingthenation。’’InthefaceofsuchdeclarationsFrancehadperforcetoconquerortoperish。
　　Duringthisfirstcoalition，between1793and1797，Francehadtofightonallherfrontiers，fromthePyreneestothenorth。
　　Attheoutsetshelostherformerconquests，andsufferedseveralreverses。TheSpaniardstookPerpignanandBayonne；theEnglish，Toulon；andtheAustrians，Valenciennes。ItwasthenthattheConvention，towardstheendof1793，orderedagenerallevyofallFrenchmenbetweentheagesofeighteenandforty，andsucceededinsendingtothefrontiersatotalofsome750，000
　　men。Theoldregimentsoftheroyalarmywerecombinedwithbattalionsofvolunteersandconscripts。
　　Theallieswererepulsed，andMaubeugewasrelievedafterthevictoryofWattigny，whichwasgainedbyJourdan。HocherescuedLorraine。Francetooktheoffensive，reconqueringBelgiumandtheleftbankoftheRhine。JourdandefeatedtheAustriansatFleurus，drovethembackupontheRhine，andoccupiedCologneandCoblentz。Hollandwasinvaded。Thealliedsovereignsresignedthemselvestosuingforpeace，andrecognisedtheFrenchconquests。
　　ThesuccessesoftheFrenchwerefavouredbythefactthattheenemyneverputtheirwholeheartintotheaffair，astheywerepreoccupiedbythepartitionofPoland，whichtheyeffectedin1793—5。EachPowerwishedtobeonthespotinordertoobtainmoreterritory。ThismotivehadalreadycausedtheKingofPrussiatoretireafterthebattleofValmyin1792。
　　ThehesitationsofthealliesandtheirmutualdistrustwereextremelyadvantageoustotheFrench。HadtheAustriansmarcheduponParisinthesummerof1793，``weshould，’’saidGeneralThiebault，``havelostahundredtimesforone。Theyalonesavedus，bygivingustimetomakesoldiers，officers，andgenerals。’’
　　AfterthetreatyofBasle，FrancehadnoimportantadversariesontheContinent，savetheAustrians。ItwasthenthattheDirectoryattackedAustriainItaly。Bonapartewasentrustedwiththechargeofthiscampaign。Afterayearoffighting，fromApril，1796，toApril，1797，heforcedthelastenemiesofFrancetodemandpeace。
　　3。PsychologicalandMilitaryFactorswhichdeterminedtheSuccessoftheRevolutionaryArmies。
　　Torealisethecausesofthesuccessoftherevolutionaryarmieswemustremembertheprodigiousenthusiasm，endurance，andabnegationoftheseraggedandoftenbarefoottroops。Thoroughlysteepedinrevolutionaryprinciples，theyfeltthattheyweretheapostlesofanewreligion，whichwasdestinedtoregeneratetheworld。
　　ThehistoryofthearmiesoftheRevolutionrecallsthatofthenomadsofArabia，who，excitedtofanaticismbytheidealsofMohammed，weretransformedintoformidablearmieswhichrapidlyconqueredaportionoftheoldRomanworld。AnanalogousfaithendowedtheRepublicansoldierswithaheroismandintrepiditywhichneverfailedthem，andwhichnoreversecouldshakeWhentheConventiongaveplacetotheDirectorytheyhadliberatedthecountry，andhadcarriedawarofinvasionintotheenemy’sterritory。AtthisperiodthesoldiersweretheonlytrueRepublicansleftinFrance。
　　Faithiscontagious，andtheRevolutionwasregardedasanewera，sothatseveralofthenationsinvaded，oppressedbytheabsolutismoftheirmonarchs，welcomedtheinvadersasliberators。TheinhabitantsofSavoyranouttomeetthetroops。
　　AtMayencethecrowdwelcomedthemwithenthusiasmplantedtreesofliberty，andformedaConventioninimitationofthatofParis。
　　SolongasthearmiesoftheRevolutionhadtodealwithpeoplesbentundertheyokeofabsolutemonarchy，andhavingnopersonalidealtodefend，theirsuccesswasrelativelyeasy。Butwhentheyenteredintoconflictwithpeopleswhohadanidealasstrongastheirownvictorybecamefarmoredifficult。
　　Thenewidealoflibertyandequalitywascapableofseducingpeopleswhohadnopreciseconvictions，andweresufferingfromthedespotismoftheirmasters，butitwasnaturallypowerlessagainstthosewhopossessedapotentidealoftheirownwhichhadbeenlongestablishedintheirminds。ForthisreasonBretonsandVendeeans，whosereligiousandmonarchicalsentimentswereextremelypowerful，successfullystruggledforyearsagainstthearmiesoftheRepublic。
　　InMarch，1793，theinsurrectionsoftheVendeeandBrittanyhadspreadtotendepartments。TheVendeeansinPoitouandtheChouansinBrittanyput80，000meninthefield。
　　Theconflictsbetweencontraryideals——thatis，betweenbeliefsinwhichreasoncanplaynopart——arealwayspitiless，andthestrugglewiththeVendeeimmediatelyassumedtheferocioussavageryalwaysobservableinreligiouswars。Itlasteduntiltheendof1795，whenHochefinally``pacified’’thecountry。
　　Thispacificationwasthesimpleresultofthepracticalexterminationofitsdefenders。
　　``Aftertwoyearsofcivilwar，’’writesMolinari，``theVendeewasnomorethanahideousheapofruins。About900，000individuals——men，women，children，andagedpeople——hadperished，andthesmallnumberofthosewhohadescapedmassacrecouldscarcelyfindfoodorshelter。Thefieldsweredevastated，thehedgesandwallsdestroyed，andthehousesburned。’’
　　Besidestheirfaith，whichsooftenrenderedtheminvincible，thesoldiersoftheRevolutionhadusuallytheadvantageofbeingledbyremarkablegenerals，fullofardourandformedonthebattle—
　　field。
　　Themajorityoftheformerleadersofthearmy，beingnobles，hademigratedsothatanewbodyofofficershadtobeorganised。
　　Theresultwasthatthosegiftedwithinnatemilitaryaptitudeshadachanceofshowingthem，andpassedthroughallthegradesofrankinafewmonths。Hoche，forinstance，acorporalin1789，wasageneralofdivisionandcommanderofanarmyattheageoftwenty—five。Theextremeyouthoftheseleadersresultedinaspiritofaggressiontowhichthearmiesopposedtothemwerenotaccustomed。Selectedonlyaccordingtomerit，andhamperedbynotraditions，noroutine，theyquicklysucceededinworkingoutatacticssuitedtothenewnecessities。
　　Ofsoldierswithoutexperienceopposedtoseasonedprofessionaltroops，drilledandtrainedaccordingtothemethodsinuseeverywheresincetheSevenYears’War，onecouldnotexpectcomplicatedmanoeuvres。
　　Attacksweredeliveredsimplybygreatmassesoftroops。Thankstothenumbersofthemenatthedisposaloftheirgenerals，theconsiderablegapsprovokedbythisefficaciousbutbarbarousprocedurecouldberapidlyfilled。
　　Deepmassesofmenattackedtheenemywiththebayonet，andquicklyroutedmenaccustomedtomethodswhichweremorecarefulofthelivesofsoldiers。TheslowrateoffireinthosedaysrenderedtheFrenchtacticsrelativelyeasyofemployment。Ittriumphed，butatthecostofenormouslosses。Ithasbeencalculatedthatbetween1792and1800theFrencharmyleftmorethanathirdofitseffectiveforceonthebattle—field（700，000
　　menoutof2，000，000）。
　　Examiningeventsfromapsychologicalpointofview，weshallcontinuetoelicittheconsequencesfromthefactsonwhichtheyareconsequent。
　　AstudyoftherevolutionarycrowdsinParisandinthearmiespresentsverydifferentbutreadilyinterpretedpictures。
　　Wehaveprovedthatcrowds，unabletoreason，obeysimplytheirimpulses，whicharealwayschanging，butwehavealsoseenthattheyarereadilycapableofheroism，thattheiraltruismisoftenhighlydeveloped，andthatitiseasytofindthousandsofmenreadytogivetheirlivesforabelief。
　　Psychologicalcharacteristicssodiversemustnaturally，accordingtothecircumstances，leadtodissimilarandevenabsolutelycontradictoryactions。ThehistoryoftheConventionanditsarmiesprovesasmuch。ItshowsuscrowdscomposedofsimilarelementsactingsodifferentlyinParisandonthefrontiersthatonecanhardlybelievethesamepeoplecanbeinquestion。
　　InParisthecrowdsweredisorderly，violent，murderous，andsochangeableintheirdemandsastomakeallgovernmentimpossible。
　　Inthearmiesthepicturewasentirelydifferent。Thesamemultitudesofunaccustomedmen，restrainedbytheorderlyelementsofalaboriouspeasantpopulation，standardisedbymilitarydiscipline，andinspiredbycontagiousenthusiasm，heroicallysupportedprivations，disdainedperils，andcontributedtoformthatfabulousstrainwhichtriumphedoverthemostredoubtabletroopsinEurope。
　　Thesefactsareamongthosewhichshouldalwaysbeinvokedtoshowtheforceofdiscipline。Ittransformsmen。Liberatedfromitsinfluence，peoplesandarmiesbecomebarbarianhordes。
　　Thistruthisdailyandincreasinglyforgotten。Ignoringthefundamentallawsofcollectivelogic，wegivewaymoreandmoretoshiftingpopularimpulses，insteadoflearningtodirectthem。
　　Themultitudemustbeshowntheroadtofollow；itisnotforthemtochooseit。
　　CHAPTERVII
　　PSYCHOLOGYOFTHELEADERSOFTHEREVOLUTION
　　1。MentalityoftheMenoftheRevolution。TherespectiveInfluenceofViolentandFeebleCharacters。
　　Menjudgewiththeirintelligence，andareguidedbytheircharacters。Tounderstandamanfullyonemustseparatethesetwoelements。
　　Duringthegreatperiodsofactivity——andtherevolutionarymovementsnaturallybelongtosuchperiods——characteralwaystakesthefirstrank。
　　Havinginseveralchaptersdescribedthevariousmentalitieswhichpredominateintimesofdisturbance，weneednotreturntothesubjectnow。Theyconstitutegeneraltypeswhicharenaturallymodifiedbyeachman’sinheritedandacquiredpersonality。
　　WehaveseenwhatanimportantpartwasplayedbythemysticelementintheJacobinmentality，andtheferociousfanaticismtowhichitledthesectariesofthenewfaith。
　　WehavealsoseenthatallthemembersoftheAssemblieswerenotfanatics。Theselatterwereevenintheminority，sinceinthemostsanguinaryoftherevolutionaryassembliesthegreatmajoritywascomposedoftimidandmoderatemenofneutralcharacter。BeforeThermidorthemembersofthisgroupvotedfromfearwiththeviolentandafterThermidorwiththemoderatedeputies。
　　Intimeofrevolution，asatothertimes，theseneutralcharacters，obeyingthemostcontraryimpulses，arealwaysthemostnumerous。Theyarealsoasdangerousinrealityastheviolentcharacters。Theforceofthelatterissupportedbytheweaknessoftheformer。
　　Inallrevolutions，andinparticularlyintheFrenchRevolution，weobserveasmallminorityofnarrowbutdecidedmindswhichimperiouslydominateanimmensemajorityofmenwhoareoftenveryintelligentbutarelackingincharacterBesidesthefanaticalapostlesandthefeeblecharacters，arevolutionalwaysproducesindividualswhomerelythinkhowtoprofitthereby。ThesewerenumerousduringtheFrenchRevolution。Theiraimwassimplytoutilisecircumstancessoastoenrichthemselves。SuchwereBarras，Tallien，Fouche，Barrere，andmanymore。Theirpoliticsconsistedsimplyinservingthestrongagainsttheweak。
　　FromtheoutsetoftheRevolutionthese``arrivists，’’asonewouldcallthemto—day，werenumerous。CamilleDesmoulinswrotein1792：``OurRevolutionhasitsrootsonlyintheegotismandself—loveofeachindividual，ofthecombinationofwhichthegeneralinterestiscomposed。’’
　　Ifweaddtotheseindicationstheobservationscontainedinanotherchapterconcerningthevariousformsofmentalitytobeobservedintimesofpoliticalupheaval，weshallobtainageneralideaofthecharacterofthemenoftheRevolution。Weshallnowapplytheprinciplesalreadyexpoundedtothemostremarkablepersonagesoftherevolutionaryperiod。
　　2。PsychologyoftheCommissariesorRepresentatives``onMission。’’
　　InParistheconductofthemembersoftheConventionwasalwaysdirected，restrained，orexcitedbytheactionoftheircolleagues，andthatoftheirenvironment。
　　Tojudgethemproperlyweshouldobservethemwhenlefttothemselvesanduncontrolled，whentheypossessedfullliberty。
　　Suchweretherepresentativeswhoweresent``onmission’’intothedepartmentsbytheConvention。
　　Thepowerofthesedelegateswasabsolute。Nocensureembarrassedthem。Functionariesandmagistrateshadperforcetoobeythem。
　　Arepresentative``onmission’’``requisitions，’’sequestrates，orconfiscatesasseemsgoodtohim；taxes，imprisons，deports，ordecapitatesashethinksfit，andinhisowndistrictheisa’’pasha。’’
　　Regardingthemselvesas``pashas，’’theydisplayedthemselves``drawnincarriageswithsixhorses，surroundedbyguards；
　　sittingatsumptuoustableswiththirtycovers，eatingtothesoundofmusic，withafollowingofplayers，courtezans，andmercenaries……’’AtLyons``thesolemnappearanceofCollotd’HerboisislikethatoftheGrandTurk。Noonecancomeintohispresencewithoutthreerepeatedrequests；astringofapartmentsprecedeshisreception—room，andnooneapproachesnearerthanfifteenpaces。’’
　　Onecanpicturetheimmensevanityofthesedictatorsastheysolemnlyenteredthetowns，surroundedbyguards，menwhosegesturewasenoughtocauseheadstofall。
　　Pettylawyerswithoutclients，doctorswithoutpatients，unfrockedclergymen，obscureattorneys，whohadformerlyknownthemostcolourlessoflives，weresuddenlymadetheequalsofthemostpowerfultyrantsofhistory。Guillotining，drowning，shootingwithoutmercy，atthehazardoftheirfancy，theywereraisedfromtheirformerhumbleconditiontothelevelofthemostcelebratedpotentates。
　　NeverdidNeroorHeliogabalussurpassintyrannytherepresentativesoftheConvention。Lawsandcustomsalwaysrestrainedtheformertoacertainextent。Nothingrestrainedthecommissaries。
　　``Fouche，’’writesTaine，``lorgnetteinhand，watchedthebutcheryof210inhabitantsofLyonsfromhiswindow。Collot，Laporte，andFouchefeastedondaysofexecution（fusillades），andatthesoundofeachdischargesprangupwithcriesofjoy，wavingtheirhats。’’
　　Amongtherepresentatives``onmission’’whoexhibitthismurderousmentalitywemayciteasatypetheex—cureLebon，who，havingbecomepossessedofsupremepower，ravagedArrasandCambrai。Hisexample，withthatofCarrier，contributestoshowwhatmancanbecomewhenheescapesfromtheyokeoflawandtradition。ThecrueltyoftheferociouscommissarywascomplicatedbySadism；thescaffoldwasraisedunderhiswindows，sothathe，hiswife，andhishelperscouldrejoiceinthecarnage。Atthefootoftheguillotineadrinking—boothwasestablishedwherethesans—culottescouldcometodrink。
　　Toamusethemtheexecutionerwouldgrouponthepavement，inridiculousattitudes，thenakedbodiesofthedecapitated。
　　``Thereadingofthetwovolumesofhistrial，printedatAmiensin1795，maybecountedasanightmare。DuringtwentysessionsthesurvivorsofthehecatombsofArrasandCambraipassedthroughtheancienthallofthebailiwickatAmiens，wheretheex—memberoftheConventionwastried。Whatthesephantomsinmourningrelatedisunheardof。Entirestreetsdispeopled；
　　nonagenariansandgirlsofsixteendecapitatedafteramockeryofatrial；deathbuffeted，insulted，adorned，rejoicedin；
　　executionstomusic；battalionsofchildrenrecruitedtoguardthescaffold；thedebauchery，thecynicism，therefinementsofaninsanesatrap；aromancebySadeturnedepic；itseems，aswewatchtheunpackingofthesehorrors，thatawholecountry，longterrorised，isatlastdisgorgingitsterrorandrevengingitselfforitscowardicebyoverwhelmingthewretchthere，thescapegoatofanabhorredandvanishedsystem。’’
　　Theonlydefenceoftheex—clergymanwasthathehadobeyedorders。Thefactswithwhichhewasreproachedhadlongbeenknown，andtheConventionhadinnowiseblamedhimforthem。
　　Ihavealreadyspokenofthevanityofthedeputies``onmission，’’whoweresuddenlyendowedwithapowergreaterthanthatofthemostpowerfuldespots；butthisvanityisnotenoughtoexplaintheirferocity。
　　Thatarosefromothersources。Apostlesofaseverefaith，thedelegatesoftheConvention，liketheinquisitorsoftheHolyOffice，couldfeel，canhavefelt，nopityfortheirvictims。
　　Freed，moreover，fromallthebondsoftraditionandlaw，theycouldgivereintothemostsavageinstinctsthatprimitiveanimalityhasleftinus。
　　Civilisationrestrainstheseinstincts，buttheyneverdie。Theneedtokillwhichmakesthehunterisapermanentproofofthis。
　　M。Cunisset—Carnothasexpressedinthefollowinglinesthegripofthishereditarytendency，which，inthepursuitofthemostharmlessgame，re—awakensthebarbarianineveryhunter：——
　　``Thepleasureofkillingforkilling’ssakeis，onemaysay，universal；itisthebasisofthehuntinginstinct，foritmustbeadmittedthatatpresent，incivilisedcountries，theneedtolivenolongercountsforanythinginitspropagation。Inrealitywearecontinuinganactionwhichwasimperiouslyimposeduponoursavageancestorsbytheharshnecessitiesofexistence，duringwhichtheyhadeithertokillordieofhunger，whileto—
　　daythereisnolongeranylegitimateexcuseforit。Butsoitis，andwecandonothing；probablyweshallneverbreakthechainsofaslaverywhichhasboundusforsolong。Wecannotpreventourselvesfromfeelinganintense，oftenpassionate，pleasureinsheddingthebloodofanimalstowardswhom，whentheloveofthechasepossessesus，weloseallfeelingofpity。Thegentlestandprettiestcreatures，thesong—birds，thecharmofourspringtime，falltoourgunsorarechokedinoursnares，andnotashudderofpitytroublesourpleasureatseeingthemterrified，bleeding，writhinginthehorriblesufferingweinflictonthem，seekingtofleeontheirpoorbrokenpawsordesperatelybeatingtheirwings，whichcannolongersupportthem……Theexcuseistheimpulseofthatimperiousatavismwhichthebestofushavenotthestrengthtoresist。’’
　　Atordinarytimesthissingularatavism，restrainedbyfearofthelaws，canonlybeexercisedonanimals。Whencodesarenolongeroperativeitimmediatelyappliesitselftoman，whichiswhysomanyterroriststookanintensepleasureinkilling。
　　Carrier’sremarkconcerningthejoyhefeltincontemplatingthefacesofhisvictimsduringtheirtormentisverytypical。Inmanycivilisedmenferocityisarestrainedinstinct，butitisbynomeanseliminated。
　　3。DantonandRobespierre。
　　DantonandRobespierrerepresentedthetwoprincipalpersonagesoftheRevolution。Ishallsaylittleoftheformer：hispsychology，besidesbeingsimple，isfamiliar。Acluboratorfirstly，impulsiveandviolent，heshowedhimselfalwaysreadytoexcitethepeople。Cruelonlyinhisspeeches，heoftenregrettedtheireffects。Fromtheoutsetheshoneinthefirstrank，whilehisfuturerival，Robespierre，wasvegetatingalmostinthelowest。
　　AtonegivenmomentDantonbecamethesouloftheRevolution，buthewasdeficientintenacityandfixityofconduct。Moreover，hewasneedy，whileRobespierrewasnot。Thecontinuousfanaticismofthelatterdefeatedtheintermittenteffortsoftheformer。
　　Nevertheless，itwasanamazingspectacletoseesopowerfulatribunesenttothescaffoldbyhispale，venemousenemyandmediocrerival。
　　Robespierre，themostinfluentialmanoftheRevolutionandthemostfrequentlystudied，isyettheleastexplicable。Itisdifficulttounderstandtheprodigiousinfluencewhichgavehimthepoweroflifeanddeath，notonlyovertheenemiesoftheRevolutionbutalsoovercolleagueswhocouldnothavebeenconsideredasenemiesoftheexistingGovernment。
　　WecertainlycannotexplainthematterbysayingwithTainethatRobespierrewasapedantlostinabstractions，norbyassertingwiththeMicheletthathesucceededonaccountofhisprinciples，norbyrepeatingwithhiscontemporaryWilliamsthat``oneofthesecretsofhisgovernmentwastotakemenmarkedbyopprobriumorsoiledwithcrimeasstepping—stonestohisambition。’’
　　Itisimpossibletoregardhiseloquenceasthecauseofhissuccess。Hiseyesprotectedbygoggles，hepainfullyreadhisspeeches，whichwerecomposedofcoldandindefiniteabstractions。TheAssemblycontainedoratorswhopossessedanimmenselysuperiortalent，suchasDantonandtheGirondists；yetitwasRobespierrewhodestroyedthem。
　　Wehavereallynoacceptableexplanationoftheascendancywhichthedictatorfinallyobtained。WithoutinfluenceintheNationalAssembly，hegraduallybecamethemasteroftheConventionandoftheJacobins。``WhenhereachedtheCommitteeofPublicSafetyhewasalready，’’saidBillaud—Varennes，``themostimportantpersoninFrance。’’
　　``Hishistory，’’writesMichelet，``isprodigious，farmoremarvellousthanthatofBonaparte。Thethreads，thewheels，thepreparationofforces，arefarlessvisible。Itisanhonestman，anausterebutpiousfigure，ofmiddlingtalents，thatshootsuponemorning，borneupwardbyIknownotwhatcataclysm。
　　ThereisnothinglikeitintheArabianNights。Andinamomenthegoeshigherthanthethrone。Heissetuponthealtar。
　　Astonishingstory！’’
　　Certainlycircumstanceshelpedhimconsiderably。Peopleturnedtohimastothemasterofwhomallfelttheneed。Butthenhewasalreadythere，andwhatwewishtodiscoveristhecauseofhisrapidascent。Iwouldwillinglysupposeinhimtheexistenceofaspeciesofpersonalfascinationwhichescapesusto—day。
　　Hissuccesseswithwomenmightbequotedinsupportofthistheory。Onthedayswhenhespeaks``thepassagesarechokedwithwomen……therearesevenoreighthundredinthetribunes，andwithwhattransportstheyapplaud！AttheJacobins，whenhespeakstherearesobsandcriesofemotion，andmenstampasthoughtheywouldbringthehalldown。’’Ayoungwidow，Mme。deChalabre，possessedofsixteenhundredpoundsayear，sendshimburninglove—lettersandiseagertomarryhim。
　　Wecannotseekinhischaracterforthecausesofhispopularity。
　　Ahypochondriacbytemperament，ofmediocreintelligence，incapableofgraspingrealities，confinedtoabstractions，craftyanddissimulating，hisprevailingnotewasanexcessivepridewhichincreaseduntilhislastday。Highpriestofanewfaith，hebelievedhimselfsentonearthbyGodtoestablishthereignofvirtue。Hereceivedwritingsstating``thathewastheMessiahwhomtheEternalBeinghadpromisedtoreformtheworld。’’
　　Fullofliterarypretensions，helaboriouslypolishedhisspeeches。Hisprofoundjealousyofotheroratorsormenofletters，suchasCamilleDesmoulins，causedtheirdeath。
　　``Thosewhowereparticularlytheobjectsofthetyrant’srage，’’
　　writestheauthoralreadycited，``werethemenofletters。Withregardtothemthejealousyofacolleaguewasmingledwiththefuryoftheoppressor；forthehatredwithwhichhepersecutedthemwascausedlessbytheirresistancetohisdespotismthanbytheirtalents，whicheclipsedhis。’’
　　Thecontemptofthedictatorforhiscolleagueswasimmenseandalmostunconcealed。GivingaudiencetoBarrasatthehourofhistoilet，hefinishedshaving，spittinginthedirectionofhiscolleagueasthoughhedidnotexist，anddisdainingtoreplytohisquestions。
　　Heregardedthebourgeoisieandthedeputieswiththesamehatefuldisdain。Onlythemultitudefoundgraceinhiseyes。
　　``Whenthesovereignpeopleexercisesitspower，’’hesaid，``wecanonlybowbeforeit。Inallitdoesallisvirtueandtruth，andnoexcess，error，orcrimeispossible。’’
　　Robespierresufferedfromthepersecutionmania。Thathehadothers’headscutoffwasnotonlybecausehehadamissionasanapostle，butbecausehebelievedhimselfhemmedinbyenemiesandconspirators。``Greataswasthecowardiceofhiscolleagueswherehewasconcerned，’’writesM。Sorel，``thefearhehadofthemwasstillgreater。’’