Theonlydrawbacktothismethodisthatwhenhecomestoexamineasingleoneofthesephases，M。Proudhoncannotexplainitwithouthavingrecoursetoalltheotherrelationsofsociety;whichrelations，however，hehasnotyetmadehisdialecticmovementengender。When，afterthat，M。Proudhon，bemeansofpurereason，proceedstogivebirthtotheseotherphases，hetreatsthemasiftheywerenew—bornbabes。Heforgetsthattheyareofthesameageasthefirst。
Thus，toarriveattheconstitutionofvalue，whichforhimisthebasisofalleconomicevolutions，hecouldnotdowithoutdivisionoflabor，competition，etc。Yetintheseries，intheunderstandofM。
Proudhon，inthelogicalsequence，theserelationsdidnotexist。
Inconstructingtheedificeofanideologicalsystembymeansofthecategoriesofpoliticaleconomy，thelimbsofthesocialsystemaredislocated。Thedifferentlimbsofsocietyareconvertedintosomanyseparatesocieties，followingoneupontheother。How，indeed，couldthesinglelogicalformulaofmovement，ofsequence，oftime，explainthestructureofsociety，inwhichallrelationscoexistsimultaneouslyandsupportoneanother？
FourthObservationLetusseenowtowhatmodificationsM。ProudhonsubjectsHegel’sdialecticswhenheappliesittopoliticaleconomy。
Forhim，M。Proudhon，everyeconomiccategoryhastwosides——
onegood，theotherbad。Helooksuponthesecategoriesasthepettybourgeoislooksuponthegreatmenofhistory：Napoleonwasagreatman;hedidalotofgood;healsodidalotofharm。
Thegoodsideandthebadside，theadvantagesanddrawbacks，takentogetherformforM。Proudhonthecontradictionineveryeconomiccategory。
Theproblemtobesolved：tokeepthegoodside，whileeliminatingthebad。
Slaveryisaneconomiccategorylikeanyother。Thusitalsohasitstwosides。letusleavealonethebadsideandtalkaboutthegoodsideofslavery。Needlesstosay，wearedealingonlywithdirectslavery，withNegroslaveryinSurinam，inBrazil，intheSouthernStatesofNorthAmerica。
Directslaveryisjustasmuchthepivotofbourgeoisindustryasmachinery，credits，etc。Withoutslaveryyouhavenocotton;withoutcottonyouhavenomodernindustry。Itisslaverythatgavethecoloniestheirvalue;itisthecoloniesthatcreatedworldtrade，anditisworldtradethatisthepreconditionoflarge—scaleindustry。Thusslaveryisaneconomiccategoryofthegreatestimportance。
WithoutslaveryNorthAmerica，themostprogressiveofcountries，wouldbetransformedintoapatriarchalcountry。WipeNorthAmericaoffthemapoftheworld，andyouwillhaveanarchy——thecompletedecayofmoderncommerceandcivilization。CauseslaverytodisappearandyouwillhavewipedAmericaoffthemapofnations。
[NOTEbyEngelsto1885Germanedition：Thiswasperfectlycorrectfortheyear1847[whenMarxwrotetheselines]。AtthattimetheworldtradeoftheUnitedStatewaslimitedmainlytoimportofimmigrantsandindustrialproducts，andexportofcottonandtobacco，i。e。，oftheproductsofsouthernslavelabor。TheNorthernStatesproducedmainlycornandmeatfortheslavestates。ItwasonlywhentheNorthproducedcornandmeatforexportandalsobecameanindustrialcountry，andwhentheAmericancottonmonopolyhadtofacepowerfulcompetition，inIndia，Egypt，Brazil，etc。，thattheabolitionofslaverybecamepossible。AndeventhenthisledtotheruinoftheSouth，whichdidnotsucceedinreplacingtheopenNegroslaverybythedisguisedslaveryisIndianandChinesecoolies。]
Thusslavery，becauseitisaneconomiccategory，hasalwaysexistedamongtheinstitutionsofthepeoples。Modernnationshavebeenableonlytodisguiseslaveryintheirowncountries，buttheyhaveimposeditwithoutdisguiseupontheNewWorld。
WhatwouldM。Proudhondotosaveslavery？Hewouldformulatetheproblemthus：preservethegoodsideofthiseconomiccategory，eliminatethebad。
Hegelhasnoproblemstoformulate。Hehasonlydialectics。M。
ProudhonhasnothingofHegel’sdialecticsbutthelanguage。forhimthedialecticmovementisthedogmaticdistinctionbetweengoodandbad。
LetusforamomentconsiderM。Proudhonhimselfasacategory。
Letusexaminehisgoodandbadside，hisadvantagesandhisdrawbacks。
IfhehastheadvantageoverHegelofsettingproblemswhichhereservestherightofsolvingforthegreatergoodofhumanity，hehasthedrawbackofbeingstrickenwithsterilitywhenitisaquestionofengenderinganewcategorybydialecticalbirth—throes。Whatconstitutesdialecticalmovementisthecoexistenceoftwocontradictorysides，theirconflictandtheirfusionintoanewcategory。Theverysettingoftheproblemofeliminatingthebadsidecutsshortthedialecticmovement。
Itisnotthecategorywhichisposedandopposedtoitself，byitscontradictorynature，itisM。Proudhonwhogetsexcited，perplexedandfretsandfumesbetweenthetwosidesofthecategory。
Caughtthusinablindalley，fromwhichitisdifficulttoescapebylegalmeans，M。Proudhontakesarealflyingleapwhichtransportshimatoneboundintoanewcategory。Thenitisthat，tohisastonishedgaze，isrevealedtheserialrelationintheunderstanding。
Hetakesthefirstcategorythatcomeshandyandattributestoitarbitrarilythequalityofsupplyingaremedyforthedrawbacksofthecategorytobepurified。Thus，ifwearetobelieveM。Proudhon，taxesremedythedrawbacksofmonopoly;thebalanceoftrade，thedrawbacksoftaxes;landedproperty，thedrawbacksofcredit。
Bytakingtheeconomiccategoriesthussuccessively，onebyone，andmakingonetheantidotetotheother，M。Proudhonmanagestomakewiththismixtureofcontradictionsandantidotestocontradictions，twovolumesofcontradictions，whichherightlyentitles：TheSystemofEconomicContradictions。
FifthObservation"Intheabsolutereasonalltheseideas……areequallysimple，andgeneral……Infact，weattainknowledgeonlybyasortofscaffoldingofourideas。Buttruthinitselfisindependentofthesedialecticalsymbolsandfreedfromthecombinationsofourminds。"
（Proudhon，Vol。II，p。97）
Hereallofasudden，byakindofswitch—overofwhichwenowknowthesecret，themetaphysicsofpoliticaleconomyhasbecomeanillusion！NeverhasM。Proudhonspokenmoretruly。Indeed，fromthemomenttheprocessofthedialecticmovementisreducedtothesimpleprocessofopposinggoodtobad，andofadministeringonecategoryasanantidotetoanother，thecategoriesaredeprivedofallspontaneity;theidea"ceasestofunction";
thereisnolifeleftinit。Itisnolongerposedordecomposedintocategories。
Thesequenceofcategorieshasbecomeasortofscaffolding。Dialecticshasceasedtobethemovementofabsolutereason。Thereisnolongeranydialecticsbutonly，atthemost，absolutelypuremorality。
WhenM。Proudhonspokeoftheseriesintheunderstanding，ofthelogicalsequenceofcategories，hedeclaredpositivelythathedidnotwanttogivehistoryaccordingtotheorderintime，thatis，inM。
Proudhon’sview，thehistoricalsequenceinwhichthecategorieshavemanifestedthemselves。Thusforhimeverythinghappenedinthepureetherofreason。
Everythingwastobederivedfromthisetherbymeansofdialectics。Nowthathehastoputthisdialecticsintopractice，hisreasonisindefault。
M。Proudhon’sdialecticsrunscountertoHegel’sdialectics，andnowwehaveM。Proudhonreducedtosayingthattheorderinwhichhegivestheeconomiccategoriesisnolongertheorderinwhichtheyengenderoneanother。Economicevolutionsarenolongertheevolutionsofreasonitself。
WhatthendoesM。Proudhongiveus？Realhistory，whichis，accordingtoM。Proudhon’sunderstanding，thesequenceinwhichthecategorieshavemanifestedthemselvesinorderoftime？No！Historyasittakeplaceintheideaitself？Stillless！Thatis，neithertheprofanehistoryofcategories，northeirsacredhistory！Whathistorydoeshegiveusthen？Thehistoryofhisowncontradictions。Letusseehowtheygo，andhowtheydragM。
Proudhonintheirtrain。
Beforeenteringuponthisexamination，whichgivesrisetothesixthimportantobservation，wehaveyetanother，lessimportantobservationtomake。
LetusadmitwithM。Proudhonthatrealhistory，historyaccordingtotheorderintime，isthehistoricalsequenceinwhichideas，categoriesandprincipleshavemanifestedthemselves。
Eachprinciplehashaditsowncenturyinwhichtomanifestitself。
Theprincipleofauthority，forexample，hadthe11thcentury，justastheprincipleofindividualismhadthe18thcentury。Inlogicalsequence，itwasthecenturythatbelongedtotheprinciple，andnottheprinciplewhichbelongedtothecentury。When，consequently，inordertosaveprinciplesasmuchastosavehistory，weaskourselveswhyaparticularprinciplewasmanifestedinthe11thcenturyorinthe18thcenturyratherthaninanyother，wearenecessarilyforcedtoexamineminutelywhatmenwerelikeinthe11thcentury，whattheywerelikeinthe18th，whatweretheirrespectiveneeds，theirproductiveforces，theirmodeofproduction，therawmaterialsoftheirproduction——inshort，whatweretherelationsbetweenmanandmanwhichresultedfromalltheseconditionsofexistence。
Togettothebottomofallthesequestions——whatisthisbuttodrawupthereal，profanehistoryofmenineverycenturyandtopresentthesemenasboththeauthorsandtheactorsoftheirowndrama？Butthemomentyoupresentmenastheactorsandauthorsoftheirownhistory，youarrive——bydetour——attherealstartingpoint，becauseyouhaveabandonedthoseeternalprinciplesofwhichyouspokeattheoutset。
M。Proudhonhasnotevengonefarenoughalongthecrossroadwhichanideologisttakestoreachthemainroadofhistory。
SixthObservationLetustakethecrossroadwithM。Proudhon。
Weshallconcedethateconomicrelations，viewedasimmutablelaws，eternalprinciples，idealcategories，existedbeforeactiveandenergeticmendid;weshallconcedefurtherthattheselaws，principlesandcategorieshad，sincethebeginningoftime，slumbered"intheimpersonalreasonofhumanity"。Wehavealreadyseenthat，withallthesechangelessandmotionlesseternities，thereisnohistoryleft;thereisatmosthistoryintheidea，thatis，historyreflectedinthedialecticmovementofpurereason。M。
Proudhon，bysayingthat，inthedialecticmovementideasarenolongerdifferentiated，hasdoneawaywithboththeshadowofmovementandthemovementofshadows，bymeansofwhichonecouldstillhavecreatedatleastasemblanceofhistory。Insteadofthat，heimputestohistoryhisownimpotence。Helaystheblameoneverything，eventheFrenchlanguage。
"Itisnotcorrectthen，"saysM。Proudhon，thephilosopher，"tosaythatsomethingappears，thatsomethingisproduced：incivilizationasintheuniverse，everythinghasexisted，hasacted，frometernity。Thisappliestothewholeofsocialeconomy。"
（Vol。II，p。102）
SogreatistheproductiveforceofthecontradictionswhichfunctionandwhichmadeM。Proudhonfunction，that，intryingtoexplainhistory，heisforcedtodenyit;intryingtoexplainthesuccessiveappearanceofsocialrelations，hedeniesthatanythingcanappear：intryingtoexplainproduction，withallitsphases，hequestionswhetheranythingcanbeproduced！
Thus，forM。Proudhon，thereisnolongeranyhistory：nolongeranysequenceofideas。Andyethisbooktillexists;anditispreciselythatbookwhichis，tousehisownexpression，"historyaccordingtothesequenceofideas"。Howshallwefindaformula，forM。Proudhonisamanofformulas，tohelphimtoclearallthesecontradictionsinoneleap？
Tothisendhehasinventedanewreason，whichisneitherthepureandvirginabsolutereason，northecommonreasonofmenlivingandactingindifferentperiods，butareasonquiteapart——thereasonoftheperson，Society——ofthesubject，Humanity——whichunderthepenofM。Proudhonfiguresattimesalsoassocialgenius，generalreason，orfinallyashumanreason。Thisreason，deckedoutundersomanynames，betraysitselfnevertheless，ateverymoment，astheindividualreasonofM。Proudhon，withitsgoodanditsbadside，itsantidotesanditsproblems。
"Humanreasondoesnotcreatetruth"，hiddeninthedepthsofabsolute，eternalreason。Itcanonlyunveilit。Butsuchtruthsasithasunveileduptonowareincomplete，insufficient，andconsequentlycontradictory。
Hence，economiccategories，beingthemselvestruthsdiscovered，revealedbyhumanreason，bysocialgenius，areequallyincompleteandcontainwithinthemselvesthegermofcontradictions。beforeM。Proudhon，socialgeniussawonlytheantagonisticelements，andnotthesyntheticformula，bothhiddensimultaneouslyinabsolutereason。Economicrelations，whichmerelyrealizeonearththeseinsufficienttruths，theseincompleteideas，areconsequentlycontradictoryinthemselves，andpresenttwosides，onegood，theotherbad。
Tofindcompletetruth，theidea，inallitsfullness，thesyntheticformulathatistoannihilatethecontradiction，thisistheproblemofsocialgenius。Thisagainiswhy，inM。Proudhon’sillusion，thissamesocialgeniushasbeenharriedfromonecategorytoanotherwithouteverhavingbeenable，despiteallitsbatteryofcategories，tosnatchfromGodorfromabsolutereason，asyntheticformula。
"Atfirst，society（socialgenius）statesaprimaryfact，putsforwardahypothesis……averitableantinomy，whoseantagonisticresultsdevelopinthesocialeconomyinthesamewayasitsconsequencescouldhavebeendeducedinthemind;sothatindustrialmovement，followinginallthingsthedeductionofideas，splitsupintotwocurrents，oneofusefuleffects，theotherofsubversiveresults。Tobringharmonyintotheconstitutionofthistwo—sideprinciple，andtosolvethisantinomy，societygivesrisetoasecond，whichwillsoonbefollowedbyathird;andprogressofsocialgeniuswilltakeplaceinthismanner，until，havingexhaustedallitscontradictions——Isuppose，butitisnotprovedthatthereisalimittohumancontradictions——itreturnsinoneleaptoallitsformerpositionsandwithasingleformulasolvesallitsproblems。"
（Vol。Ip。133）
Justtheasantithesiswasbeforeturnedintoanantidote，sonowthethesisbecomesahypothesis。Thischangeofterms，comingfromM。Proudhon，hasnolongeranythingsurprisingforus！Humanreason，whichisanythingbutpure，havingonlyincompletevision，encountersateverystepnewproblemstobesolved。Everynewthesiswhichitdiscoversinabsolutereasonandwhichisthenegationofthefirstthesis，becomesforitasynthesis，whichitacceptsrathernaivelyasthesolutionoftheprobleminquestion。
Itisthusthatthisreasonfretsandfumesineverrenewingcontradictionsuntil，comingtotheendofthecontradictions，itperceivesthatallitsthesesandsynthesesaremerelycontradictoryhypotheses。Initsperplexity，"humanreason，socialgenius，returnsinoneleaptoallitsformerpositions，andinasingleformula，solvesallitsproblems"。Thisuniqueformula，bytheway，constitutesM。Proudhon’struediscovery。Itisconstitutedvalue。
HypothesesaremadeonlyinviewofacertainaiM。Theaimthatsocialgenius，speakingthroughthemouthofM。Proudhon，setitselfinthefirstplace，wastoeliminatethebadineveryeconomiccategory，inordertohavenothingleftbutthegood。Forit，thegood，thesupremewell—being，therealpracticalaim，isequality。Andwhydidthesocialgeniusaimatequalityratherthaninequality，fraternity，catholicism，oranyotherprinciple？Because"humanityhassuccessivelyrealizedsomanyseparatehypothesesonlyinviewofasuperiorhypothesis"，whichpreciselyisequality。Inotherwords：becauseequalityisM。Proudhon’sideal。Heimaginesthatthedivisionoflabor，credit，theworkshop——
alleconomicrelations——wereinventedmerelyforthebenefitofequality，andyettheyalwaysendedupbyturningagainstit。SincehistoryandthefictionofM。Proudhoncontradicteachotherateverystep，thelatterconcludesthatthereisacontradiction。Ifthereisacontradiction，itexistsonlybetweenhisfixedideaandrealmovement。
Henceforth，thegoodsideofaneconomicrelationisthatwhichaffirmsequality;thebadside，thatwhichnegatesitandaffirmsinequality。
Everynewcategoryisahypothesisofthesocialgeniustoeliminatetheinequalityengenderedbytheprecedinghypothesis。Inshort，equalityistheprimordialintention，themysticaltendency，theprovidentialaimthatthesocialgeniushasconstantlybeforeitseyesasitwhirlsinthecircleofeconomiccontradictions。Thus，ProvidenceisthelocomotivewhichmakesthewholeofM。Proudhon’seconomicbaggagemovebetterthanhispureandvolatizedreason。HehasdevotedtoProvidenceawholechapter，whichfollowstheoneontaxes。
Providence，providentialaim，thisisthegreatwordusedtodaytoexplainthemovementofhistory。Infact，thiswordexplainsnothing。
Itisatmostarhetoricalform，oneofthevariouswaysofparaphrasingfacts。
ItisafactthatinScotlandlandedpropertyacquiredanewvaluebythedevelopmentofEnglishindustry。Thisindustryopenedupnewoutletsforwool。Inordertoproducewoolonalargescale，arablelandhadtobetransformedintopasturage。Toeffectthistransformation，theestateshadtobeconcentrated。Toconcentratetheestates，smallholdingshadfirsttobeabolished，thousandsoftenantshadtobedrivenfromtheirnativesoilandafewshepherdsinchargeofmillionsofsheeptobeinstalledintheirplace。Thus，bysuccessivetransformations，landedpropertyinScotlandhasresultedinthedrivingoutofmenbysheep。NowsaythattheprovidentialaimoftheinstitutionoflandedpropertyinScotlandwastohavemendrivenoutbysheep，andyouwillhavemadeprovidentialhistory。
Ofcourse，thetendencytowardsequalitybelongstoourcentury。
Tosaynowthatallformercenturies，withentirelydifferentneeds，meansofproduction，etc。，workedprovidentiallyfortherealizationofequalityis，firstly，tosubstitutethemeansandthemenofourcenturyforthemenandthemeansofearliercenturiesandtomisunderstandthehistoricalmovementbywhichthesuccessivegenerationstransformedtheresultsacquiredbythegenerationsthatprecededtheM。Economistsknowverywellthattheverythingthatwasfortheoneafinishedproductwasfortheotherbuttherawmaterialfornewproduction。
Suppose，asM。Proudhondoes，thatsocialgeniusproduced，orratherimprovised，thefeudallordswiththeprovidentialaimoftransformingthesettlersintoresponsibleandequally—placedworkers：andyouwillhaveeffectedasubstitutionofaimsandofpersonsworthyoftheProvidencethatinstitutedlandedpropertyinScotland，inordertogiveitselfthemaliciouspleasureofdrivingoutmenbysheep。
ButsinceM。ProudhontakessuchatenderinterestinProvidence，wereferhimtotheHistoiredel’economiepolitiqueofM。deVilleneuve—Bargemont，wholikewisegoesinpursuitofaprovidentialaiM。Thisaim，however，isnotequality，butcatholicism。
SeventhandLastObservationEconomistshaveasingularmethodofprocedure。Thereareonlytwokindsofinstitutionsforthem，artificialandnatural。Theinstitutionsoffeudalismareartificialinstitutions，thoseofthebourgeoisiearenaturalinstitutions。
Inthis，theyresemblethetheologians，wholikewiseestablishtwokindsofreligion。Everyreligionwhichisnottheirsisaninventionofmen，whiletheirownisanemanationfromGod。Whentheeconomistssaythatpresent—dayrelations——therelationsofbourgeoisproduction——arenatural，theyimplythatthesearetherelationsinwhichwealthiscreatedandproductiveforcesdevelopedinconformitywiththelawsofnature。Theserelationsthereforearethemselvesnaturallawsindependentoftheinfluenceoftime。Theyareeternallawswhichmustalwaysgovernsociety。Thus，therehasbeenhistory，butthereisnolongerany。Therehasbeenhistory，sincethereweretheinstitutionsoffeudalism，andintheseinstitutionsoffeudalismwefindquitedifferentrelationsofproductionfromthoseofbourgeoissociety，whichtheeconomiststrytopassoffasnaturalandassuch，eternal。
Feudalismalsohaditsproletariat——serfdom，whichcontinuedallthegermsofthebourgeoisie。Feudalproductionalsohadtwoantagonisticelementswhicharelikewisedesignatedbythenameofthegoodsideandthebadsideoffeudalism，irrespectiveofthefactthatitisalwaysthebadsidethatintheendtriumphsoverthegoodside。Itisthebadsidethatproducesthemovementwhichmakeshistory，byprovidingastruggle。If，duringtheepochofthedominationoffeudalism，theeconomists，enthusiasticovertheknightlyvirtues，thebeautifulharmonybetweenrightsandduties，thepatriarchallifeofthetowns，theprosperousconditionofdomesticindustryinthecountryside，thedevelopmentofindustryorganizedintocorporations，guildsandfraternities，inshort，everythingthatconstitutesthegoodsideoffeudalism，hadsetthemselvestheproblemofeliminatingeverythingthatcastashadowonthepicture——serfdom，privileges，anarchy——whatwouldhavehappened？Alltheelementswhichcalledforththestrugglewouldhavebeendestroyed，andthedevelopmentofthebourgeoisienippedinthebud。Onewouldhavesetoneselftheabsurdproblemofeliminatinghistory。
Afterthetriumphofthebourgeoisie，therewasnolongeranyquestionofthegoodorthebadsideoffeudalisM。Thebourgeoisietookpossessionoftheproductiveforcesithaddevelopedunderfeudalism。Alltheoldeconomicforms，thecorrespondingcivilrelations，thepoliticalstatewhichwastheofficialexpressionoftheoldcivilsociety，weresmashed。
Thus，feudalproduction，tobejudgedproperly，mustbeconsideredasamodeofproductionfoundedonantagonisM。Itmustbeshownhowwealthwasproducedwithinthisantagonism，howtheproductiveforcesweredevelopedatthesametimeasclassantagonisms，howoneoftheclasses，thebadside，thedrawbackofsociety，wentongrowinguntilthematerialconditionsforitsemancipationhadattainedfullmaturity。Isnotthisasgoodassayingthatthemodeofproduction，therelationsinwhichproductiveforcesaredeveloped，areanythingbuteternallaws，butthattheycorrespondtoadefinitedevelopmentofmenandoftheirproductiveforces，andthatachangeinmen’sproductiveforcesnecessarilybringsaboutachangeintheirrelationsofproduction？Asthemainthingisnottobedeprivedofthefruitsofcivilization，oftheacquiredproductiveforces，thetraditionalformsinwhichtheywereproducedmustbesmashed。Fromthismoment，therevolutionaryclassbecomesconservative。
Thebourgeoisiebeginswithaproletariatwhichisitselfarelicoftheproletariat[Marxwrotehere"workingclass"inthecopyhegaveN。Utina]offeudaltimes。Inthecourseofitshistoricaldevelopment，thebourgeoisienecessarilydevelopsitsantagonisticcharacter，whichatfirstismoreorlessdisguised，existingonlyinalatentstate。Asthebourgeoisiedevelops，theredevelopsinitsbosomanewproletariat，amodernproletariat;theredevelopsastrugglebetweentheproletarianclassandthebourgeoisieclass，astrugglewhich，beforebeingfelt，perceived，appreciated，understood，avowed，andproclaimedaloudbybothsides，expressesitself，tostartwith，merelyinpartialandmomentaryconflicts，insubversiveacts。Ontheotherhand，ifallthemembersofthemodernbourgeoisiehavethesameinterestsinasmuchastheyformaclassasagainstanotherclass，theyhaveopposite，antagonisticinterestsinasmuchastheystandface—to—facewithoneanother。Thisoppositionofinterestsresultsfromtheeconomicconditionsoftheirbourgeoislife。Fromdaytodayithasbecomesclearerthattheproductionrelationsinwhichthebourgeoisiemoveshavenotasimple，uniformcharacter，butadualcharacter;thatintheselfsamerelationsinwhichwealthisproduced，povertyisalsoproduced;thatintheselfsamerelationsinwhichthereisadevelopmentoftheproductiveforces，thereisalsoaforceproducingrepression;thattheserelationsproducebourgeoiswealth——i。e。，thewealthofthebourgeoisclass——onlybycontinuallyannihilatingthewealthoftheindividualmembersofthisclassandbyproducinganever—growingproletariat。
Themoretheantagonisticcharactercomestolight，themoretheeconomists，thescientificrepresentativesofbourgeoisproduction，findthemselvesinconflictwiththeirowntheory;anddifferentschoolsarise。
WehavetheFATALISTeconomists，whointheirtheoryareasindifferenttowhattheycallthedrawbacksofbourgeoisproductionasthebourgeoisthemselvesareinpracticetothesufferingsoftheproletarianswhohelpthemtoacquirewealth。Inthisfatalistschool，thereareClassicsandRomantics。TheClassics，likeAdamSmithandRicardo，representabourgeoisiewhich，whilestillstrugglingwiththerelicsoffeudalsociety，worksonlytopurgeeconomicrelationsoffeudaltaints，toincreasetheproductiveforcesandtogiveanewupsurgetoindustryandcommerce。Theproletariatthattakespartinthisstruggleandisabsorbedinthisfeverishlaborexperiencesonlypassing，accidentalsufferings，anditselfregardsthemassuch。EconomistslikeAdamSmithandRicardo，whoarethehistoriansofthisepoch，havenoothermissionthanthatofshowinghowwealthisacquiredinbourgeoisproductionrelations，offormulatingtheserelationsintocategories，intolaws，andofshowinghowsuperiortheselaws，thesecategories，arefortheproductionofwealthtothelawsandcategoriesoffeudalsociety。Povertyisintheireyesmerelythepangwhichaccompanieseverychildbirth，innatureasinindustry。
TheROMANTICSbelongtoourownage，inwhichthebourgeoisieisindirectappositiontotheproletariat;inwhichpovertyisengenderedinasgreatabundanceaswealth。Theeconomistsnowposeasblasefatalists，who，fromtheirelevatedposition，castaproudlydisdainfulglanceatthehumanmachineswhomanufacturewealth。Theycopyallthedevelopmentsgivenbytheirpredecessors，andtheindifferencewhichinthelatterwasmerelynaivetebecomesinthemcoquetry。
NextcomestheHUMANITARIANschool，whichsympathizeswiththebadsideofpresent—dayproductionrelations。Itseeks，bywayofeasingitsconscience，topalliateevenifslightlytherealcontrasts;itsincerelydeploresthedistressoftheproletariat，theunbridledcompetitionofthebourgeoisamongthemselves;itcounselstheworkerstobesober，toworkhardandtohavefewchildren;itadvisesthebourgeoistoputareasonedardorintoproduction。Thewholetheoryofthisschoolrestsoninterminabledistinctionsbetweentheoryandpractice，betweenprinciplesandresults，betweenideasandapplication，betweenformandcontent，betweenessenceandreality，betweenrightandfact，betweenthegoodsideandthebadside。
ThePHILANTHROPICschoolisthehumanitarianschoolcarriedtoperfection。Itdeniesthenecessityofantagonism;itwantstoturnallmenintobourgeois;itwantstorealizetheoryinsofarasitisdistinguishedfrompracticeandcontainsnoantagonisM。Itgoeswithoutsayingthat，intheory，itiseasytomakeanabstractionofthecontradictionsthataremetwithateverymomentinactualreality。Thistheorywouldthereforebecomeidealizedreality。Thephilanthropists，then，wanttoretainthecategorieswhichexpressbourgeoisrelations，withouttheantagonismwhichconstitutesthemandisinseparablefromtheM。Theythinktheyareseriouslyfightingbourgeoispractice，andtheyaremorebourgeoisthantheothers。
Justastheeconomistsarethescientificrepresentativesofthebourgeoisclass，sotheSocialistsandCommunistsarethetheoreticiansoftheproletarianclass。Solongastheproletariatisnotyetsufficientlydevelopedtoconstituteitselfasaclass，andconsequentlysolongasthestruggleitselfoftheproletariatwiththebourgeoisiehasnotyetassumedapoliticalcharacter，andtheproductiveforcesarenotyetsufficientlydevelopedinthebosomofthebourgeoisieitselftoenableustocatchaglimpseofthematerialconditionsnecessaryfortheemancipationoftheproletariatandfortheformationofanewsociety，thesetheoreticiansaremerelyutopianswho，tomeetthewantsoftheoppressedclasses，improvisesystemsandgoinsearchofaregeneratingscience。Butinthemeasurethathistorymovesforward，andwithitthestruggleoftheproletariatassumescleareroutlines，theynolongerneedtoseekscienceintheirminds;theyhaveonlytotakenoteofwhatishappeningbeforetheireyesandtobecomeitsmouthpiece。Solongastheylookforscienceandmerelymakesystems，solongastheyareatthebeginningofthestruggle，theyseeinpovertynothingbutpoverty，withoutseeinginittherevolutionary，subversiveside，whichwilloverthrowtheoldsociety。Fromthismoment，science，whichisaproductofthehistoricalmovement，hasassociateditselfconsciouslywithit，hasceasedtobedoctrinaireandhasbecomerevolutionary。
LetusreturntoM。Proudhon。
Everyeconomicrelationhasagoodandabadside;itistheonepointonwhichM。Proudhondoesnotgivehimselfthelie。Heseesthegoodsideexpoundedbytheeconomists;thebadsideheseesdenouncedbytheSocialists。Heborrowsfromtheeconomiststhenecessityofeternalrelations;
heborrowsfromtheSocialiststheillusionofseeinginpovertynothingbutpoverty。Heisinagreementwithbothinwantingtofallbackupontheauthorityofscience。Scienceforhimreducesitselftotheslenderproportionsofascientificformula;heisthemaninsearchofformulas。
ThusitisthatM。Proudhonflattershimselfonhavinggivenacriticismofbothpoliticaleconomyandcommunism：heisbeneaththemboth。Beneaththeeconomists，since，asaphilosopherwhohasathiselbowamagicformula，hethoughthecoulddispensewithgoingintopurelyeconomicdetails;beneaththesocialists，becausehehasneithercourageenoughnorinsightenoughtorise，beitevenspeculatively，abovethebourgeoishorizon。
Hewantstobethesynthesis——heisacompositeerror。
Hewantstosoarasthemanofscienceabovethebourgeoisandproletarians;heismerelythepettybourgeois，continuallytossedbackandforthbetweencapitalandlabor，politicaleconomyandcommunism。
2。
DIVISIONOFLABORANDMACHINERY
Thedivisionoflabor，accordingtoM。Proudhon，openstheseriesofeconomicevolutions。
"Consideredinitsessence，thedivisionoflaboristhemannerinwhichequalityofconditionsandintelligenceisrealized。"
Goodsideofthe（Vol。I，p。93）
divisionoflabor
"Thedivisionoflaborhasbecomeforusaninstrumentofpoverty。"
（Vol。I，p。94）
Variant
"Labor，bydividingitselfaccordingtothelawwhichispeculiartoit，andwhichistheBadsideoftheprimaryconditionsofitsfruit—
divisionoflaborfulness，endsinthenegationofitsaimsanddestroysitself。"
（Vol。I，p。94）
Tofindthe"recompositionProblemtobesolvedwhichwipesoutthedrawbacksofthedivision，whileretainingitsusefuleffects。"
（Vol。I，p。97）Thedivisionoflaboris，accordingtoM。Proudhon，aneternallaw，asimple，abstractcategory。Thereforetheabstraction，theidea，thewordmustsufficeforhimtoexplainthedivisionoflaboratdifferenthistoricalepochs。
Castes，corporations，manufacture，large—scaleindustry，mustbeexplainedbythesingleworddivide。Firststudycarefullythemeaningof"divide"，andyouwillhavenoneedtostudythenumerousinfluenceswhichgivethedivisionoflaboradefintivecharacterineveryepoch。
Certainly，thingswouldbemademuchtooeasyiftheywerereducedtoM。Proudhon’scategories。Historydoesnotproceedsocategorically。
IttookthreewholecenturiesinGermanytoestablishthefirstbigdivisionoflabor，theseparationofthetownsfromthecountry。Inproportion，asthisonerelationoftownandcountrywasmodified，thewholeofsocietywasmodified。Totakeonlythisoneaspectofthedivisionoflabor，youhavetheoldrepublics，andyouhaveChristianfeudalism;youhaveoldEnglandwithitsbaronsandyouhavemodernEnglandwithitscottonlords。
Inthe14thand15thcenturies，whentherewereasyetnocolonies，whenAmericadidnotyetexistforEurope，whenAsiaexistedonlythroughtheintermediaryofConstantinople，whentheMediterraneanwasthecentreofcommercialactivity，thedivisionoflaborhadaverydifferentform，averydifferentaspectfromthatofthe17thcentury，whentheSpanish，thePortuguese，theDutch，theEnglish，andtheFrenchhadcoloniesestablishedinallpartsoftheworld。Theextentofthemarket，itsphysiognomy，givetothedivisionoflaboratdifferentperiodsaphysiognomy，acharacter，whichitwouldbedifficulttodeducefromthesingleworddivide，fromtheidea，fromthecategory。
"AlleconomistssinceAdamSmith，"saysM。Proudhon，"havepointedouttheadvantagesanddrawbacksofthelawofdiv—ision，butinsistmuchmoreonthefirstthanonthesecond，becausethatwasmoreserviceablefortheiroptimism，andnoneofthemhaseverwonderedwhatcouldbethedrawbackstoalaw……Howdoesthesameprinciple，pursuedvigor—ouslytoitsconsequences，leadtodiametricallyoppositeresults？NotoneeconomistbeforeorsinceA。Smithhasevenperceivedthatherewasaproblemtoelucidate。Saygoestothelengthofrecognizingthatinthedivisionoflaborthesamecausethatproducesthegoodengendersthebad。"
[I95—96]
AdamSmithgoesfurtherthanM。Proudhonthinks。Hesawclearlythat"thedifferenceofnaturaltalentsindifferentmenis，inreality，muchlessthanweareawareof;andtheverydif—ferentgeniuswhichappearstodistinguishmenofdifferentprofessions，whengrownuptomaturity，isnotsomuchthecauseastheeffectofthedivisionoflabor。"
[I20]
Inprinciple，aporterdifferslessfromaphilosopherthanamastifffromagreyhound。ItisthedivisionoflaborwhichhassetagulfbetweentheM。
AllthisdoesnotpreventM。ProudhonfromsayingelsewherethatAdamSmithhasnottheslightestideaofthedrawbacksproducedbythedivisionoflabor。itisthisagainthatmakeshimsaythatJ。B。Saywasthefirsttorecognize"thatinthedivisionoflaborthesamecausethatproducesthegoodengendersthebad。"[I96]
ButletuslistentoLemontey;Suumcuique。[34]
"M。J。B。SayhasdonemethehonorofadoptinginhisexcellenttreatiseonpoliticaleconomytheprinciplethatIbroughttolightinthisfragmentonthemoralinfluenceofthedivisionoflabor。Thesomewhatfrivoloustitleofmybook[35]doubtlesspreventedhimfromcitingme。ItisonlytothismotivethatIcanattributethesilenceofawritertoorichinhisownstocktodisavowsomodestaload。"
（Lemontey，OEuvrescompletes，Vol。I，p。245，Paris1840）
Letusdohimthisjustice：Lemonteywittilyexposedtheunpleasantconsequencesofthedivisionoflaborasitisconstitutedtoday，andM。Proudhonfoundnothingtoaddtoit。Butnowthat，throughthefaultofM。Proudhon，wehavebeendrawnintothisquestionofpriority，letussayagain，inpassing，thatlongbeforeM。Lemontey，and17yearsbeforeAdamSmith，whowasapupilofA。Ferguson，thelast—namedgaveaclearexpositionofthesubjectinachapterwhichdealsspecificallywiththedivisionoflabor。
"Itmayevenbedoubted，whetherthemeasureofnationalcapacityincreaseswiththeadvancementofarts。Manymech—anicalarts……succeedbestunderatotalsuppressionofsentimentandreason;andignoranceisthemotherofindus—tryaswellassuperstition。Reflectionandfancyaresub—jecttoerr;butahabitofmovingthehand，orthefoot，isindependentofeither。Manufactures，accordingly，prospermost，wherethemindisleastconsulted，andwherethework—shopmay，withoutanygreateffortofimagination，beconsideredasanengine，thepartsofwhicharemen……
"Thegeneralofficermaybeagreatproficientintheknowledgeofwar，whiletheskillofthesoldierisconfinedtoafewmotionsofthehandandthefoot。Theformermayhavegainedwhatthelatterhaslost……
"Andthinkingitself，inthisageofseparations，maybecomeapeculiarcraft。"
（A。Ferguson，AnEssayontheHistoryofofCivilSociety，Edinburgh1783[II108，109，110]）
Tobringthisliterarysurveytoaclose，weexpresslydenythat"alleconomistshaveinsistedfarmoreontheadvantagesthanonthedrawbacksofthedivisionoflabor"。ItsufficestomentionSismondi。
Thus，asfarastheadvantagesofthedivisionoflaborareconcerned，M。Proudhonhadnothingfurthertodothantoparaphrasethegeneralphrasesknowntoeverybody。
Letusnowseehowhederivesfromthedivisionoflabor，takenasagenerallaw，asacategory，asathought，thedrawbackswhichcareattachedtoit。Howisitthatthiscategory，thislawimpliesanunequaldistributionoflabortothedetrimentofM。Proudhon’sequalitariansystem？
"Atthissolemnhourofthedivisionoflabor，thestormwindsbegintoblowoverhumanity。Progressdoesnottakeplaceforallinanequalanduniformmanner……Itbeginsbytakingpossessionofasmallnumberoftheprivileged……Itisthispreferenceforpersononthepartofprogressthathasforsolongkeptupthebeliefinthenaturalandprovidentialinequalityofconditions，hasgivenrisetocastes，andhierarchicallyconstitutedallsocieties。"
（Proudhon，Vol。I，p。94）
Thedivisionoflaborcreatedcastes。Now，castesarethedrawbacksofthedivisionoflabor;thus，itisthedivisionoflaborthathasengenderedthedrawbacks。QuoderotdemonstranduM。["Whichwasthethingtobeproved。"]
Willyougofurtherandaskwhatmadethedivisionoflaborcreatecastes。
hierarchicalconstitutionsandprivilegedpersons？M。Proudhonwilltellyou：Progress。Andwhatmadeprogress？Limitation。Limitation，forM。Proudhon，isacceptanceofpersonsonthepartofprogress。
Afterphilosophycomeshistory。Itisnolongereitherdescriptivehistoryordialecticalhistory，itiscomparativehistory。M。Proudhonestablishesaparallelbetweenthepresent—dayprintingworkerandtheprintingworkeroftheMiddleAges;betweenthemanoflettersoftodayandthemanoflettersoftheMiddleAges，andheweighsdownthebalanceonthesideofthosewhobelongmoreorlesstothedivisionoflaborastheMiddleAgesconstitutedortransmittedit。Heopposesthedivisionoflaborofonehistoricalepoch。WasthatwhatM。Proudhonhadtoprove？
No。Heshouldhaveshownusthedrawbacksofthedivisionoflaboringeneral，ofthedivisionoflaborasacategory。Besides，whystressthispartofM。Proudhon’swork，sincealittlelaterweshallseehimformallyretractalltheseallegeddevelopments？
"Thefirsteffectoffractionallabor，"continuesM。Proudhon，"afterthedepravationofthesoul，isthepro—longationoftheshifts，whichgrowininverseratiotothesumtotalofintelligenceexpended……Butasthelengthoftheshiftscannotexceed16to18hoursperday，themomentthecompensationcannotbetakenoutofthetime，itwillbetakenoutoftheprice，andthewageswilldiminish……Whatiscertain，andtheonlythingforustonote，isthattheuniversalconsciencedoesnotassessatthesameratetheworkofaforemanandthelaborofamechanic’sassist—
ant。Itisthereforenecessarytoreducethepriceoftheday’swork;sothattheworker，afterhavingbeenafflictedinhissoulbyadegradingfunction，cannotescapebeingstruckinhisbodybythemeagrenessofhisremuneration。"
[I97—98]
Wepassoverthelogicalvalueofthesesyllogisms，whichKantwouldcallparalogismswhichleadastray。
Thisisthesubstanceofit：
Thedivisionoflaborreducestheworkertoadegradingfunction;
tothisdegradingfunctioncorrespondsadepravedsoul;tothedepravationofthesoulisbefittinganever—increasingwagereduction。Andtoprovethatthisreductionisbefittingtoadepravedsoul，M。Proudhonsays，torelievehisconscience，thattheuniversalconsciencewillsitthus。
IsM。Proudhon’ssoultobereckonedasapartoftheuniversalconscience？
Machineryis，forM。Proudhon，"thelogicalantithesisofthedivisionoflabor"，andwiththehelpofhisdialectics，hebeginsbytransformingmachineryintotheworkshop。
Afterpresupposingthemodernworkshop，inordertomakepovertytheoutcomeofthedivisionoflabor，M。Proudhonpresupposespovertyengenderedbythedivisionoflabor，inordertocometotheworkshopandbeabletorepresentitasthedialecticalnegationofthatpoverty。Afterstrikingtheworkermorallybyadegradingfunction，physicallybythemeagrenessofthewage;afterputtingtheworkerunderthedependenceoftheforeman，anddebasinghisworktothelaborofamechanic’sassistant，helaystheblameagainontheworkshopandthemachineryfordegradingtheworker"bygivinghimamaster"，andhecompleteshisabasementbymakinghim"sinkfromtherankofartisantothatofcommonlaborer"。Excellentdialectics！
Andifheonlystoppedthere！Butno，hehastohaveanewhistoryofthedivisionoflabor，notanylongertoderivethecontradictionsfromit，buttoreconstructtheworkshopafterhisownfashion。Toattainthisendhefindshimselfcompelledtoforgetallhehasjustsaidaboutdivision。
Laborisorganized，isdivideddifferentlyaccordingtotheinstrumentsitdisposesover。Thehand—millpresupposesadifferentdivisionoflaborfromthesteam—mill。Thus，itisslappinghistoryinthefacetowanttobeginbythedivisionoflaboringeneral，inordertogetsubsequentlytoaspecificinstrumentofproduction，machinery。
Machineryisnomoreaneconomiccategorythanthebullockthatdragstheplough。Machineryismerelyaproductiveforce。Themodernworkshop，whichdependsontheapplicationofmachinery，isasocialproductionrelation，aneconomiccategory。
LetusseenowhowthingshappeninM。Proudhon’sbrilliantimagination。
"Insociety，theincessantappearanceofmachineryistheantithesis，theinverseformulaofthedivisionoflabor：itistheprotestoftheindustrialgeniusagainstfractionalandhomicallabor。What，actually，isamachine？Awayofunitingdifferentportionsoflaborwhichhadbeenseparatedbythedivisionoflabor。Everymachinecanbedefinedasasummaryofseveraloperations……Thus，throughthemachinetherewillbearestorationoftheworker……machinery，whichinpoliticaleconomyplacesitselfincontradictiontothedivisionoflabor，representssynthesis，whichinthehumanmindisopposedtoanalysis……Divisionmerelyseparatedthedifferentpartsoflabor，lettingeachonedevotehimselftothespecialitywhichmostsuitedhim;theworkshopgroupstheworkersaccordingtotherelationofeachparttothewhole……Itintroducestheprincipleofauthorityinlabor……Butthisisnotall;themachineortheworkshop，afterdegradingtheworkerbygivinghimamaster，completeshisabasementbymakinghimsinkfromtherankofartisantothatofcommonlaborer……Theperiodwearegoingthrougharthemoment，thatofmachinery，isdistinguishedbyaspecialcharacteristic，thewageworker。Thewageworkerissubsequenttothedivisionoflaborandtoexchange。"
[I135，136，161]
JustasimpleremarktoM。Proudhon。Theseparationofthedifferentpartsoflabor，leavingtoeachonetheopportunityofdevotinghimselftothespecialitybestsuitedtohim——aseparationwhichM。Proudhondatesfromthebeginningoftheworld——existsonlyinmodernindustryundertheruleofcompetition。
M。Proudhongoesontogiveusamost"interestinggenealogy"，toshowhowtheworkshoparosefromthedivisionoflaborandthewageworkerfromtheworkshop。
Hesupposesamanwho"noticedthatbydividingupproductionintoitsdifferentpartsandhavingeachoneperformedbyaseparateworker"，theforcesofproductionwouldbemultiplied。
Thisman，"graspingthethreadofthisidea，tellshimselfthat，byformingapermanentgroupofworkersselectedforthespecialpurposehesetshimself，hewillobtainamoresustainedproduction，etc。"[I161]
Thismanmakesaproposaltoothermen，tomakethemgrasphisideaandthethreadofhisidea。
Thisman，atthebeginningofindustry，dealsontermsofequalitywithhiscompanionswholaterbecomeshisworkmen。
"Onerealizes，infact，thatthisoriginalequalityhadrapidlytodisappearinviewoftheadvantageouspositionofthemasterandthedependenceofthewage—earner。"[I163]
ThatisanotherexampleofM。Proudhon’shistoricalanddescriptivemethod。
Letusnowexamine，fromthehistoricalandeconomicpointofview，whethertheworkshopofthemachinereallyintroducedtheprincipleofauthorityinsocietysubsequentlytothedivisionoflabor;whetheritrehabilitatedtheworkerontheonehand，whilesubmittinghimtoauthorityontheother;whetherthemachineistherecompositionofdividedlabor，thesynthesisoflaborasopposedtoitsanalysis。
Societyasawholehasthisincommonwiththeinteriorofaworkshop，thatittoohasitsdivisionoflabor。Ifonetookasamodelthedivisionoflaborinamodernworkshop，inordertoapplyittoawholesociety，thesocietybestorganizedfortheproductionofwealthwouldundoubtedlybethatwhichhadasinglechiefemployer，distributingtaskstodifferentmembersofthecommunityaccordingtoapreviouslyfixedrule。Butthisisbynomeansthecase。Whileinsidethemodernworkshopthedivisionoflaborismeticulouslyregulatedbytheauthorityoftheemployer，modernsocietyhasnootherrule，nootherauthorityforthedistributionoflaborthanfreecompetition。
Underthepatriarchalsystem，underthecastesystem，underthefeudalandcorporativesystem，therewasdivisionoflaborinthewholeofsocietyaccordingtofixedrules。Weretheserulesestablishedbyalegislator？No。Originallybornoftheconditionsofmaterialproduction，theywereraisedtothestatusoflawsonlymuchlater。Inthisway，thesedifferentformsofthedivisionoflaborbecamesomanybasesofsocialorganization。Asforthedivisionintheworkshop，itwasverylittledevelopedinalltheseformsofsociety。
Itcanevenbelaiddownasageneralrulethatthelessauthoritypresidesoverthedivisionoflaborinsidesociety，themorethedivisionoflabordevelopsinsidetheworkshop，andthemoreitissubjectedtheretotheauthorityofasingleperson。Thusauthorityintheworkshopandauthorityinsociety，inrelationtothedivisionoflabor，areininverseratiotoeachother。
Thequestionnowiswhatkindofworkshopitisinwhichtheoccupationsareverymuchseparated，whereeachworker’staskisreducedtoaverysimpleoperation，andwheretheauthority，capital，groupsanddirectsthework。Howwasthisworkshopbroughtintoexistence？Inordertoanswerthisquestion，weshallhavetoexaminehowmanufacturingindustry，properlyso—called，hasdeveloped。Iamspeakinghereofthatindustrywhichisnotyetindustry，withitsmachinery，butwhichisalreadynolongertheindustryoftheartisansoftheMiddleAges，nordomesticindustry。Weshallnotgointogreatdetail：weshallmerelygiveafewmainpointstoshowthathistoryisnottobemadewithformulas。
Oneofthemostindispensableconditionsfortheformationofmanufacturingindustrywastheaccumulationofcapital，facilitatedbythediscoveryofAmericaandtheimportofitspreciousmetals。
Itissufficientlyprovedthattheincreaseinthemeansofexchangeresultedinthedepreciationofwagesandlandrents，ontheonehand，andthegrowthofindustrialprofitsontheother。Inotherwords：totheextentthatthepropertiedclassandtheworkingclass，thefeudallordsandthepeople，sank，tothatextentthecapitalistclass，thebourgeoisie，rose。
Therewereyetothercircumstanceswhichcontributedsimultaneouslytothedevelopmentofmanufacturingindustry：theincreaseofcommoditiesputintocirculationfromthemomentthattradehadpenetratedtotheEastIndiesbywayoftheCapeofGoodHope;thecolonialsystem;thedevelopmentofmaritimetrade。
Anotherpointwhichhasnotyetbeensufficientlyappreciatedinthehistoryofmanufacturingindustryisthedisbandingofthenumerousretinuesoffeudallords，whosesubordinateranksbecamevagrantsbeforeenteringtheworkshop。Thecreationoftheworkshopwasprecededbyanalmostuniversalvagrancyinthe15thand16thcenturies。Theworkshopfound，besides，apowerfulsupportinthemanypeasantswho，continuallydrivenfromthecountryowingtothetransformationofthefieldsintopasturesandtotheprogressinagriculturewhichnecessitatedfewerhandsforthetillageofthesoil，wentoncongregatinginthetownsduringwholecenturies。
Thegrowthofthemarket，theaccumulationofcapital，themodificationinthesocialpositionoftheclasses，alargenumberofpersonsbeingdeprivedoftheirsourcesofincome，allthesearehistoricalpreconditionsfortheformationofmanufacture。Itwasnot，asM。Proudhonsays，friendlyagreementsbetweenequalsthatbroughtmenintotheworkshop。Itwasnoteveninthebosomoftheoldguildsthatmanufacturewasborn。Itwasthemerchantthatbecameheadofthemodernworkshop，andnottheoldguildmaster。
Almosteverywheretherewasadesperatestrugglebetweenmanufactureandcrafts。
Theaccumulationandconcentrationofinstrumentsandworkersprecededthedevelopmentofthedivisionoflaborinsidetheworkshop。
Manufactureconsistedmuchmoreinthebringingtogetherofmanyworkersandmanycraftsinoneplace，inoneroomunderthecommandofonecapital，thanintheanalysisoflaborandtheadaptationofaspecialworkertoaverysimpletask。
Theutilityofaworkshopconsistedmuchlessinthedivisionoflaborassuchthaninthecircumstancesthatworkwasdoneonamuchlargerscale，thatmanyunnecessaryexpensesweresaved，etc。Attheendofthe16thandatthebeginningofthe17thcentury，Dutchmanufacturescarcelyknewanydivisionoflabor。
Thedevelopmentofthedivisionoflaborsupposestheassemblageofworkersinaworkshop。Thereisnotonesingleexample，whetherinthe16thorinthe17thcentury，ofthedifferentbranchesofoneandthesamecraftbeingexploitedseparatelytosuchanextentthatitwouldhavesufficedtoassemblethemallinoneplacesoastoobtainacomplete，ready—madeworkshop。Butoncethemenandtheinstrumentshadbeenbroughttogether，thedivisionoflabor，suchasithadexistedintheformoftheguilds，wasreproduced，necessarilyreflectedinsidetheworkshop。
ForM。Proudhon，whoseesthingsupsidedown，ifheseesthematall，thedivisionoflabor，inAdamSmith’ssense，precedestheworkshop，whichisaconditionofitsexistence。
Machinery，properlyso—called，datesfromtheendofthe18thcentury。Nothingismoreabsurdthantoseeinmachinerytheantithesisofthedivisionoflabor，thesynthesisrestoringunitytodividedlabor。
Themachineisaunificationoftheinstrumentsoflabor，andbynomeansacombinationofdifferentoperationsfortheworkerhimself。
"When，bythedivisionoflabor，eachparticularoperationhasbeensimplifiedtotheuseofasingleinstrument，thelinkingupofalltheseinstruments，setinmotionbyasingleengine，constitutes——amachine。"
（Babbage，Traitesurl’economiedesmachines[etdesmanufactures]，Paris1833[p。230]）
Simpletools;accumulationtools;compositetools;settinginmotionofacompositetoolbyasinglehandengine，byman;settinginmotionoftheseinstrumentsbynaturalforces，machines;systemofmachineshavingonemotor;systemofmachineshavingoneautomaticmotor——thisistheprogressofmachinery。
Theconcentrationoftheinstrumentsofproductionandthedivisionoflaborareasinseparableonefromtheotherasare，inthepoliticalsphere，theconcentrationofpublicauthorityandthedivisionofprivateinterests。England，withtheconcentrationoftheland，thisinstrumentofagriculturallabor，hasatthesametimedivisionofagriculturallaborandtheapplicationofmachinerytotheexploitationofthesoil。France，whichhasthedivisionoftheinstruments，thesmallholdingssystem，has，ingeneral，neitherdivisionofagriculturallabornorapplicationofmachinerytothesoil。
ForM。Proudhontheconcentrationoftheinstrumentsoflaboristhenegationofthedivisionoflabor。Inreality，wefindagainthereverse。Astheconcentrationofinstrumentsdevelops，thedivisiondevelopsalso，andviceversa。Thisiswhyeverybigmechanicalinventionisfollowedbyagreaterdivisionoflabor，andeachincreaseinthedivisionoflaborgivesriseinturntonewmechanicalinventions。
WeneednotrecallthefactthatthegreatprogressofthedivisionoflaborbeganinEnglandaftertheinventionofmachinery。Thus，theweaversandspinnerswereforthemostpartpeasantslikethoseonestillmeetsinbackwardcountries。Theinventionofmachinerybroughtabouttheseparationofmanufacturingindustryfromagriculturalindustry。Theweaverandthespinner，unitedbutlatelyinasinglefamily，wereseparatedbythemachine。
Thankstothemachine，thespinnercanliveinEnglandwhiletheweaverresidesintheEastIndies。Beforetheinventionofmachinery，theindustryofacountrywascarriedonchieflywithrawmaterialsthatweretheproductsofitsownsoil;inEngland——wool，inGermany——flax，inFrance——silksandflax，intheEastIndiesandtheLevant——cottons，etc。Thankstotheapplicationofmachineryandofsteam，thedivisionoflaborwasabouttoassumesuchdimensionsthatlarge—scaleindustry，detachedfromthenationalsoil，dependsentirelyontheworldmarket，oninternationalexchange，onaninternationaldivisionoflabor。Inshort——themachinehassogreataninfluenceonthedivisionoflabor，thatwhen，inthemanufactureofsomeobject，ameanshasbeenfoundtoproducepartsofitmechanically，themanufacturesplitsupimmediatelyintotwoworksindependentofeachother。
NeedwespeakofthephilanthropicandprovidentialaimthatM。
Proudhondiscoversintheinventionandfirstapplicationofmachinery？
WheninEnglandthemarkethadbecomesofardevelopedthatmanuallaborwasnolongeradequate，theneedformachinerywasfelt。Thencametheideaoftheapplicationofmechanicalscience，alreadyquitedevelopedinthe18thcentury。
Theautomaticworkshopopeneditscareerwithactswhichwereanythingbutphilanthropic。Childrenwerekeptatworkatthewhip’send;
theyweremadeanobjectoftrafficandcontractswereundertakenwiththeorphanages。Allthelawsontheapprenticeshipofworkerswererepealed，because，touseM。Proudhon’sphraseology，therewasnofurtherneedforsyntheticworkers。Finally，from1825onwards，almostallthenewinventionsweretheresultofcollisionsbetweentheworkerandtheemployerwhosoughtatallcoststodepreciatetheworker’sspecializedability。
Aftereachnewstrikeofanyimportance，thereappearedanewmachine。
Solittleindeeddidtheworkerseeintheapplicationofmachineryasortofrehabilitation，restoration——asM。Proudhonwouldsay——thatinthe18thcenturyhestoodoutforaverylongtimeagainsttheincipientdominationoftheautomation。
"Wyatt，"saysDoctorUre，"inventedtheseriesofflutedrollers……
（thespinningfingersusuallyascribedtoAwkright）……
"Themaindifficultydidnot，tomyapprehension，liesomuchintheinventionofaproperself—actingmechanism……asintraininghumanbeingstorenouncetheirdesultoryhabitsofwork，andtoidentifythemselveswiththeunvaryingregular—ityofthecomplexautomation。Buttodeviseandadministerasuccessfulcodeoffactorydiscipline，suitedtothenecessitiesoffactorydiligence，wastheHerculeanenter—prise，thenobleachievementofAwkright。"
[I21—22，23]
Inshort，bytheintroductionofmachinery，thedivisionoflaborinsidesocietyhasgrownup，thetaskoftheworkerinsidetheworkshophasbeensimplified，capitalhasbeenconcentrated，humanbeingshavebeenfurtherdismembered。