thenitismanifestthatthechoicefortheartisanundersuchconditions，liesbetweendiminishedamountofworkordiminishedrateofpaymentforit。Moreover，forkindredreasonstheselocalburdensraisethecostsofthethingsheconsumes。Thechargesmadebydistributorsare，ontheaverage，determinedbythecurrentratesofinterestoncapitalusedindistributingbusinesses;andtheextracostsofcaringonsuchbusinesseshavetobepaidforbyextraprices。Sothatasinthepasttheruralworkerlostinonewaywhathegainedinanother，sointhepresentdoestheurbanworker：therebeingtoo，inbothcases，thelossentailedonhimbythecostofadministrationandthewasteaccompanyingit。
"Butwhathasallthistodowith’thecomingslavery’？"willperhapsbeasked。Nothingdirectly，butagooddealindirectly，asweshallseeafteryetanotherpreliminarysection。
ItissaidthatwhenrailwayswerefirstopenedinSpain，peasantsstandingonthetrackswerenotunfrequentlyrunover;
andthattheblamefellontheengine—driversfornotstopping：
ruralexperienceshavingyieldednoconceptionofthemomentumofalargemassmovingatahighvelocity。
Theincidentisrecalledtomeoncontemplatingtheideasoftheso—called"practical"politician，intowhosemindthereentersnothoughtofsuchathingaspoliticalmomentum，stilllessofapoliticalmomentumwhich，insteadofdiminishingorremainingconstant，increases。Thetheoryonwhichhedailyproceedsisthatthechangecausedbyhismeasurewillstopwhereheintendsittostop。Hecontemplatesintentlythethingshisactwillachieve，butthinkslittleoftheremoterissuesofthemovementhisactsetsup，andstilllessofitscollateralissues。When，inwar—time，"foodforpowder"wastobeprovidedbyencouragingpopulation——whenMrPittsaid，"Letusmakereliefincaseswherethereareanumberofchildrenamatterofrightandhonour，insteadofagroundforopprobriumandcontempt;"（1*）itwasnotexpectedthatthepoor—rateswouldbequadrupledinfiftyyears，thatwomenwithmanybastardswouldbepreferredaswivestomodestwomen，becauseoftheirincomesfromtheparish，andthathostsofratepayerswouldbepulleddownintotheranksofpauperism。Legislatorswhoin1833voted*20，000ayeartoaidinbuildingschool—houses，neversupposedthatthesteptheythentookwouldleadtoforcedcontributions，localandgeneral，nowamountingto*6，000，000;theydidnotintendtoestablishtheprinciplethatAshouldbemaderesponsibleforeducatingB’soffspring;theydidnotdreamofacompulsionwhichwoulddeprivepoorwidowsofthehelpoftheirelderchildren;andstilllessdidtheydreamthattheirsuccessors，byrequiringimpoverishedparentstoapplytoBoardsofGuardianstopaythefeeswhichSchoolBoardswouldnotremit，wouldinitiateahabitofapplyingtoBoardsofGuardiansandsocausepauperization。（2*）Neitherdidthosewhoin1834passedanActregulatingthelabourofwomenandchildrenincertainfactories，imaginethatthesystemtheywerebeginningwouldendintherestrictionandinspectionoflabourinallkindsofproducingestablishmentswheremorethanfiftypeopleareemployed;nordidtheyconceivethattheinspectionprovidedwouldgrowtotheextentofrequiringthatbeforea"youngperson"isemployedinafactory，authoritymustbegivenbyacertifyingsurgeon，who，bypersonalexamination（towhichnolimitisplaced）hassatisfiedhimselfthatthereisnoincapacitatingdiseaseorbodilyinfirmity：hisverdictdeterminingwhetherthe"youngperson"shallearnwagesornot。（3*）Evenless，asIsay，doesthepoliticianwhoplumeshimselfonthepracticalnessofhisaims，conceivetheindirectresultswhichwillfollowthedirectresultsofhismeasures。
Thus，totakeacaseconnectedwithonenamedabove，itwasnotintendedthroughthesystemof"paymentbyresults，"todoanythingmorethangiveteachersanefficientstimulus：itwasnotsupposedthatinnumerouscasestheirhealthwouldgivewayunderthestimulus;itwasnotexpectedthattheywouldbeledtoadoptacrammingsystemandtoputunduepressureondullandweakchildren，oftentotheirgreatinjury;itwasnotforeseenthatinmanycasesabodilyenfeeblementwouldbecausedwhichnoamountofgrammarandgeographycancompensatefor。Thelicensingofpublichouseswassimplyformaintainingpublicorder：thosewhodeviseditneverimaginedthattherewouldresultanorganizedinterestpowerfullyinfluencingelectionsinanunwholesomeway。Nordiditoccurtothe"practical"politicianswhoprovidedacompulsoryload—lineformerchantvessels，thatthepressureofshipowners’interestswouldhabituallycausetheputtingoftheload—lineattheveryhighestlimit，andthatfromprecedenttoprecedent，tendingeverinthesamedirection，theload—linewouldgraduallyriseinthebetterclassofships;asfromgoodauthorityIlearnthatithasalreadydone。Legislatorswho，somefortyyearsago，byActofParliamentcompelledrailwaycompaniestosupplycheaplocomotion，wouldhaveridiculedthebelief，haditbeenexpressed，thateventuallytheirActwouldpunishthecompanieswhichimprovedthesupply;andyetthiswastheresulttocompareswhichbegantocarrythird—classpassengersbyfasttrains;sinceapenaltytotheamountofthepassenger—dutywasinflictedonthemforeverythird—classpassengersocarried。Towhichinstanceconcerningrailways，addafarmorestrikingonedisclosedbycomparingtherailwaypoliciesofEnglandandFrance。ThelawmakerswhoprovidedfortheultimatelapsingofFrenchrailwaystotheState，neverconceivedthepossibilitythatinferiortravellingfacilitieswouldresult——didnotforeseethatreluctancetodepreciatethevalueofpropertyeventuallycomingtotheState，wouldnegativetheauthorizationofcompetinglinesandthatintheabsenceofcompetinglineslocomotionwouldberelativelycostly，slow，andinfrequent;for，asSirThomasFarrerhaslatelyshown，thetravellerinEnglandhasgreatadvantagesovertheFrenchtravellerintheeconomy，swiftness，andfrequencywithwhichhisjourneyscanbemade。
Butthe"practical"politicianwho，inspiteofsuchexperiencesrepeatedgenerationaftergeneration，goesonthinkingonlyofproximateresults，naturallyneverthinksofresultsstillmoreremote，stillmoregeneral，andstillmoreimportantthanthosejustexemplified。Torepeatthemetaphorusedabove——heneveraskswhetherthepoliticalmomentumsetupbyhismeasure，insomecasesdecreasingbutinothercasesgreatlyincreasing，willorwillnothavethesamegeneraldirectionwithotherlikemomenta;andwhetheritmaynotjointheminpresentlyproducinganaggregateenergyworkingchangesneverthoughtof。Dwellingonlyontheeffectsofhisparticularstreamoflegislation，andnotobservinghowothersuchstreamsalreadyexisting，andstillotherstreamswhichwillfollowhisinitiative，pursuethesameaveragecourse，itneveroccurstohimthattheymaypresentlyuniteintoavoluminousfloodutterlychangingthefaceofthings。Ortoleavefiguresforamoreliteralstatement，heisunconsciousofthetruththatheishelpingtoformacertaintypeofsocialorganization，andthatkindredmeasures，effectingkindredchangesoforganization，tendwithever—increasingforcetomakethattypegeneral;until，passingacertainpoint，theproclivitytowardsitbecomesirresistible。Justaseachsociety，aimswhenpossibletoproduceinothersocietiesastructureakintoitsown——justasamongtheGreeks，theSpartansandtheAtheniansstruggledtospreadtheirrespectivepoliticalinstitutions，oras，atthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，theEuropeanabsolutemonarchiesaimedtore—establishabsolutemonarchyinFrancewhiletheRepublicencouragedtheformationofotherrepublics;sowithineverysociety，eachspeciesofstructuretendstopropagateitself。
Justasthesystemofvoluntaryco—operationbycompanies，associations，unions，toachievebusinessendsandotherends，spreadsthroughoutacommunity;sodoestheantagonisticsystemofcompulsoryco—operationunderState—agenciesspread;andthelargerbecomesitsextensionthemorepowerofspreadingitgets。
Thequestionofquestionsforthepoliticianshouldeverbe——
"WhattypeofsocialstructureamItendingtoproduce？"Butthisisaquestionheneverentertains。
Herewewillentertainitforhim。Letusnowobservethegeneralcourseofrecentchanges，withtheaccompanyingcurrentofideas，andseewhithertheyarecarryingus。
Theblankformofaquestiondailyaskedis——"Wehavealreadydonethis;whyshouldwenotdothat？"Andtheregardforprecedentsuggestedbyit，iseverpushingonregulativelegislation。Havinghadbroughtwithintheirsphereofoperationmoreandmorenumerousbusinesses，theActsrestrictinghoursofemploymentanddictatingthetreatmentofworkersarenowtobemadeapplicabletoshops。Frominspectinglodging—housestolimitthenumberofoccupantsandenforcesanitaryconditions，wehavepassedtoinspectingallhousesbelowacertainrentinwhichtherearemembersofmorethanonefamily，andarenowpassingtoakindredinspectionofallsmallhouses。（4*）ThebuyingandworkingoftelegraphsbytheStateismadeareasonforurgingthattheStateshouldbuyandworktherailways。Supplyingchildrenwithfoodfortheirmindsbypublicagencyisbeingfollowedinsomecasesbysupplyingfoodfortheirbodies;andafterthepracticehasbeenmadegraduallymoregeneral，wemayanticipatethatthesupply，nowproposedtobemadegratisintheonecase，willeventuallybeproposedtobemadegratisintheother：theargumentthatgoodbodiesaswellasgoodmindsareneedfultomakegoodcitizens，beinglogicallyurgedasareasonfortheextension。（5*）Andthen，avowedlyproceedingontheprecedentsfurnishedbythechurch，theschool，andthereading—room，allpubliclyprovided，itiscontendedthat"pleasure，inthesenseitisnowgenerallyadmitted，needslegislatingforandorganizingatleastasmuchaswork。"（6*）
Notprecedentonlypromptsthisspread，butalsothenecessitywhicharisesforsupplementingineffectivemeasures，andfordealingwiththeartificialevilscontinuallycaused。
Failuredoesnotdestroyfaithintheagenciesemployed，butmerelysuggestsmorestringentuseofsuchagenciesorwiderramificationsofthem。Lawstocheckintemperance，beginninginearlytimesandcomingdowntoourowntimes，whenfurtherrestraintsonthesaleofintoxicatingliquorsoccupynightseverysession，nothavingdonewhatwasexpected，therecomedemandsformorethorough—goinglaws，locallypreventingthesalealtogether;andhere，asinAmerica，thesewilldoubtlessbefollowedbydemandsthatpreventionshallbemadeuniversal。Allthemanyappliancesfor"stampingout"epidemicdiseasesnothavingsucceededinpreventingoutbreaksofsmall—pox，fevers，andthelike，afurtherremedyisappliedforintheshapeofpolice—power，tosearchhousesfordiseasedpersons，andauthorityformedicalofficerstoexamineanyonetheythinkfit，toseewhetherheorsheissufferingfromaninfectiousorcontagiousmalady。HabitsofimprovidencehavingforgenerationsbeencultivatedbythePoorLaw，andtheimprovidentenabledtomultiply，theevilsproducedbycompulsorycharityarenowproposedtobemetbycompulsoryinsurance。
Theextensionofthispolicy，causingextensionofcorrespondingideas，fosterseverywherethetacitassumptionthatGovernmentshouldstepinwheneveranythingisnotgoingright。
"Surelyyouwouldnothavethismiserycontinue！"exclaimssomeone，ifyouhintademurrertomuchthatisnowbeingsaidanddone。Observewhatisimpliedbythisexclamation。Ittakesforgranted，first，thatallsufferingoughttobeprevented，whichisnottrue：muchsufferingiscurative，andpreventionofitispreventionofaremedy。Inthesecondplace，ittakesforgrantedthateveryevilcanberemoved：thetruthbeingthatwiththeexistingdefectsofhumannature，manyevilscanonlybethrustoutofoneplaceorformintoanotherplaceorformoftenbeingincreasedbythechange。Theexclamationalsoimpliestheunhesitatingbelief，hereespeciallyconcerningus，thatevilsofallkindsshouldbedealtwithbytheState。Theredoesnotoccurtheinquirywhetherthereareatworkotheragenciescapableofdealingwithevils，andwhethertheevilsinquestionmaynotbeamongthosewhicharebestdealtwithbytheseotheragencies。
Andobviously，themorenumerousgovernmentalinterventionsbecome，themoreconfirmeddoesthishabitofthoughtgrow，andthemoreloudandperpetualthedemandsforintervention。
Everyextensionoftherelativepolicyinvolvesanadditiontotheregulativeagents——afurthergrowthofofficialismandanincreasingpoweroftheorganizationformedofofficials。Takeapairofscaleswithmanyshotintheoneandafewintheother。Liftshotaftershotoutoftheloadedscaleandputitintotheunloadedscale。Presentlyyouwillproduceabalance;
andifyougoon，thepositionofthescaleswillbereversed。
Supposethebeamtobeunequallydivided，andletthelightlyloadedscalebeattheendofaverylongarm;thenthetransferofeachshot，producingamuchgreatereffect，willfarsoonerbringaboutachangeofposition。Iusethefiguretoillustratewhatresultsfromtransferringoneindividualafteranotherfromtheregulatedmassofthecommunitytotheregulatingstructures。
Thetransferweakenstheoneandstrengthenstheotherinafargreaterdegreethanisimpliedbytherelativechangeofnumbers。
Acomparativelysmallbodyofofficials，coherent，havingcommoninterests，andactingundercentralauthority，hasanimmenseadvantageoveranincoherentpublicwhichhasnosettledpolicy，andcanbebroughttoactunitedlyonlyunderstrongprovocation。
Henceanorganizationofofficials，oncepassingacertainstageofgrowth，becomeslessandlessresistible;asweseeinthebureaucraciesoftheContinent。
Notonlydoesthepowerofresistanceoftheregulatedpartdecreaseinageometricalratioastheregulatingpartincreases，buttheprivateinterestsofmanyintheregulatedpartitself，makethechangeofratiostillmorerapid。Ineverycircleconversationsshowthatnow，whenthepassingofcompetitiveexaminationsrendersthemeligibleforthepublicservice，youthsarebeingeducatedinsuchwaysthattheymaypassthemandgetemploymentunderGovernment。Oneconsequenceisthatmenwhomightotherwisereprobatesomefurthergrowthofofficialism，areledtolookonitwithtolerance，ifnotfavourably，asofferingpossiblecareersforthosedependentonthemandthoserelatedtothem。Anyonewhoremembersthenumbersofupper—classandmidd1e—classfamiliesanxioustoplacetheirchildren，willseethatnosmallencouragementtothespreadoflegislativecontrolisnowcomingfromthosewho，butforthepersonalintereststhusarising，wouldbehostiletoit。
Thispressingdesireforcareersisenforcedbythepreferenceforcareerswhicharethoughtrespectable。"Evenifhissalaryissmall，hisoccupationwillbethatofagentleman，"
thinksthefather，whowantstogetaGovernment—clerkshipforhisson。AndthisrelativedignityofState—servantsascomparedwiththoseoccupiedinbusiness，increasesastheadministrativeorganizationbecomesalargerandmorepowerfulelementinsociety，andtendsmoreandmoretofixthestandardofhonour。
TheprevalentambitionwithayoungFrenchmanistogetsomesmallofficialpostinhislocality，torisethencetoaplaceinthelocalcentreofgovernment，andfinallytoreachsomeheadofficeinParis。AndinRussia，wherethatuniversalityofState—regulationwhichcharacterizesthemilitanttypeofsocietyhasbeencarriedfurthest，weseethisambitionpushedtoitsextreme。SaysMrWallace，quotingapassagefromaplay：——"Allmen，evenshopkeepersandcobblers，aimatbecomingofficers，andthemanwhohaspassedhiswholelifewithoutofficialrankseemstobenotahumanbeing。"（7*）
Thesevariousinfluencesworkingfromabovedownwardsmeetwithanincreasingresponseofexpectationsandsolicitationsproceedingfrombelowupwards。Thehard—workedandover—burdenedwhoformthegreatmajority，andstillmoretheincapablesperpetuallyhelpedwhoareeverledtolookformorehelp，arereadysupportersofschemeswhichpromisethemthisortheotherbenefitbyStateagency，andreadybelieversofthosewhotellthemthatsuchbenefitscanbegiven，andoughttobegiven。Theylistenwitheagerfaithtoallbuildersofpoliticalair—castles，fromOxfordgraduatesdowntoIrishirreconcilables;andeveryadditionaltax—supportedappliancefortheirwelfareraiseshopesoffurtherones。Indeedthemorenumerouspublicinstrumentalitiesbecome，themoreistheregeneratedincitizensthenotionthateverythingistobedoneforthem，andnothingbythem。Eachgenerationismadelessfamiliarwiththeattainmentofdesiredendsbyindividualactionsorprivatecombinations，andmorefamiliarwiththeattainmentofthembygovernmentalagencies;until，eventually，governmentalagenciescometobethoughtofastheonlyavailableagencies。ThisresultwaswellshownintherecentTrades—UnionsCongressatParis。TheEnglishdelegates，reportingtotheirconstituents，saidthatbetweenthemselvesandtheirforeigncolleagues"thepointofdifferencewastheextenttowhichtheStateshouldbeaskedtoprotectlabour："referencebeingthusmadetothefact，conspicuousinthereportsoftheproceedings，thattheFrenchdelegatesalwaysinvokedgovernmentalpowerastheonlymeansofsatisfyingtheirwishes。
Thediffusionofeducationhasworked，andwillworkstillmore，inthesamedirection。"Wemusteducateourmasters，"isthewell—knownsayingofaLiberalwhoopposedthelastextensionofthefranchise。Yes，iftheeducationwereworthytobesocalled，andwererelevanttothepoliticalenlightenmentneeded，muchmightbehopedfromit。Butknowingrulesofsyntax，beingabletoaddupcorrectly，havinggeographicalinformation，andamemorystockedwiththedatesofkings’accessionsandgenerals’
victories，nomoreimpliesfitnesstoformpoliticalconclusionsthanacquirementofskillindrawingimpliesexpertnessintelegraphing，orthanabilitytoplaycricketimpliesproficiencyontheviolin。"Surely，"rejoinssomeone，"facilityinreadingopensthewaytopoliticalknowledge。"Doubtless;butwillthewaybefollowed？Table—talkprovesthatnineoutoftenpeoplereadwhatamusesthemorintereststhemratherthanwhatinstructsthem;andthatthelastthingtheyreadissomethingwhichtellsthemdisagreeabletruthsordispelsgroundlesshopes。
Thatpopulareducationresultsinanextensivereadingofpublicationswhichfosterpleasantillusionsratherthanofthosewhichinsistonhardrealities，isbeyondquestion。Says"A
Mechanic，"writinginthePallMallGazetteofDecember3，1883：
——
"Improvededucationinstillsthedesireforculture——cultureinstillsthedesireformanythingsasyetquitebeyondworkingmen’sreach……inthefuriouscompetitiontowhichthepresentageisgivenuptheyareutterlyimpossibletothepoorerclasses;hencetheyarediscontentedwiththingsastheyare，andthemoreeducatedthemorediscontented。Hence，too，MrRuskinandMrMorrisareregardedastrueprophetsbymanyofus。"
Andthattheconnexionofcauseandeffecthereallegedisarealone，wemayseeclearlyenoughinthepresentstateofGermany。
Beingpossessedofelectoralpower，asarenowthemassofthosewhoarethusledtonurturesanguineanticipationsofbenefitstobeobtainedbysocialreorganization，itresultsthatwhoeverseekstheirvotesmustatleastrefrainfromexposingtheirmistakenbeliefs;evenifhedoesnotyieldtothetemptationtoexpressagreementwiththem。EverycandidateforParliamentispromptedtoproposeorsupportsomenewpieceofadcaptandumlegislation。Nay，eventhechiefsofparties——theseanxioustoretainofficeandthosetowrestitfromthem——
severallyaimtogetadherentsbyoutbiddingoneanother。Eachseekspopularitybypromisingmorethanhisopponenthaspromised，aswehavelatelyseen。Andthen，asdivisionsinParliamentshowus，thetraditionalloyaltytoleadersoverridesquestionsconcerningtheintrinsicproprietyofproposedmeasures。RepresentativesareunconscientiousenoughtovoteforBillswhichtheybelievetobewronginprinciple，becauseparty—needsandregardforthenetelectiondemandit。Andthusaviciouspolicyisstrengthenedevenbythosewhoseeitsviciousness。
Meanwhiletheregoesonout—of—doorsanactivepropagandatowhichalltheseinfluencesareancillary。Communistictheories，partiallyindorsedbyoneActofParliamentafteranother，andtacitlyifnotavowedlyfavouredbynumerouspublicmenseekingsupporters，arebeingadvocatedmoreandmorevociferouslyunderoneorotherformbypopularleaders，andurgedonbyorganizedsocieties。Thereisthemovementforland—nationalizationwhich，aimingatasystemofland—tenureequitableintheabstract，is，asalltheworldknows，pressedbyMrGeorgeandhisfriendswithavoweddisregardforthejustclaimsofexistingowners，andasthebasisofaschemegoingmorethanhalf—waytoState—socialism。Andthenthereisthethorough—goingDemocraticFederationofMrHyndmanandhisadherents。Wearetoldbythemthat"thehandfulofmarauderswhonowholdpossession[oftheland]haveandcanhavenorightsavebruteforceagainstthetensofmillionswhomtheywrong。"Theyexclaimagainst"theshareholderswhohavebeenallowedtolayhandsupon（！）ourgreatrailwaycommunications。"Theycondemn"aboveall，theactivecapitalistclass，theloan—mongers，thefarmers，themineexploiters，thecontractors，themiddle—men，thefactorylords——
these，themodernslavedrivers"whoexact"moreandyetmoresurplusvalueoutofthewage—slaveswhomtheyemploy。"Andtheythinkit"hightime"thattradeshouldbe"removedfromthecontrolofindividualgreed。"（8*）
Itremainstopointoutthatthetendenciesthusvariouslydisplayed，arebeingstrengthenedbypress—advocacy，dailymorepronounced。Journalists，alwayscharyofsayingthatwhichisdistastefultotheirreaders，aresomeofthemgoingwiththestreamandaddingtoitsforce。Legislativemeddlingswhichtheywouldoncehavecondemnedtheynowpassinsilence，iftheydonotadvocatethem;andtheyspeakoflaissez—faireasanexplodeddoctrine。"Peoplearenolongerfrightenedatthethoughtofsocialism，"isthestatementwhichmeetsusoneday。Onanotherday，atownwhichdoesnotadopttheFreeLibrariesActissneeredatasbeingalarmedbyameasuresomoderatelycommunistic。Andthen，alongwitheditorialassertionsthatthiseconomicevolutioniscomingandmustbeaccepted，thereisprominencegiventothecontributionsofitsadvocates。Meanwhilethosewhoregardtherecentcourseoflegislationasdisastrous，andseethatitsfuturecourseislikelytobestillmoredisastrous，arebeingreducedtosilencebythebeliefthatitisuselesstoreasonwithpeopleinastateofpoliticalintoxication。
See，then，themanyconcurrentcauseswhichthreatencontinuallytoacceleratethetransformationnowgoingon。Thereisthatspreadofregulationcausedbyfollowingprecedents，whichbecomethemoreauthoritativethefurtherthepolicyiscarried。Thereisthatincreasingneedforadministrativecompulsionsandrestraints，whichresultsfromtheunforeseenevilsandshortcomingsofprecedingcompulsionsandrestraints。
Moreover，everyadditionalState—interferencestrengthensthetacitassumptionthatitisthedutyoftheStatetodealwithallevilsandsecureallbenefits。Increasingpowerofagrowingadministrativeorganizationisaccompaniedbydecreasingpoweroftherestofthesocietytoresistitsfurthergrowthandcontrol。
Themultiplicationofcareersopenedbyadevelopingbureaucracy，temptsmembersoftheclassesregulatedbyittofavouritsextension，asaddingtothechancesofsafeandrespectableplacesfortheirrelatives。Thepeopleatlarge，ledtolookonbenefitsreceivedthroughpublicagenciesasgratisbenefits，havetheirhopescontinuallyexcitedbytheprospectsofmore。A
spreadingeducation，furtheringthediffusionofpleasingerrorsratherthanofsterntruths，renderssuchhopesbothstrongerandmoregeneral。Worsestill，suchhopesareministeredtobycandidatesforpublicchoice，toaugmenttheirchancesofsuccess;andleadingstatesmen，inpursuitofpartyends，bidforpopularfavourbycountenancingthem。Gettingrepeatedjustificationsfromnewlawsharmonizingwiththeirdoctrines，politicalenthusiastsandunwisephilanthropistspushtheiragitationswithgrowingconfidenceandsuccess。Journalism，everresponsivetopopularopinion，dailystrengthensitbygivingitvoice;whilecounter—opinion，moreandmorediscouraged，findslittleutterance。
Thusinfluencesofvariouskindsconspiretoincreasecorporateactionanddecreaseindividualaction。Andthechangeisbeingonallsidesaidedbyschemers，eachofwhomthinksonlyofhispetprojectandnotatallofthegeneralre—organizationwhichhis，joinedwithotherssuch，areworkingout。ItissaidthattheFrenchRevolutiondevoureditsownchildren。Hereananalogouscatastropheseemsnotunlikely。ThenumeroussocialisticchangesmadebyActofParliament，joinedwiththenumerousotherspresentlytobemade，willby—and—bybeallmergedinState—Socialism——swallowedinthevastwavewhichtheyhavelittlebylittleraised。
"Butwhyisthischangedescribedas’thecomingslavery’？"isaquestionwhichmanywillstillask。Thereplyissimple。Allsocialisminvolvesslavery。
Whatisessentialtotheideaofaslave？Weprimarilythinkofhimasonewhoisownedbyanother。Tobemorethannominal，however，theownershipmustbeshownbycontroloftheslave’sactions——acontrolwhichishabituallyforthebenefitofthecontroller。Thatwhichfundamentallydistinguishestheslaveisthathelaboursundercoerciontosatisfyanother’sdesires。Therelationadmitsofsundrygradations。Rememberingthatoriginallytheslaveisaprisonerwhoselifeisatthemercyofhiscaptor，itsufficesheretonotethatthereisaharshformofslaveryinwhich，treatedasananimal，hehastoexpendhisentireeffortforhisowner’sadvantage。Underasystemlessharsh，thoughoccupiedchieflyinworkingforhisowner，heisallowedashorttimeinwhichtoworkforhimself，andsomegroundonwhichtogrowextrafood。Afurtherameliorationgiveshimpowertoselltheproduceofhisplotandkeeptheproceeds。Thenwecometothestillmoremoderatedformwhichcommonlyariseswhere，havingbeenafreemanworkingonhisownland，conquestturnshimintowhatwedistinguishasaserf;andhehastogivetohisownereachyearafixedamountoflabourorproduce，orboth：retainingtheresthimself。Finally，insomecases，asinRussiauntilrecently，heisallowedtoleavehisowner’sestateandworkortradeforhimselfelsewhere，undertheconditionthatheshallpayanannualsum。Whatisitwhich，inthesecases，leadsustoqualifyourconceptionoftheslaveryasmoreorlesssevere？
Evidentlythegreaterorsmallerextenttowhicheffortiscompulsorilyexpendedforthebenefitofanotherinsteadofforself—benefit。Ifalltheslave’slabourisforhisownertheslaveryisheavy，andifbutlittleitislight。Takenowafurtherstep。Supposeanownerdies，andhisestatewithitsslavescomesintothehandsoftrustees;orsupposetheestateandeverythingonittobeboughtbyacompany;istheconditionoftheslaveanythebetteriftheamountofhiscompulsorylabourremainsthesame？Supposethatforacompanywesubstitutethecommunity;doesitmakeanydifferencetotheslaveifthetimehehastoworkforothersisasgreat，andthetimeleftforhimselfisassmall，asbefore？Theessentialquestionis——Howmuchishecompelledtolabourforotherbenefitthanhisown，andhowmuchcanhelabourforhisownbenefit？Thedegreeofhisslaveryvariesaccordingtotheratiobetweenthatwhichheisforcedtoyieldupandthatwhichheisallowedtoretain;anditmattersnotwhetherhismasterisasinglepersonorasociety。
If，withoutoption，hehastolabourforthesociety，andreceivesfromthegeneralstocksuchportionasthesocietyawardshim，hebecomesaslavetothesociety。Socialisticarrangementsnecessitateanenslavementofthiskind;andtowardssuchanenslavementmanyrecentmeasures，andstillmorethemeasuresadvocated，arecarryingus。Letusobserve，first，theirproximateeffects，andthentheirultimateeffects。
ThepolicyinitiatedbytheIndustrialDwellingsActsadmitsofdevelopment，andwilldevelop。Wheremunicipalbodiesturnhousebuilders，theyinevitablylowerthevaluesofhousesotherwisebuilt，andcheckthesupplyofmore。Everydictationrespectingmodesofbuildingandconveniencestobeprovided，diminishesthebuilder’sprofit，andpromptshimtousehiscapitalwheretheprofitisnotthusdiminished。So，too，theowner，alreadyfindingthatsmallhousesentailmuchlabourandmanylosses——alreadysubjecttotroublesofinspectionandinterference，andtoconsequentcosts，andhavinghispropertydailyrenderedamoreundesirableinvestment，ispromptedtosell;andasbuyersareforlikereasonsdeterred，hehastosellataloss。Andnowthesestill—multiplyingregulations，ending，itmaybe，asLordGreyproposes，inonerequiringtheownertomaintainthesalubrityofhishousesbyevictingdirtytenants，andthusaddingtohisotherresponsibilitiesthatofinspectorofnuisances，mustfurtherpromptsalesandfurtherdeterpurchasers：sonecessitatinggreaterdepreciation。Whatmusthappen？Themultiplicationofhouses，andespeciallysmallhouses，beingincreasinglychecked，theremustcomeanincreasingdemanduponthelocalauthoritytomakeupforthedeficientsupply。Moreandmorethemunicipalorkindredbodywillhavetobuildhouses，ortopurchasehousesrenderedunsaleabletoprivatepersonsinthewayshown——houseswhich，greatlyloweredinvalueastheymustbecome，itwill，inmanycases，paytobuyratherthantobuildnewones。Nay，thisprocessmustworkinadoubleway;sinceeveryentailedincreaseoflocaltaxationstillfurtherdepreciatesproperty。（9*）Andthen，whenintownsthisprocesshasgonesofarastomakethelocalauthoritythechiefownerofhouses，therewillbeagoodprecedentforpubliclyprovidinghousesfortheruralpopulation，asproposedintheRadicalprogramme，（10*）andasurgedbytheDemocraticFederation;whichinsistson"thecompulsoryconstructionofhealthyartisans’andagriculturallabourers’dwellingsinproportiontothepopulation。"Manifestly，thetendencyofthatwhichhasbeendone，isbeingdone，andispresentlytobedone，istoapproachthesocialisticidealinwhichthecommunityissolehouse—proprietor。
Such，too，mustbetheeffectofthedaily—growingpolicyonthetenureandutilizationoftheland。Morenumerouspublicbenefits，tobeachievedbymorenumerouspublicagencies，atthecostofaugmentedpublicburdens，mustincreasinglydeductfromthereturnsonland;until，asthedepreciationinvaluebecomesgreaterandgreater，theresistancetochangeoftenurebecomeslessandless。Already，aseveryoneknows，thereisinmanyplacesdifficultyinobtainingtenants，evenatgreatlyreducedrents;andlandofinferiorfertilityinsomecasesliesidle，orwhenfarmedbytheownerisoftenfarmedataloss。Clearlytheprofitoncapitalinvestedinlandisnotsuchthattaxes，localandgeneral，canbegreatlyraisedtosupportextendedpublicadministrations，withoutanabsorptionofitwhichwillpromptownerstosell，andmakethebestofwhatreducedpricetheycangetbyemigratingandbuyinglandnotsubjecttoheavyburdens;
as，indeed，somearenowdoing。Thisprocess，carriedfar，musthavetheresultofthrowinginferiorlandoutofcultivation;
afterwhichtherewillberaisedmoregenerallythedemandmadebyMrArch，who，addressingtheRadicalAssociationofBrightonlately，andcontendingthatexistinglandlordsdonotmaketheirlandadequatelyproductiveforthepublicbenefit，said"heshouldlikethepresentGovernmenttopassaCompulsoryCultivationBill："anapplaudedproposalwhichhejustifiedbyinstancingcompulsoryvaccination（thusfrustratingtheinfluenceofprecedent）。Andthisdemandwillbepressed，notonlybytheneedformakingthelandproductive，butalsobytheneedforemployingtheruralpopulation。AftertheGovernmenthasextendedthepracticeofhiringtheunemployedtoworkondesertedlands，orlandsacquiredatnominalprices，therewillbereachedastagewhencethereisbutasmallfurthersteptothatarrangementwhich，intheprogrammeoftheDemocraticFederation，istofollownationalizationoftheland——the"organizationofagriculturalandindustrialarmiesunderStatecontroloncooperativeprinciples。"
Toonewhodoubtswhethersucharevolutionmaybesoreached，factsmaybecitedshowingitslikelihood。InGaul，duringthedeclineoftheRomanEmpire，"sonumerouswerethereceiversincomparisonwiththepayers，andsoenormoustheweightoftaxation，thatthelabourerbrokedown，theplainsbecamedeserts，andwoodsgrewwheretheploughhadbeen。"（11*）
Inlikemanner，whentheFrenchRevolutionwasapproaching，thepublicburdenshadbecomesuch，thatmanyfarmsremaineduncultivatedandmanyweredeserted：one—quarterofthesoilwasabsolutelylyingwaste;andinsomeprovincesone—halfwasinhealth。（12*）Norhavewebeenwithoutincidentsofakindrednatureathome。BesidesthefactsthatundertheoldPoorLawtherateshadinsomeparishesrisentohalftherental，andthatinvariousplacesfarmswerelyingidle，thereisthefactthatinonecasetherateshadabsorbedthewholeproceedsofthesoil。
AtCholesbury，inBuckinghamshire，in1832，thepoor—rate"suddenlyceasedinconsequenceoftheimpossibilitytocontinueitscollection，thelandlordshavinggivenuptheirrents，thefarmerstheirtenancies，andtheclergymanhisglebeandhistithes。Theclergyman，MrJeston，statesthatinOctober，1832，theparishofficersthrewuptheirbooks，andthepoorassembledinabodybeforehisdoorwhilehewasinbed，askingforadviceandfood。Partlyfromhisownsmallmeans，partlyfromthecharityofneighbours，andpartlybyratesinaid，imposedontheneighbouringparishes，theywereforsometimesupported。"（13*）
AndtheCommissionersaddthat"thebenevolentrectorrecommendsthatthewholeofthelandshouldbedividedamongtheable—bodiedpaupers："hopingthatafterhelpaffordedfortwoyears，theymightbeabletomaintainthemselves。Thesefacts，givingcolourtotheprophecymadeinParliamentthatcontinuanceoftheoldPoorLawforanotherthirtyyearswouldthrowthelandoutofcultivation，clearlyshowthatincreaseofpublicburdensmayendinforcedcultivationunderpubliccontrol。
Then，again，comesState—ownershipofrailways。AlreadythisexiststoalargeextentontheContinent。Alreadywehavehadhereafewyearsagoloudadvocacyofit。Andnowthecry，whichwasraisedbysundrypoliticiansandpublicists，istakenupafreshbytheDemocraticFederation;whichproposes"State—appropriationofrailways，withorwithoutcompensation。"
Evidently，pressurefromabovejoinedbypressurefrombelow，islikelytoeffectthischangedictatedbythepolicyeverywherespreading;andwithitmustcomemanyattendantchanges。Forrailway—proprietors，atfirstownersandworkersofrailwaysonly，havebecomemastersofnumerousbusinessesdirectlyorindirectlyconnectedwithrailways;andthesewillhavetobepurchasedbyGovernmentwhentherailwaysarepurchased。Alreadyexclusiveletter—carrier，exclusivetransmitteroftelegrams，andonthewaytobecomeexclusivecarrierofparcels，theStatewillnotonlybeexclusivecarrierofpassengers，goods，andminerals，butwilladdtoitspresentvarioustradesmanyothertrades。
Evennow，besideserectingitsnavalandmilitaryestablishmentsandbuildingharbours，docks，breakwaters，etc。，itdoestheworkofshipbuilder，cannonfounder，small—armsmaker，manufacturerofammunition，army—clothierandbootmaker;andwhentherailwayshavebeenappropriated"withorwithoutcompensation，"astheDemocraticFederationistssay，itwillhavetobecomelocomotive—engine—builder，carriage—maker，tarpaulinandgreasemanufacturer，passenger—vesselowner，coal—miner，stone—quarrier，omnibusproprietor，etc。Meanwhileitslocallieutenants，themunicipalgovernments，alreadyinmanyplacessuppliersofwater，gas—makers，ownersandworkersoftramways，proprietorsofbaths，willdoubtlesshaveundertakenvariousotherbusinesses。AndwhentheState，directlyorbyproxy，hasthuscomeintopossessionof，orhasestablished，numerousconcernsforwholesaleproductionandforwholesaledistribution，therewillbegoodprecedentsforextendingitsfunctiontoretaildistribution：
followingsuchanexample，say，asisofferedbytheFrenchGovernment，whichhaslongbeenaretailtobacconist。
Evidentlythen，thechangesmade，thechangesinprogress，andthechangesurged，willcarryusnotonlytowardsState—ownershipoflandanddwellingsandmeansofcommunication，alltobeadministeredandworkedbyState—agents，buttowardsState—usurpationofallindustries：theprivateformsofwhich，disadvantagedmoreandmoreincompetitionwiththeState，whichcanarrangeeverythingforitsownconvenience，willmoreandmoredieaway;justasmanyvoluntaryschoolshave，inpresenceofBoard—schools。AndsowillbebroughtaboutthedesiredidealoftheSocialists。
Andnowwhentherehasbeencompassedthisdesiredideal，which"practical"politiciansarehelpingSocialiststoreach，andwhichissotemptingonthatbrightsidewhichSocialistscontemplate，whatmustbetheaccompanyingshadysidewhichtheydonotcontemplate？Itisamatterofcommonremark，oftenmadewhenamarriageisimpending，thatthosepossessedbystronghopeshabituallydwellonthepromisedpleasuresandthinknothingoftheaccompanyingpains。Afurtherexemplificationofthistruthissuppliedbythesepoliticalenthusiastsandfanaticalrevolutionists。Impressedwiththemiseriesexistingunderourpresentsocialarrangements，andnotregardingthesemiseriesascausedbytheill—workingofahumannaturebutpartiallyadaptedtothesocialstate，theyimaginethemtobeforthwithcurablebythisorthatre—arrangement。Yet，evendidtheirplanssucceeditcouldonlybebysubstitutingonekindofevilforanother。Alittledeliberatethoughtwouldshowthatundertheirproposedarrangements，theirlibertiesmustbesurrenderedinproportionastheirmaterialwelfareswerecaredfor。
Fornoformofco—operation，smallorgreat，canbecarriedonwithoutregulation，andanimpliedsubmissiontotheregulatingagencies。Evenoneoftheirownorganizationsforeffectingsocialchangesyieldsthemproof。Itiscompelledtohaveitscouncils，itslocalandgeneralofficers，itsauthoritativeleaders，whomustbeobeyedunderpenaltyofconfusionandfailure。AndtheexperienceofthosewhoareloudestintheiradvocacyofanewsocialorderunderthepaternalcontrolofaGovernment，showsthateveninprivatevoluntarily—formedsocieties，thepoweroftheregulativeorganizationbecomesgreat，ifnotirresistible;often，indeed，causinggrumblingandrestivenessamongthosecontrolled。TradesUnionswhichcarryonakindofindustrialwarindefenceofworkers’interestsversusemployers’interests，findthatsubordinationalmostmilitaryinitsstrictnessisneedfultosecureefficientaction;fordividedcouncilsprovefataltosuccess。Andeveninbodiesofco—operators，formedforcaringonmanufacturingordistributingbusinesses，andnotneedingthatobediencetoleaderswhichisrequiredwheretheaimsareoffensiveordefensive，itisstillfoundthattheadministrativeagencygainssuchsupremacythattherearisecomplaintsabout"thetyrannyoforganization。"Judgethenwhatmusthappenwhen，insteadofrelativelysmallcombinations，towhichmenmaybelongornotastheyplease，wehaveanationalcombinationinwhicheachcitizenfindshimselfincorporated，andfromwhichhecannotseparatehimselfwithoutleavingthecountry。Judgewhatmustundersuchconditionsbecomethedespotismofagraduatedandcentralizedofficialism，holdinginitshandstheresourcesofthecommunity，andhavingbehinditwhateveramountofforceitfindsrequisitetocarryoutitsdecreesandmaintainwhatitcallsorder。WellmayPrinceBismarckdisplayleaningstowardsState—socialism。
Andthenafterrecognizing，astheymustiftheythinkouttheirscheme，thepowerpossessedbytheregulativeagencyinthenewsocialsystemsotemptinglypictured，letitsadvocatesaskthemselvestowhatendthispowermustbeused。Notdwellingexclusively，astheyhabituallydo，onthematerialwell—beingandthementalgratificationstobeprovidedforthembyabeneficentadministration，letthemdwellalittleonthepricetobepaid。Theofficialscannotcreatetheneedfulsupplies：
theycanbutdistributeamongindividualsthatwhichtheindividualshavejoinedtoproduce。Ifthepublicagencyisrequiredtoprovideforthem，itmustreciprocallyrequirethemtofurnishthemeans。Therecannotbe，asunderourexistingsystem，agreementbetweenemployerandemployed——thistheschemeexcludes。Theremustinplaceofitbecommandbylocalauthoritiesoverworkers，andacceptancebytheworkersofthatwhichtheauthoritiesassigntothem。Andthis，indeed，isthearrangementdistinctly，butasitwouldseeminadvertently，pointedtobythemembersoftheDemocraticFederation。Fortheyproposethatproductionshouldbecarriedonby"agriculturalandindustrialarmiesunderState—control："apparentlynotrememberingthatarmiespre—supposegradesofofficers，bywhomobediencewouldhavetobeinsistedupon;sinceotherwiseneitherordernorefficientworkcouldbeensured。Sothateachwouldstandtowardthegoverningagencyintherelationofslavetomaster。
"Butthegoverningagencywouldbeamasterwhichheandothersmadeandkeptconstantlyincheck;andonewhichthereforewouldnotcontrolhimorothersmorethanwasneedfulforthebenefitofeachandall。"
Towhichreplythefirstrejoinderisthat，evenifso，eachmemberofthecommunityasanindividualwouldbeaslavetothecommunityasawhole。Sucharelationhashabituallyexistedinmilitantcommunities，evenunderquasi—popularformsofgovernment。InancientGreecetheacceptedprinciplewasthatthecitizenbelongedneithertohimselfnortohisfamily，butbelongedtohiscity——thecitybeingwiththeGreekequivalenttothecommunity。Andthisdoctrine，propertoastateofconstantwarfare，isadoctrinewhichsocialismunawaresre—introducesintoastateintendedtobepurelyindustrial。Theservicesofeachwillbelongtotheaggregateofall;andfortheseservices，suchreturnswillbegivenastheauthoritiesthinkproper。Sothateveniftheadministrationisofthebeneficentkindintendedtobesecured，slavery，howevermild，mustbetheoutcomeofthearrangement。
Asecondrejoinderisthattheadministrationwillpresentlybecomenotoftheintendedkind，andthattheslaverywillnotbemild。Thesocialistspeculationisvitiatedbyanassumptionlikethatwhichvitiatesthespeculationsofthe"practical"
politician。Itisassumedthatofficialismwillworkasitisintendedtowork，whichitneverdoes。ThemachineryofCommunism，likeexistingsocialmachinery，hastobeframedoutofexistinghumannature;andthedefectsofexistinghumannaturewillgenerateintheonethesameevilsasintheother。
Theloveofpower，theselfishness，theinjustice，theuntruthfulness，whichoftenincomparativelyshorttimesbringprivateorganizationstodisaster，willinevitably，wheretheireffectsaccumulatefromgenerationtogeneration，workevilsfargreaterandlessremediable;since，vastandcomplexandpossessedofalltheresources，theadministrativeorganizationoncedevelopedandconsolidated，mustbecomeirresistible。Andifthereneedsproofthattheperiodicexerciseofelectoralpowerwouldfailtopreventthis，itsufficestoinstancetheFrenchGovernment，which，purelypopularinorigin，andsubjectatshortintervalstopopularjudgment，neverthelesstramplesonthefreedomofcitizenstoanextentwhichtheEnglishdelegatestothelateTradesUnionsCongresssay"isadisgraceto，andananomalyin，aRepublicannation。"
Thefinalresultwouldbearevivalofdespotism。A
disciplinedarmyofcivilofficials，likeanarmyofmilitaryofficials，givessupremepowertoitshead——apowerwhichhasoftenledtousurpation，asinmedievalEuropeandstillmoreinJapan——nay，hasthussoledamongourneighbours，withinourowntimes。TherecentconfessionsofM。deMaupashaveshownhowreadilyaconstitutionalhead，electedandtrustedbythewholepeople，may，withtheaidofafewunscrupulousconfederates，paralysetherepresentativebodyandmakehimselfautocrat。Thatthosewhorosetopowerinasocialisticorganizationwouldnotscrupletocarryouttheiraimsatallcosts，wehavegoodreasonforconcluding。Whenwefindthatshareholderswho，sometimesgainingbutoftenlosing，havemadethatrailwaysystembywhichnationalprosperityhasbeensogreatlyincreased，arespokenofbythecounciloftheDemocraticFederationashaving"laidhands"onthemeansofcommunication，wemayinferthatthosewhodirectedasocialisticadministrationmightinterpretwithextremeperversitytheclaimsofindividualsandclassesundertheircontrol。Andwhen，further，wefindmembersofthissamecouncilurgingthattheStateshouldtakepossessionoftherailways，"withorwithoutcompensation，"wemaysuspectthattheheadsoftheidealsocietydesired，wouldbebutlittledeterredbyconsiderationsofequityfrompursuingwhateverpolicytheythoughtneedful：apolicywhichwouldalwaysbeoneidentifiedwiththeirownsupremacy。Itwouldneedbutawarwithanadjacentsociety，orsomeinternaldiscontentdemandingforciblesuppression，toatoncetransformasocialisticadministrationintoagrindingtyrannylikethatofancientPeru;underwhichthemassofthepeople，controlledbygradesofofficials，andleadinglivesthatwereinspectedout—of—doorsandindoors，labouredforthesupportoftheorganizationwhichregulatedthem，andwereleftwithbutabaresubsistenceforthemselves。
Andthenwouldbecompletelyrevived，underadifferentform，thatregimeofstatus——thatsystemofcompulsoryco—operation，thedecayingtraditionofwhichisrepresentedbytheoldToryism，andtowardswhichthenewToryismiscaringusback。
"Butweshallbeonourguardagainstallthat——weshalltakeprecautionstowardoffsuchdisasters，"willdoubtlesssaytheenthusiasts。Bethey"practical"politicianswiththeirnewregulativemeasures，orcommunistswiththeirschemesforre—organizinglabour，theirreplyiseverthesame：——"Itistruethatplansofkindrednaturehave，fromunforeseencausesoradverseaccidents，orthemisdeedsofthoseconcerned，beenbroughttofailure;butthistimeweshallprofitbypastexperiencesandsucceed。"Thereseemsnogettingpeopletoacceptthetruth，whichneverthelessisconspicuousenough，thatthewelfareofasocietyandthejusticeofitsarrangementsareatbottomdependentonthecharactersofitsmembers;andthatimprovementinneithercantakeplacewithoutthatimprovementincharacterwhichresultsfromcaringonpeacefulindustryundertherestraintsimposedbyanorderlysociallife。Thebelief，notonlyofthesocialistsbutalsoofthoseso—calledLiberalswhoarediligentlypreparingthewayforthem，isthatbydueskillanill—workinghumanitymaybeframedintowell—workinginstitutions。Itisadelusion。Thedefectivenaturesofcitizenswillshowthemselvesinthebadactingofwhateversocialstructuretheyarearrangedinto。Thereisnopoliticalalchemybywhichyoucangetgoldenconductoutofleadeninstincts。
NOTE——Tworepliesbysocialiststotheforegoingarticlehaveappearedsinceitspublication——SocialismandSlaverybyH。M。
HyndmanandHerbertSpenceronSocialismbyFrankFairman。Noticeofthemheremustbelimitedtosayingthat，asusualwithantagonists，theyascribetomeopinionswhichIdonothold。
DisapprovalofSocialismdoesnot，asMrHyndmanassumes，necessitateapprovalofexistingarrangements。ManythingshereprobatesIreprobatequiteasmuch;butIdissentfromhisremedy。Thegentlemanwhowritesunderthepseudonymof"FrankFairman，"reproachesmewithhavingrecededfromthatsympatheticdefenceofthelabouringclasseswhichhefindsinSocialStatics;butIamquiteunconsciousofanysuchchangeashealleges。Lookingwithalenienteyeupontheirregularitiesofthosewhoselivesarehard，bynomeansinvolvestoleranceofgood—for—nothings。
NOTES：
1。Hansard’sParliamentaryHistory，32。p。710。
2。FortnightlyReview，January，1884，p。17。
3。FactoriesandWorkshopsAct，41and42Vic。，cap。16。
4。SeeletterofLocalGovernment，Times，January2，1884。
5。VerificationcomesmorepromptlythanIexpected。ThisarticlehasbeenstandingintypesinceJanuary30，andintheinterval，namelyonMarch13，theLondonSchoolBoardresolvedtoapplyforauthoritytouselocalcharitablefundsforsupplyinggratismealsandclothingtoindigentchildren。Presentlythedefinitionof"indigent"willbewidened，morechildrenwillbeincludedandmorefundsakedfor。
6。FortnightlyReview，January，1884。
7。Russia，I。422。
8。SocialismmadePlain，Review，185，FleetStreet。
9。Ifanyonethinkssuchfearsaregroundless，lethimcontemplatethefactthatfrom1867—8to1880—1，ourannuallocalexpenditurefortheUnitedKingdomhasgrownfrom*36，132，834to*63，276，283;andthatduringthesame13years，themunicipalexpenditureinEnglandandWalesalone，hasgrownfrom13
millionsto30millionsayear！Howtheincreaseofpublicburdenswilljoinwithothecausesinbringingaboutpublicownership，isshownbyastatementmadebyMrW。Rathbone，M。P。，towhichanyattentionhasbeendrawnsincetheaboveparagraphwasintype。Hesays，"withinmyownexperience，localtaxationinNewYorkhasrisenfrom12s6dpercentto*212s6dpercentonthecapitalofitscitizens——achargewhichwouldmorethanabsorbthewholeincomeofanaverageEnglishlandlord。"
NineteenthCentury，February，1883。
10。FortnightlyReview，November，1883，pp。619—20。
11。Lactant。DeM。Persecut，cc。7，23。
12。Taine，L’AncienRegime，pp。337—8（intheEnglishtranslation）。
13。ReportofCommissionersforInquiryintotheAdmistrationandPracticalOperationofthePoorLaws，p。37。February20，1834。
THESINSOFLEGISLATORS
BeitorbeitnottruethatManisshapenininiquityandconceivedinsin，itisunquestionablytruethatGovernmentisbegottenofaggressionandbyaggression。Insmallundevelopedsocietieswhereforagescompletepeacehascontinued，thereexistsnothinglikewhatwecallGovernment：nocoerciveagency，butmerehonoraryheadship，ifanyheadshipatall。Intheseexceptionalcommunities，unaggressiveandfromspecialcausesunaggressedupon，thereissolittledeviationfromthevirtuesoftruthfulness，honesty，justice，andgenerosity，thatnothingbeyondanoccasionalexpressionofpublicopinionbyinformally—assembledeldersisneedful。（1*）Conversely，wefindproofsthat，atfirstrecognizedbuttemporarilyduringleadershipinwar，theauthorityofachiefispermanentlyestablishedbycontinuityofwar;andgrowsstrongwheresuccessfulaggressionendsinsubjectionofneighbouringtribes。
Andthenceonwards，examplesfurnishedbyallracesputbeyonddoubtthetruth，thatthecoercivepowerofthechief，developingintoking，andkingofkings（afrequenttitleintheancientEast），becomesgreatinproportionasconquestbecomeshabitualandtheunionofsubduednationsextensive。（2*）Comparisonsdiscloseafurthertruthwhichshouldbeeverpresenttous——
thetruththattheaggressivenessoftherulingpowerinsideasocietyincreaseswithitsaggressivenessoutsidethesociety。
As，tomakeanefficientarmy，thesoldiersintheirseveralgradesmustbesubordinatetothecommander;so，tomakeanefficientfightingcommunity，mustthecitizensbesubordinatetotherulingpower。Theymustfurnishrecruitstotheextentdemanded，andyieldupwhateverpropertyisrequired。
AnobviousimplicationisthattheethicsofGovernment，originallyidenticalwiththeethicsofwar，mustlongremainakintothem;andcandivergefromthemonlyaswarlikeactivitiesandpreparationsbecomeless。Currentevidenceshowsthis。AtpresentontheContinent，thecitizenisfreeonlywhenhisservicesasasoldierarenotdemanded;andduringtherestofhislifeheislargelyenslavedinsupportingthemilitaryorganization。Evenamongourselves，aseriouswarwould，bythenecessitatedconscription，suspendthelibertiesoflargenumbersandtrenchonthelibertiesoftherest，bytakingfromthemthroughtaxeswhateversupplieswereneeded——thatis，forcingthemtolaboursomanydaysmorefortheState。InevitablytheestablishedcodeofconductinthedealingsofGovernmentswithcitizens，mustbealliedtotheircodeofconductintheirdealingswithoneanother。
Iamnot，underthetitleofthisarticle，abouttotreatofthetrespassesandtherevengesfortrespasses，accountsofwhichconstitutethegreatmassofhistory;nortotracetheinternalinequitieswhichhaveeveraccompaniedtheeternalinequities。I
donotproposeheretocataloguethecrimesofirresponsiblelegislators;beginningwiththatofKingKhufu，thestonesofwhosevasttombwerelaidinthebloodysweatoftensofthousandsofslavestoilingthroughlongyearsunderthelash;
goingontothosecommittedbyconquerors，Egyptian，Assyrian，Persian，Macedonian，Roman，andtherest;andendingwiththoseofNapoleon，whoseambitiontosethisfootontheneckofthecivilizedworld，costnotlessthantwomillionlives。（3*）NordoIproposeheretoenumeratethosesinsofresponsiblelegislatorsseeninthelonglistoflawsmadeintheinterestsofdominantclasses——alistcomingdowninourowncountrytothoseunderwhichtherewerelongmaintainedslaveryandtheslave—trade，torturingnearly40，000negroesannuallybyclosepackingduringatropicalvoyage，andkillingalargepercentageofthem，andendingwiththatofthecorn—laws，bywhich，saysSirErskineMay，"toensurehighrents，ithadbeendecreedthatmultitudesshouldhunger。"（4*）
Not，indeed，thatapresentationoftheconspicuousmisdeedsoflegislators，responsibleandirresponsible，wouldbeuseless。