Iamsufficientlyawarethattheredundanttwenty—eightmillions，orseventy—sevenmillions，thatIhavementioned，couldneverhaveexisted。ItisaperfectlyjustobservationofMrGodwin，that，’Thereisaprincipleinhumansociety，bywhichpopulationisperpetuallykeptdowntothelevelofthemeansofsubsistence。’Thesolequestionis，whatisthisprinciple？isitsomeobscureandoccultcause？Isitsomemysteriousinterferenceofheavenwhich，atacertainperiod，strikesthemenwithimpotence，andthewomenwithbarrenness？Orisitacause，opentoourresearches，withinourview，acause，whichhasconstantlybeenobservedtooperate，thoughwithvariedforce，ineverystateinwhichmanhasbeenplaced？Isitnotadegreeofmisery，thenecessaryandinevitableresultofthelawsofnature，whichhumaninstitutions，sofarfromaggravating，havetendedconsiderablytomitigate，thoughtheynevercanremove？
　　Itmaybecurioustoobserve，inthecasethatwehavebeensupposing，howsomeofthelawswhichatpresentgoverncivilizedsociety，wouldbesuccessivelydictatedbythemostimperiousnecessity。Asman，accordingtoMrGodwin，isthecreatureoftheimpressionstowhichheissubject，thegoadingsofwantcouldnotcontinuelong，beforesomeviolationsofpublicorprivatestockwouldnecessarilytakeplace。Astheseviolationsincreasedinnumberandextent，themoreactiveandcomprehensiveintellectsofthesocietywouldsoonperceive，thatwhilepopulationwasfastincreasing，theyearlyproduceofthecountrywouldshortlybegintodiminish。Theurgencyofthecasewouldsuggestthenecessityofsomemediatemeasurestobetakenforthegeneralsafety。Somekindofconventionwouldthenbecalled，andthedangeroussituationofthecountrystatedinthestrongestterms。Itwouldbeobserved，thatwhiletheylivedinthemidstofplenty，itwasoflittleconsequencewholabouredtheleast，orwhopossessedtheleast，aseverymanwasperfectlywillingandreadytosupplythewantsofhisneighbour。Butthatthequestionwasnolongerwhetheronemanshouldgivetoanotherthatwhichhedidnotusehimself，butwhetherheshouldgivetohisneighbourthefoodwhichwasabsolutelynecessarytohisownexistence。Itwouldberepresented，thatthenumberofthosethatwereinwantverygreatlyexceededthenumberandmeansofthosewhoshouldsupplythem;thatthesepressingwants，whichfromthestateoftheproduceofthecountrycouldnotallbegratified，hadoccasionedsomeflagrantviolationsofjustice;thattheseviolationshadalreadycheckedtheincreaseoffood，andwould，iftheywerenotbysomemeansorotherprevented，throwthewholecommunityinconfusion;thatimperiousnecessityseemedtodictatethatayearlyincreaseofproduceshould，ifpossible，beobtainedatallevents;thatinordertoeffectthisfirst，great，andindispensablepurpose，itwouldbeadvisabletomakeamorecompletedivisionofland，andtosecureeveryman’sstockagainstviolationbythemostpowerfulsanctions，evenbydeathitself。
　　Itmightbeurgedperhapsbysomeobjectorsthat，asthefertilityofthelandincreased，andvariousaccidentsoccurred，theshareofsomemenmightbemuchmorethansufficientfortheirsupport，andthatwhenthereignofself—lovewasonceestablished，theywouldnotdistributetheirsurplusproducewithoutsomecompensationinreturn。Itwouldbeobserved，inanswer，thatthiswasaninconveniencegreatlytobelamented;
　　butthatitwasanevilwhichborenocomparisontotheblacktrainofdistressesthatwouldinevitablybeoccasionedbytheinsecurityofproperty;thatthequantityoffoodwhichonemancouldconsumewasnecessarilylimitedbythenarrowcapacityofthehumanstomach;thatitwasnotcertainlyprobablethatheshouldthrowawaytherest;butthatevenifheexchangedhissurplusfoodforthelabourofothers，andmadetheminsomedegreedependentonhim，thiswouldstillbebetterthanthattheseothersshouldabsolutelystarve。
　　Itseemshighlyprobable，therefore，thatanadministrationofproperty，notverydifferentfromthatwhichprevailsincivilizedstatesatpresent，wouldbeestablished，asthebest，thoughinadequate，remedyfortheevilswhichwerepressingonthesociety。
　　Thenextsubjectthatwouldcomeunderdiscussion，intimatelyconnectedwiththepreceding，isthecommercebetweenthesexes。
　　Itwouldbeurgedbythosewhohadturnedtheirattentiontothetruecauseofthedifficultiesunderwhichthecommunitylaboured，thatwhileeverymanfeltsecurethatallhischildrenwouldbewellprovidedforbygeneralbenevolence，thepowersoftheearthwouldbeabsolutelyinadequatetoproducefoodforthepopulationwhichwouldinevitablyensue;thatevenifthewholeattentionandlabourofthesocietyweredirectedtothissolepoint，andif，bythemostperfectsecurityofproperty，andeveryotherencouragementthatcouldbethoughtof，thegreatestpossibleincreaseofproducewereyearlyobtained;yetstill，thattheincreaseoffoodwouldbynomeanskeeppacewiththemuchmorerapidincreaseofpopulation;thatsomechecktopopulationthereforewasimperiouslycalledfor;thatthemostnaturalandobviouscheckseemedtobetomakeeverymanprovideforhisownchildren;thatthiswouldoperateinsomerespectasameasureandguideintheincreaseofpopulation，asitmightbeexpectedthatnomanwouldbringbeingsintotheworld，forwhomhecouldnotfindthemeansofsupport;thatwherethisnotwithstandingwasthecase，itseemednecessary，fortheexampleofothers，thatthedisgraceandinconvenienceattendingsuchaconductshouldfallupontheindividual，whohadthusinconsideratelyplUngedhimselfandinnocentchildreninmiseryandwant。
　　Theinstitutionofmarriage，oratleast，ofsomeexpressorimpliedobligationoneverymantosupporthisownchildren，seemstobethenaturalresultofthesereasoningsinacommunityunderthedifficultiesthatwehavesupposed。
　　Theviewofthesedifficultiespresentsuswithaverynaturaloriginofthesuperiordisgracewhichattendsabreachofchastityinthewomanthanintheman。Itcouldnotbeexpectedthatwomenshouldhaveresourcessufficienttosupporttheirownchildren。Whenthereforeawomanwasconnectedwithaman，whohadenteredintonocompacttomaintainherchildren，and，awareoftheinconveniencesthathemightbringuponhimself，haddesertedher，thesechildrenmustnecessarilyfallforsupportuponthesociety，orstarve。Andtopreventthefrequentrecurrenceofsuchaninconvenience，asitwouldbehighlyunjusttopunishsonaturalafaultbypersonalrestraintorinfliction，themenmightagreetopunishitwithdisgrace。Theoffenceisbesidesmoreobviousandconspicuousinthewoman，andlessliabletoanymistake。Thefatherofachildmaynotalwaysbeknown，butthesameuncertaintycannoteasilyexistwithregardtothemother。Wheretheevidenceoftheoffencewasmostcomplete，andtheinconveniencetothesocietyatthesametimethegreatest，thereitwasagreedthatthelargeshareofblameshouldfall。Theobligationoneverymantomaintainhischildren，thesocietywouldenforce，iftherewereoccasion;andthegreaterdegreeofinconvenienceorlabour，towhichafamilywouldnecessarilysubjecthim，addedtosomeportionofdisgracewhicheveryhumanbeingmustincurwholeadsanotherintounhappiness，mightbeconsideredasasufficientpunishmentfortheman。
　　Thatawomanshouldatpresentbealmostdrivenfromsocietyforanoffencewhichmencommitnearlywithimpunity，seemstobeundoubtedlyabreachofnaturaljustice。Buttheoriginofthecustom，asthemostobviousandeffectualmethodofpreventingthefrequentrecurrenceofaseriousinconveniencetoacommunity，appearstobenatural，thoughnotperhapsperfectlyjustifiable。Thisorigin，however，isnowlostinthenewtrainofideaswhichthecustomhassincegenerated。Whatatfirstmightbedictatedbystatenecessityisnowsupportedbyfemaledelicacy，andoperateswiththegreatestforceonthatpartofsocietywhere，iftheoriginalintentionofthecustomwerepreserved，thereistheleastrealoccasionforit。
　　Whenthesetwofundamentallawsofsociety，thesecurityofproperty，andtheinstitutionofmarriage，wereonceestablished，inequalityofconditionsmustnecessarilyfollow。Thosewhowerebornafterthedivisionofpropertywouldcomeintoaworldalreadypossessed。Iftheirparents，fromhavingtoolargeafamily，couldnotgivethemsufficientfortheirsupport，whataretheytodoinaworldwhereeverythingisappropriated？Wehaveseenthefataleffectsthatwouldresulttoasociety，ifeverymanhadavalidclaimtoanequalshareoftheproduceoftheearth。Themembersofafamilywhichwasgrowntoolargefortheoriginaldivisionoflandappropriatedtoitcouldnotthendemandapartofthesurplusproduceofothers，asadebtofjustice。Ithasappeared，thatfromtheinevitablelawsofournaturesomehumanbeingsmustsufferfromwant。Thesearetheunhappypersonswho，inthegreatlotteryoflife，havedrawnablank。Thenumberoftheseclaimantswouldsoonexceedtheabilityofthesurplusproducetosupply。Moralmeritisaverydifficultdistinguishingcriterion，exceptinextremecases。Theownersofsurplusproducewouldingeneralseeksomemoreobviousmarkofdistinction。Anditseemsbothnaturalandjustthat，exceptuponparticularoccasions，theirchoiceshouldfalluponthosewhowereable，andprofessedthemselveswilling，toexerttheirstrengthinprocuringafurthersurplusproduce;andthusatoncebenefitingthecommunity，andenablingtheseproprietorstoaffordassistancetogreaternumbers。Allwhowereinwantoffoodwouldbeurgedbyimperiousnecessitytooffertheirlabourinexchangeforthisarticlesoabsolutelyessentialtoexistence。Thefundappropriatedtothemaintenanceoflabourwouldbetheaggregatequantityoffoodpossessedbytheownersoflandbeyondtheirownconsumption。Whenthedemandsuponthisfundweregreatandnumerous，itwouldnaturallybedividedinverysmallshares。Labourwouldbeillpaid。Menwouldoffertoworkforabaresubsistence，andtherearingoffamilieswouldbecheckedbysicknessandmisery。Onthecontrary，whenthisfundwasincreasingfast，whenitwasgreatinproportiontothenumberofclaimants，itwouldbedividedinmuchlargershares。
　　Nomanwouldexchangehislabourwithoutreceivinganamplequantityoffoodinreturn。Labourerswouldliveineaseandcomfort，andwouldconsequentlybeabletorearanumerousandvigorousoffspring。
　　Onthestateofthisfund，thehappiness，orthedegreeofmisery，prevailingamongthelowerclassesofpeopleineveryknownstateatpresentchieflydepends。Andonthishappiness，ordegreeofmisery，dependstheincrease，stationariness，ordecreaseofpopulation。
　　Andthusitappears，thatasocietyconstitutedaccordingtothemostbeautifulformthatimaginationcanconceive，withbenevolenceforitsmovingprinciple，insteadofself—love，andwitheveryevildispositioninallitsmemberscorrectedbyreasonandnotforce，would，fromtheinevitablelawsofnature，andnotfromanyoriginaldepravityofman，inaveryshortperioddegenerateintoasocietyconstructeduponaplannotessentiallydifferentfromthatwhichprevailsineveryknownstateatpresent;Imean，asocietydividedintoaclassofproprietors，andaclassoflabourers，andwithself—lovethemain—springofthegreatmachine。
　　InthesuppositionIhavemade，Ihaveundoubtedlytakentheincreaseofpopulationsmaller，andtheincreaseofproducegreater，thantheyreallywouldbe。Noreasoncanbeassignedwhy，underthecircumstancesIhavesupposed，populationshouldnotincreasefasterthaninanyknowninstance。Ifthenweweretotaketheperiodofdoublingatfifteenyears，insteadoftwenty—fiveyears，andreflectuponthelabournecessarytodoubletheproduceinsoshortatime，evenifweallowitpossible，wemayventuretopronouncewithcertaintythatifMrGodwin’ssystemofsocietywasestablishedinitsutmostperfection，insteadofmyriadsofcenturies，notthirtyyearscouldelapsebeforeitsutterdestructionfromthesimpleprincipleofpopulation。
　　Ihavetakennonoticeofemigrationforobviousreasons。IfsuchsocietieswereinstitutedinotherpartsofEurope，thesecountrieswouldbeunderthesamedifficultieswithregardtopopulation，andcouldadmitnofreshmembersintotheirbosoms。
　　Ifthisbeautifulsocietywereconfinedtothisisland，itmusthavedegeneratedstrangelyfromitsoriginalpurity，andadministerbutaverysmallportionofthehappinessitproposed;
　　inshort，itsessentialprinciplemustbecompletelydestroyed，beforeanyofitsmemberswouldvoluntarilyconsenttoleaveit，andliveundersuchgovernmentsasatpresentexistinEurope，orsubmittotheextremehardshipsoffirstsettlersinnewregions。
　　Wewellknow，fromrepeatedexperience，howmuchmiseryandhardshipmenwillundergointheirowncountry，beforetheycandeterminetodesertit;andhowoftenthemosttemptingproposalsofembarkingfornewsettlementshavebeenrejectedbypeoplewhoappearedtobealmoststarving。
　　CHAPTER11
　　MrGodwin’sconjectureconcerningthefutureextinctionofthepassionbetweenthesexes—Littleapparentgroundsforsuchaconjecture—Passionoflovenotinconsistenteitherwithreasonorvirtue。
　　WEhavesupportedMrGodwin’ssystemofsocietyoncecompletelyestablished。Butitissupposinganimpossibility。Thesamecausesinnaturewhichwoulddestroyitsorapidly，wereitonceestablished，wouldpreventthepossibilityofitsestablishment。
　　Anduponwhatgroundswecanpresumeachangeinthesenaturalcauses，Iamutterlyatalosstoconjecture。Nomovetowardstheextinctionofthepassionbetweenthesexeshastakenplaceinthefiveorsixthousandyearsthattheworldhasexisted。Meninthedeclineoflifehaveinallagesdeclaimedagainstapassionwhichtheyhaveceasedtofeel，butwithaslittlereasonassuccess。Thosewhofromcoldnessofconstitutionaltemperamenthaveneverfeltwhatloveis，willsurelybeallowedtobeveryincompetentjudgeswithregardtothepowerofthispassiontocontributetothesumofpleasurablesensationsinlife。Thosewhohavespenttheiryouthincriminalexcessesandhavepreparedforthemselves，asthecomfortsoftheirage，corporealdebilityandmentalremorsemaywellinveighagainstsuchpleasuresasvainandfutile，andunproductiveoflastingsatisfaction。Butthepleasuresofpurelovewillbearthecontemplationofthemostimprovedreason，andthemostexaltedvirtue。Perhapsthereisscarcelyamanwhohasonceexperiencedthegenuinedelightofvirtuouslove，howevergreathisintellectualpleasuremayhavebeen，thatdoesnotlookbacktotheperiodasthesunnyspotinhiswholelife，wherehisimaginationlovestobask，whichherecollectsandcontemplateswiththefondestregrets，andwhichhewouldmostwishtoliveoveragain。Thesuperiorityofintellectualtosensualpleasuresconsistsratherintheirfillingupmoretime，intheirhavingalargerrange，andintheirbeinglessliabletosatiety，thanintheirbeingmorerealandessential。
　　Intemperanceineveryenjoymentdefeatsitsownpurpose。A
　　walkinthefinestdaythroughthemostbeautifulcountry，ifpursuedtoofar，endsinpainandfatigue。Themostwholesomeandinvigoratingfood，eatenwithanunrestrainedappetite，producesweaknessinsteadofstrength。Evenintellectualpleasures，thoughcertainlylessliablethanotherstosatiety，pursuedwithtoolittleintermission，debilitatethebody，andimpairthevigourofthemind。Toargueagainsttherealityofthesepleasuresfromtheirabuseseemstobehardlyjust。Morality，accordingtoMrGodwin，isacalculationofconsequences，or，asArchdeaconPaleyveryjustlyexpressesit，thewillofGod，ascollectedfromgeneralexpediency。Accordingtoeitherofthesedefinitions，asensualpleasurenotattendedwiththeprobabilityofunhappyconsequencesdoesnotoffendagainstthelawsofmorality，andifitbepursuedwithsuchadegreeoftemperanceastoleavethemostampleroomforintellectualattainments，itmustundoubtedlyaddtothesumofpleasurablesensationsinlife。Virtuouslove，exaltedbyfriendship，seemstobethatsortofmixtureofsensualandintellectualenjoymentparticularlysuitedtothenatureofman，andmostpowerfullycalculatedtoawakenthesympathiesofthesoul，andproducethemostexquisitegratifications。
　　MrGodwinsays，inordertoshewtheevidentinferiorityofthepleasuresofsense，’Stripthecommerceofthesexesofallitsattendantcircumstances，anditwouldbegenerallydespised’
　　（Bk。I，ch。5;inthethirdedition，Vol。I，pp。71—72）。Hemightaswellsaytoamanwhoadmiredtrees：stripthemoftheirspreadingbranchesandlovelyfoliage，andwhatbeautycanyouseeinabarepole？Butitwasthetreewiththebranchesandfoliage，andnotwithoutthem，thatexcitedadmiration。Onefeatureofanobjectmaybeasdistinct，andexciteasdifferentemotions，fromtheaggregateasanytwothingsthemostremote，asabeautifulwoman，andamapofMadagascar。Itis’thesymmetryofperson，thevivacity，thevoluptuoussoftnessoftemper，theaffectionatekindnessoffeelings，theimaginationandthewit’ofawomanthatexcitethepassionoflove，andnotthemeredistinctionofherbeingfemale。Urgedbythepassionoflove，menhavebeendrivenintoactshighlyprejudicialtothegeneralinterestsofsociety，butprobablytheywouldhavefoundnodifficultyinresistingthetemptation，haditappearedintheformofawomanwithnootherattractionswhateverbuthersex。
　　Tostripsensualpleasuresofalltheiradjuncts，inordertoprovetheirinferiority，istodepriveamagnetofsomeofitsmostessentialcausesofattraction，andthentosaythatitisweakandinefficient。
　　Inthepursuitofeveryenjoyment，whethersensualorintellectual，reason，thatfacultywhichenablesustocalculateconsequences，isthepropercorrectiveandguide。Itisprobablethereforethatimprovedreasonwillalwaystendtopreventtheabuseofsensualpleasures，thoughitbynomeansfollowsthatitwillextinguishthem。
　　Ihaveendeavouredtoexposethefallacyofthatargumentwhichinfersanunlimitedprogressfromapartialimprovement，thelimitsofwhichcannotbeexactlyascertained。Ithasappeared，Ithink，thattherearemanyinstancesinwhichadecidedprogresshasbeenobserved，whereyetitwouldbeagrossabsurditytosupposethatprogressindefinite。Buttowardstheextinctionofthepassionbetweenthesexes，noobservableprogresswhateverhashithertobeenmade。Tosupposesuchanextinction，therefore，ismerelytoofferanunfoundedconjecture，unsupportedbyanyphilosophicalprobabilities。
　　Itisatruth，whichhistoryIamafraidmakestooclear，thatsomemenofthehighestmentalpowershavebeenaddictednotonlytoamoderate，buteventoanimmoderateindulgenceinthepleasuresofsensuallove。Butallowing，asIshouldbeinclinedtodo，notwithstandingnumerousinstancestothecontrary，thatgreatintellectualexertionstendtodiminishtheempireofthispassionoverman，itisevidentthatthemassofmankindmustbeimprovedmorehighlythanthebrightestornamentsofthespeciesatpresentbeforeanydifferencecantakeplacesufficientsensiblytoaffectpopulation。Iwouldbynomeanssupposethatthemassofmankindhasreacheditstermofimprovement，buttheprincipalargumentofthisessaytendstoplaceinastrongpointofviewtheimprobabilitythatthelowerclassesofpeopleinanycountryshouldeverbesufficientlyfreefromwantandlabourtoobtainanyhighdegreeofintellectualimprovement。
　　CHAPTER12
　　MrGodwin’sconjectureconcerningtheindefiniteprolongationofhumanlife—Improperinferencedrawnfromtheeffectsofmentalstimulantsonthehumanframe，illustratedinvariousinstances—
　　Conjecturesnotfoundedonanyindicationsinthepastnottobeconsideredasphilosophicalconjectures—MrGodwin’sandMrCondorcet’sconjecturerespectingtheapproachofmantowardsimmortalityonearth，acuriousinstanceoftheinconsistencyofscepticism。
　　MRGODWIN’Sconjecturerespectingthefutureapproachofmantowardsimmortalityonearthseemstoberatheroddlyplacedinachapterwhichprofessestoremovetheobjectiontohissystemofequalityfromtheprincipleofpopulation。Unlesshesupposesthepassionbetweenthesexestodecreasefasterthanthedurationoflifeincreases，theearthwouldbemoreencumberedthanever。ButleavingthisdifficultytoMrGodwin，letusexamineafewoftheappearancesfromwhichtheprobableimmortalityofmanisinferred。
　　Toprovethepowerofthemindoverthebody，MrGodwinobserves：
　　Howoftendowefindapieceofgoodnewsdissipatingadistemper？Howcommonistheremarkthatthoseaccidentswhicharetotheindolentasourceofdiseaseareforgottenandextirpatedinthebusyandactive？Iwalktwentymilesinanindolentandhalfdeterminedtemperandamextremelyfatigued。I
　　walktwentymilesfullofardour，andwithamotivethatengrossesmysoul，andIcomeinasfreshandasalertaswhenI
　　beganmyjourney。Emotionexcitedbysomeunexpectedword，byaletterthatisdeliveredtous，occasionsthemostextraordinaryrevolutionsinourframe，acceleratesthecirculation，causesthehearttopalpitate，thetonguetorefuseitsoffice，andhasbeenknowntooccasiondeathbyextremeanguishorextremejoy。Thereisnothingindeedofwhichthephysicianismoreawarethanofthepowerofthemindinassistingorreadingconvalescence。
　　Theinstancesherementionedarechieflyinstancesoftheeffectsofmentalstimulantsonthebodilyframe。Nopersonhaseverforamomentdoubtedthenear，thoughmysterious，connectionofmindandbody。Butitisarguingtotallywithoutknowledgeofthenatureofstimulantstosuppose，eitherthattheycanbeappliedcontinuallywithequalstrength，oriftheycouldbesoapplied，foratime，thattheywouldnotexhaustandwearoutthesubject。Insomeofthecasesherenoticed，thestrengthofthestimulusdependsuponitsnoveltyandunexpectedness。Suchastimuluscannot，fromitsnature，berepeatedoftenwiththesameeffect，asitwouldbyrepetitionlosethatpropertywhichgivesititsstrength。
　　Intheothercases，theargumentisfromasmallandpartialeffect，toagreatandgeneraleffect，whichwillinnumberlessinstancesbefoundtobeaveryfallaciousmodeofreasoning。Thebusyandactivemanmayinsomedegreecounteract，orwhatisperhapsnearerthetruth，maydisregardthoseslightdisordersofframewhichfixtheattentionofamanwhohasnothingelsetothinkof;butthisdoesnottendtoprovethatactivityofmindwillenableamantodisregardahighfever，thesmallpox，ortheplague。
　　Themanwhowalkstwentymileswithamotivethatengrosseshissouldoesnotattendtohisslightfatigueofbodywhenhecomesin;butdoublehismotive，andsethimtowalkanothertwentymiles，quadrupleit，andlethimstartathirdtime，andsoon;andthelengthofhiswalkwillultimatelydependuponmuscleandnotmind。Powell，foramotiveoftenguineas，wouldhavewalkedfurtherprobablythanMrGodwin，foramotiveofhalfamillion。Amotiveofuncommonpoweractinguponaframeofmoderatestrengthwould，perhaps，makethemankillhimselfbyhisexertions，butitwouldnotmakehimwalkahundredmilesintwenty—fourhours。Thisstatementofthecaseshewsthefallacyofsupposingthatthepersonwasreallynotatalltiredinhisfirstwalkoftwentymiles，becausehedidnotappeartobeso，or，perhaps，scarcelyfeltanyfatiguehimself。Themindcannotfixitsattentionstronglyonmorethanoneobjectatonce。Thetwentythousandpoundssoengrossedhisthoughtsthathedidnotattendtoanyslightsorenessoffoot，orstiffnessoflimb。Buthadhebeenreallyasfreshandasalert，aswhenhefirstsetoff，hewouldbeabletogothesecondtwentymileswithasmucheaseasthefirst，andsoon，thethird，&c。Whichleadstoapalpableabsurdity。Whenahorseofspiritisnearlyhalftired，bythestimulusofthespur，addedtothepropermanagementofthebit，hemaybeputsomuchuponhismettle，thathewouldappeartoastanderby，asfreshandashighspiritedasifhehadnotgoneamile。Nay，probably，thehorsehimself，whileintheheatandpassionoccasionedbythisstimulus，wouldnotfeelanyfatigue;butitwouldbestrangelycontrarytoallreasonandexperience，toarguefromsuchanappearancethat，ifthestimuluswerecontinued，thehorsewouldneverbetired。Thecryofapackofhoundswillmakesomehorses，afterajourneyoffortymilesontheroad，appearasfresh，andaslively，aswhentheyfirstsetout。Weretheythentobehunted，noperceptibleabatementwouldatfirstbefeltbytheirridersintheirstrengthandspirits，buttowardstheendofahardday，thepreviousfatiguewouldhaveitsfullweightandeffect，andmakethemtiresooner。WhenIhavetakenalongwalkwithmygun，andmetwithnosuccess，Ihavefrequentlyreturnedhomefeelingaconsiderabledegreeofuncomfortablenessfromfatigue。Anotherday，perhaps，goingovernearlythesameextentofgroundwithagooddealofsport，Ihavecomehomefresh，andalert。Thedifferenceinthesensationoffatigueuponcomingin，onthedifferentdays，mayhavebeenverystriking，butonthefollowingmorningsIhavefoundnosuchdifference。IhavenotperceivedthatIwaslessstiffinmylimbs，orlessfootsore，onthemorningafterthedayofthesport，thanontheothermorning。
　　Inallthesecases，stimulantsuponthemindseemtoactratherbytakingofftheattentionfromthebodilyfatigue，thanbyreallyandtrulycounteractingit。Iftheenergyofmymindhadreallycounteractedthefatigueofmybody，whyshouldIfeeltiredthenextmorning？ifthestimulusofthehoundshadascompletelyovercomethefatigueofthejourneyinreality，asitdidinappearance，whyshouldthehorsebetiredsoonerthanifhehadnotgonethefortymiles？IhappentohaveaverybadfitofthetoothacheatthetimeIamwritingthis。Intheeagernessofcomposition，Ieverynowandthen，foramomentortwo，forgetit。YetIcannothelpthinkingthattheprocess，whichcausesthepain，isstillgoingforwards，andthatthenerveswhichcarrytheinformationofittothebrainareevenduringthesemomentsdemandingattentionandroomfortheirappropriatevibrations。
　　Themultiplicityofvibrationsofanotherkindmayperhapspreventtheiradmission，orovercomethemforatimewhenadmitted，tillashootofextraordinaryenergyputsallothervibrationtotherout，destroysthevividnessofmyargumentativeconceptions，andridestriumphantinthebrain。Inthiscase，asintheothers，themindseemstohavelittleornopowerincounteractingorcuringthedisorder，butmerelypossessesapower，ifstronglyexcited，offixingitsattentiononothersubjects。
　　Idonot，however，meantosaythatasoundandvigorousmindhasnotendencywhatevertokeepthebodyinasimilarstate。Socloseandintimateistheunionofmindandbodythatitwouldbehighlyextraordinaryiftheydidnotmutuallyassisteachother’sfunctions。But，perhaps，uponacomparison，thebodyhasmoreeffectuponthemindthantheminduponthebody。Thefirstobjectofthemindistoactaspurveyortothewantsofthebody。Whenthesewantsarecompletelysatisfied，anactivemindisindeedapttowanderfurther，torangeoverthefieldsofscience，orsportintheregionsof。Imagination，tofancythatithas’shuffledoffthismortalcoil’，andisseekingitskindredelement。Butalltheseeffortsarelikethevainexertionsofthehareinthefable。Theslowlymovingtortoise，thebody，neverfailstoovertakethemind，howeverwidelyandextensivelyitmayhaveranged，andthebrightestandmostenergeticintellects，unwillinglyastheymayattendtothefirstorsecondsummons，mustultimatelyyieldtheempireofthebraintothecallsofhunger，orsinkwiththeexhaustedbodyinsleep。
　　Itseemsasifonemightsaywithcertaintythatifamedicinecouldbefoundtoimmortalizethebodytherewouldbenofearofits[not]beingaccompaniedbytheimmortalityofthemind。Buttheimmortalityofthemindbynomeansseemstoinfertheimmortalityofthebody。Onthecontrary，thegreatestconceivableenergyofmindwouldprobablyexhaustanddestroythestrengthofthebody。Atemperatevigourofmindappearstobefavourabletohealth，butverygreatintellectualexertionstendrather，ashasbeenoftenobserved，towearoutthescabbard。
　　MostoftheinstanceswhichMrGodwinhasbroughttoprovethepowerofthemindoverthebody，andtheconsequentprobabilityoftheimmortalityofman，areofthislatterdescription，andcouldsuchstimulantsbecontinuallyapplied，insteadoftendingtoimmortalize，theywouldtendveryrapidlytodestroythehumanframe。
　　TheprobableincreaseofthevoluntarypowerofmanoverhisanimalframecomesnextunderMrGodwin’sconsideration，andheconcludesbysaying，thatthevoluntarypowerofsomemen，inthisrespect，isfoundtoextendtovariousarticlesinwhichothermenareimpotent。Butthisisreasoningagainstanalmostuniversalrulefromafewexceptions;andtheseexceptionsseemtoberathertricks，thanpowersthatmaybeexertedtoanygoodpurpose。Ihaveneverheardofanymanwhocouldregulatehispulseinafever，anddoubtmuch，ifanyofthepersonsherealludedtohavemadethesmallestperceptibleprogressintheregularcorrectionofthedisordersoftheirframesandtheconsequentprolongationoftheirlives。
　　MrGodwinsays，’Nothingcanbemoreunphilosophicalthantoconclude，that，becauseacertainspeciesofpowerisbeyondthetrainofourpresentobservation，thatitisbeyondthelimitsofthehumanmind。’IownmyideasofphilosophyareinthisrespectwidelydifferentfromMrGodwin’s。TheonlydistinctionthatI
　　see，betweenaphilosophicalconjecture，andtheassertionsoftheProphetMrBrothers，is，thatoneisfoundeduponindicationsarisingfromthetrainofourpresentobservations，andtheotherhasnofoundationatall。Iexpectthatgreatdiscoveriesareyettotakeplaceinallthebranchesofhumanscience，particularlyinphysics;butthemomentweleavepastexperienceasthefoundationofourconjecturesconcerningthefuture，and，stillmore，ifourconjecturesabsolutelycontradictpastexperience，wearethrownuponawidefieldofuncertainty，andanyonesuppositionisthenjustasgoodasanother。Ifapersonweretotellmethatmenwouldultimatelyhaveeyesandhandsbehindthemaswellasbeforethem，Ishouldadmittheusefulnessoftheaddition，butshouldgiveasareasonformydisbeliefofit，thatIsawnoindicationswhateverinthepastfromwhichIcouldinferthesmallestprobabilityofsuchachange。Ifthisbenotallowedavalidobjection，allconjecturesarealike，andallequallyphilosophical。Iownitappearstomethatinthetrainofourpresentobservations，therearenomoregenuineindicationsthatmanwillbecomeimmortaluponearththanthathewillhavefoureyesandfourhands，orthattreeswillgrowhorizontallyinsteadofperpendicularly。
　　Itwillbesaid，perhaps，thatmanydiscoverieshavealreadytakenplaceintheworldthatweretotallyunforeseenandunexpected。ThisIgranttobetrue;butifapersonhadpredictedthesediscoverieswithoutbeingguidedbyanyanalogiesorindicationsfrompastfacts，hewoulddeservethenameofseerorprophet，butnotofphilosopher。ThewonderthatsomeofourmoderndiscoverieswouldexciteinthesavageinhabitantsofEuropeinthetimesofTheseusandAchilles，provesbutlittle。
　　Personsalmostentirelyunacquaintedwiththepowersofamachinecannotbeexpectedtoguessatitseffects。Iamfarfromsaying，thatweareatpresentbyanymeansfullyacquaintedwiththepowersofthehumanmind;butwecertainlyknowmoreofthisinstrumentthanwasknownfourthousandyearsago;andtherefore，thoughnottobecalledcompetentjudges，wearecertainlymuchbetterablethansavagestosaywhatis，orisnot，withinitsgrasp。Awatchwouldstrikeasavagewithasmuchsurpriseasaperpetualmotion;yetoneistousamostfamiliarpieceofmechanism，andtheotherhasconstantlyeludedtheeffortsofthemostacuteintellects。Inmanyinstanceswearenowabletoperceivethecauses，whichpreventanunlimitedimprovementinthoseinventions，whichseemedtopromisefairlyforitatfirst。
　　Theoriginalimproversoftelescopeswouldprobablythink，thataslongasthesizeofthespeculaandthelengthofthetubescouldbeincreased，thepowersandadvantagesoftheinstrumentwouldincrease;butexperiencehassincetaughtus，thatthesmallnessofthefield，thedeficiencyoflight，andthecircumstanceoftheatmospherebeingmagnified，preventthebeneficialresultsthatweretobeexpectedfromtelescopesofextraordinarysizeandpower。Inmanypartsofknowledge，manhasbeenalmostconstantlymakingsomeprogress;inotherparts，hiseffortshavebeeninvariablybaffled。Thesavagewouldnotprobablybeabletoguessatthecausesofthismightydifference。Ourfurtherexperiencehasgivenussomelittleinsightintothesecauses，andhasthereforeenabledusbettertojudge，ifnotofwhatwearetoexpectinfuture，atleastofwhatwearenottoexpect，which，thoughnegative，isaveryusefulpieceofinformation。
　　Asthenecessityofsleepseemsrathertodependuponthebodythanthemind，itdoesnotappearhowtheimprovementofthemindcantendverygreatlytosupersedethis’conspicuousinfirmity’。30Amanwhobygreatexcitementsonhismindisabletopasstwoorthreenightswithoutsleep，proportionablyexhauststhevigourofhisbody，andthisdiminutionofhealthandstrengthwillsoondisturbtheoperationsofhisunderstanding，sothatbythesegreateffortsheappearstohavemadenorealprogresswhateverinsupersedingthenecessityofthisspeciesofrest。
　　Thereiscertainlyasufficientlymarkeddifferenceinthevariouscharactersofwhichwehavesomeknowledge，relativetotheenergiesoftheirminds，theirbenevolentpursuits，etc。，toenableustojudgewhethertheoperationsofintellecthaveanydecidedeffectinprolongingthedurationofhumanlife。Itiscertainthatnodecidedeffectofthiskindhasyetbeenobserved。Thoughnoattentionofanykindhaseverproducedsuchaneffectascouldbeconstruedintothesmallestsemblanceofanapproachtowardsimmortality，yetofthetwo，acertainattentiontothebodyseemstohavemoreeffectinthisrespectthananattentiontothemind。Themanwhotakeshistemperatemealsandhisbodilyexercise，withscrupulousregularity，willgenerallybefoundmorehealthythanthemanwho，verydeeplyengagedinintellectualpursuits，oftenforgetsforatimethesebodilycravings。Thecitizenwhohasretired，andwhoseideas，perhaps，scarcelysoaraboveorextendbeyondhislittlegarden，puddlingallthemorningabouthisbordersofbox，will，perhaps，liveaslongasthephilosopherwhoserangeofintellectisthemostextensive，andwhoseviewsaretheclearestofanyofhiscontemporaries。Ithasbeenpositivelyobservedbythosewhohaveattendedtothebillsofmortalitythatwomenlivelongeruponanaveragethanmen，and，thoughIwouldnotbyanymeanssaythattheirintellectualfacultiesareinferior，yet，Ithink，itmustbeallowedthat，fromtheirdifferenteducation，therearenotsomanywomenasmen，whoareexcitedtovigorousmentalexertion。
　　Asintheseandsimilarinstances，ortotakealargerrange，asinthegreatdiversityofcharactersthathaveexistedduringsomethousandyears，nodecideddifferencehasbeenobservedinthedurationofhumanlifefromtheoperationofintellect，themortalityofmanonearthseemstobeascompletelyestablished，andexactlyuponthesamegrounds，asanyone，themostconstant，ofthelawsofnature。AnimmediateactofpowerintheCreatoroftheUniversemight，indeed，changeoneoralloftheselaws，eithersuddenlyorgradually，butwithoutsomeindicationsofsuchachange，andsuchindicationsdonotexist，it。Isjustasunphilosophicaltosupposethatthelifeofmanmaybeprolongedbeyondanyassignablelimits，astosupposethattheattractionoftheearthwillgraduallybechangedintorepulsionandthatstoneswillultimatelyriseinsteadoffallorthattheearthwillflyoffatacertainperiodtosomemoregenialandwarmersun。
　　Theconclusionofthischapterpresentsus，undoubtedly，withaverybeautifulanddesirablepicture，butlikesomeofthelandscapesdrawnfromfancyandnotimaginedwithtruth，itfailsofthatinterestintheheartwhichnatureandprobabilitycanalonegive。
　　IcannotquitthissubjectwithouttakingnoticeoftheseconjecturesofMrGodwinandMrCondorcetconcerningtheindefiniteprolongationofhumanlife，asaverycuriousinstanceofthelongingofthesoulafterimmortality。Boththesegentlemenhaverejectedthelightofrevelationwhichabsolutelypromiseseternallifeinanotherstate。Theyhavealsorejectedthelightofnaturalreligion，whichtotheablestintellectsinallageshasindicatedthefutureexistenceofthesoul。Yetsocongenialistheideaofimmortalitytothemindofmanthattheycannotconsententirelytothrowitoutoftheirsystems。Afteralltheirfastidiousscepticismsconcerningtheonlyprobablemodeofimmortality，theyintroduceaspeciesofimmortalityoftheirown，notonlycompletelycontradictorytoeverylawofphilosophicalprobability，butinitselfinthehighestdegreenarrow，partial，andunjust。Theysupposethatallthegreat，virtuous，andexaltedmindsthathaveeverexistedorthatmayexistforsomethousands，perhapsmillionsofyears，willbesunkinannihilation，andthatonlyafewbeings，notgreaterinnumberthancanexistatonceupontheearth，willbeultimatelycrownedwithimmortality。HadsuchatenetbeenadvancedasatenetofrevelationIamverysurethatalltheenemiesofreligion，andprobablyMrGodwinandMrCondorcetamongtherest，wouldhaveexhaustedthewholeforceoftheirridiculeuponit，asthemostpuerile，themostabsurd，thepoorest，themostpitiful，themostiniquitouslyunjust，and，consequently，themostunworthyoftheDeitythatthesuperstitiousfollyofmancouldinvent。
　　Whatastrangeandcuriousproofdotheseconjecturesexhibitoftheinconsistencyofscepticism！Foritshouldbeobserved，thatthereisaverystrikingandessentialdifferencebetweenbelievinganassertionwhichabsolutelycontradictsthemostuniformexperience，andanassertionwhichcontradictsnothing，butismerelybeyondthepowerofourpresentobservationandknowledge。Sodiversifiedarethenaturalobjectsaroundus，somanyinstancesofmightypowerdailyofferthemselvestoourview，thatwemayfairlypresume，thattherearemanyformsandoperationsofnaturewhichwehavenotyetobserved，orwhich，perhaps，wearenotcapableofobservingwithourpresentconfinedinletsofknowledge。Theresurrectionofaspiritualbodyfromanaturalbodydoesnotappearinitselfamorewonderfulinstanceofpowerthanthegerminationofabladeofwheatfromthegrain，orofanoakfromanacorn。Couldweconceiveanintelligentbeing，soplacedastobeconversantonlywithinanimateorfullgrownobjects，andnevertohavewitnessedtheprocessofvegetationandgrowth;andwereanotherbeingtoshewhimtwolittlepiecesofmatter，agrainofwheat，andanacorn，todesirehimtoexaminethem，toanalysethemifhepleased，andendeavourtofindouttheirpropertiesandessences;
　　andthentotellhim，thathowevertriflingtheselittlebitsofmattermightappeartohim，thattheypossessedsuchcuriouspowersofselection，combination，arrangement，andalmostofcreation，thatuponbeingputintotheground，theywouldchoose，amongstallthedirtandmoisturethatsurroundedthem，thosepartswhichbestsuitedtheirpurpose，thattheywouldcollectandarrangethesepartswithwonderfultaste，judgement，andexecution，andwouldriseupintobeautifulforms，scarcelyinanyrespectanalogoustothelittlebitsofmatterwhichwerefirstplacedintheearth。IfeelverylittledoubtthattheimaginarybeingwhichIhavesupposedwouldhesitatemore，wouldrequirebetterauthority，andstrongerproofs，beforehebelievedthesestrangeassertions，thanifhehadbeentold，thatabeingofmightypower，whohadbeenthecauseofallthathesawaroundhim，andofthatexistenceofwhichhehimselfwasconscious，would，byagreatactofpoweruponthedeathandcorruptionofhumancreatures，raiseuptheessenceofthoughtinanincorporeal，oratleastinvisibleform，togiveitahappierexistenceinanotherstate。
　　Theonlydifference，withregardtoourownapprehensions，thatisnotinfavourofthelatterassertionisthatthefirstmiraclewehaverepeatedlyseen，andthelastmiraclewehavenotseen。Iadmitthefullweightofthisprodigiousdifference，butsurelynomancanhesitateamomentinsayingthat，puttingRevelationoutofthequestion，theresurrectionofaspiritualbodyfromanaturalbody，whichmaybemerelyoneamongthemanyoperationsofnaturewhichwecannotsee，isaneventindefinitelymoreprobablethantheimmortalityofmanonearth，whichisnotonlyaneventofwhichnosymptomsorindicationshaveyetappeared，butisapositivecontradictiontooneofthemostconstantofthelawsofnaturethathasevercomewithintheobservationofman。
　　Whenweextendourviewbeyondthislife，itisevidentthatwecanhavenootherguidesthanauthority，orconjecture，andperhaps，indeed，anobscureandundefinedfeeling。WhatIsayhere，therefore，doesnotappeartomeinanyrespecttocontradictwhatIsaidbefore，whenIobservedthatitwasunphilosophicaltoexpectanyspecifickeventthatwasnotindicatedbysomekindofanalogyinthepast。Inrangingbeyondthebournefromwhichnotravellerreturns，wemustnecessarilyquitthisrule;butwithregardtoeventsthatmaybeexpectedtohappenonearth，wecanseldomquititconsistentlywithtruephilosophy。Analogyhas，however，asIconceive，greatlatitude。
　　Forinstance，manhasdiscoveredmanyofthelawsofnature：
　　analogyseemstoindicatethathewilldiscovermanymore;butnoanalogyseemstoindicatethathewilldiscoverasixthsense，oranewspeciesofpowerinthehumanmind，entirelybeyondthetrainofourpresentobservations。
　　Thepowersofselection，combination，andtransmutation，whicheveryseedshews，aretrulymiraculous。Whocanimaginethatthesewonderfulfacultiesarecontainedintheselittlebitsofmatter？TomeitappearsmuchmorephilosophicaltosupposethatthemightyGodofnatureispresentinfullenergyinalltheseoperations。TothisallpowerfulBeing，itwouldbeequallyeasytoraiseanoakwithoutanacornaswithone。Thepreparatoryprocessofputtingseedsintothegroundismerelyordainedfortheuseofman，asoneamongthevariousotherexcitementsnecessarytoawakenmatterintomind。Itisanideathatwillbefoundconsistent，equallywiththenaturalphenomenaaroundus，withthevariouseventsofhumanlife，andwiththesuccessiverevelationsofGodtoman，tosupposethattheworldisamightyprocessforthecreationandformationofmind。Manyvesselswillnecessarilycomeoutofthisgreatfurnaceinwrongshapes。Thesewillbebrokenandthrownasideasuseless;whilethosevesselswhoseformsarefulloftruth，grace，andloveliness，willbewaftedintohappiersituations，nearerthepresenceofthemightymaker。
　　Ioughtperhapsagaintomakeanapologytomyreadersfordwellingsolonguponaconjecturewhichmany，Iknow，willthinktooabsurdandimprobabletorequiretheleastdiscussion。ButifitbeasimprobableandascontrarytothegenuinespiritofphilosophyasIownIthinkitis，whyshoulditnotbeshewntobesoinacandidexamination？Aconjecture，howeverimprobableonthefirstviewofit，advancedbyableandingeniousmen，seemsatleasttodeserveinvestigation。FormyownpartIfeelnodisinclinationwhatevertogivethatdegreeofcredittotheopinionoftheprobableimmortalityofmanonearth，whichtheappearancesthatcanbebroughtinsupportofitdeserve。Beforewedecideupontheutterimprobabilityofsuchanevent，itisbutfairimpartiallytoexaminetheseappearances;andfromsuchanexaminationIthinkwemayconclude，thatwehaveratherlessreasonforsupposingthatthelifeofmanmaybeindefinitelyprolonged，thanthattreesmaybemadetogrowindefinitelyhigh，orpotatoesindefinitelylarge。ThoughMrGodwinadvancestheideaoftheindefiniteprolongationofhumanlifemerelyasaconjecture，yetashehasproducedsomeappearances，whichinhisconceptionfavourthesupposition，hemustcertainlyintendthattheseappearancesshouldbeexaminedandthisisallthatIhavemeanttodo。
　　CHAPTER13
　　ErrorofMrGodwinisconsideringmantoomuchinthelightofabeingmerelyrational—Inthecompoundbeing，man，thepassionswillalwaysactasdisturbingforcesinthedecisionsoftheunderstanding—ReasoningsofMrGodwinonthesubjectofcoercion—Sometruthsofanaturenottobecommunicatedfromonemantoanother。
　　INthechapterwhichIhavebeenexamining，MrGodwinprofessestoconsidertheobjectiontohissystemofequalityfromtheprincipleofpopulation。Ithasappeared，Ithinkclearly，thatheisgreatlyerroneousinhisstatementofthedistanceofthisdifficulty，andthatinsteadofmyriadsofcenturies，itisreallynotthirtyyears，oreventhirtydays，distantfromus。
　　Thesuppositionoftheapproachofmantoimmortalityonearthiscertainlynotofakindtosoftenthedifficulty。Theonlyargument，therefore，inthechapterwhichhasanytendencytoremovetheobjectionistheconjectureconcerningtheextinctionofthepassionbetweenthesexes，butasthisisamereconjecture，unsupportedbythesmallestshadowofproof，theforceoftheobjectionmaybefairlysaidtoremainunimpaired，anditisundoubtedlyofsufficientweightofitselfcompletelytooverturnMrGodwin’swholesystemofequality。Iwill，however，makeoneortwoobservationsonafewoftheprominentpartsofMrGodwin’sreasoningswhichwillcontributetoplaceinastillclearerpointofviewthelittlehopethatwecanreasonablyentertainofthosevastimprovementsinthenatureofmanandofsocietywhichheholdsuptoouradmiringgazeinhisPoliticalJustice。
　　MrGodwinconsidersmantoomuchinthelightofabeingmerelyintellectual。Thiserror，atleastsuchIconceiveittobe，pervadeshiswholeworkandmixesitselfwithallhisreasonings。Thevoluntaryactionsofmenmayoriginateintheiropinions，buttheseopinionswillbeverydifferentlymodifiedincreaturescompoundedofarationalfacultyandcorporalpropensitiesfromwhattheywouldbeinbeingswhollyintellectual。MrGodwin，inprovingthatsoundreasoningandtrutharecapableofbeingadequatelycommunicated，examinesthepropositionfirstpractically，andthenadds，’Suchistheappearancewhichthispropositionassumes，whenexaminedinalooseandpracticalview。Instrictconsiderationitwillnotadmitofdebate。Manisarationalbeing，etc。’（Bk。I，ch。5;inthethirdeditionVol。I，p。88）。Sofarfromcallingthisastrictconsiderationofthesubject，IownIshouldcallittheloosest，andmosterroneous，waypossible，ofconsideringit。Itisthecalculatingthevelocityofafallingbodyinvacuo，andpersistinginit，thatitwouldbethesamethroughwhateverresistingmediumsitmightfall。ThiswasnotNewton’smodeofphilosophizing。Veryfewgeneralpropositionsarejustinapplicationtoaparticularsubject。Themoonisnotkeptinherorbitroundtheearth，northeearthinherorbitroundthesun，byaforcethatvariesmerelyintheinverseratioofthesquaresofthedistances。Tomakethegeneraltheoryjustinapplicationtotherevolutionsofthesebodies，itwasnecessarytocalculateaccuratelythedisturbingforceofthesunuponthemoon，andofthemoonupontheearth;andtillthesedisturbingforceswereproperlyestimated，actualobservationsonthemotionsofthesebodieswouldhaveprovedthatthetheorywasnotaccuratelytrue。
　　Iamwillingtoallowthateveryvoluntaryactisprecededbyadecisionofthemind，butitisstrangelyoppositetowhatI
　　shouldconceivetobethejusttheoryuponthesubject，andapalpablecontradictiontoallexperience，tosaythatthecorporalpropensitiesofmandonotactverypowerfully，asdisturbingforces，inthesedecisions。Thequestion，therefore，doesnotmerelydependuponwhetheramanmaybemadetounderstandadistinctpropositionorbeconvincedbyanunanswerableargument。Atruthmaybebroughthometohisconvictionasarationalbeing，thoughhemaydeterminetoactcontrarytoit，asacompoundbeing。Thecravingsofhunger，theloveofliquor，thedesireofpossessingabeautifulwoman，willurgementoactions，ofthefatalconsequencesofwhich，tothegeneralinterestsofsociety，theyareperfectlywellconvinced，evenattheverytimetheycommitthem。Removetheirbodilycravings，andtheywouldnothesitateamomentindeterminingagainstsuchactions。Askthemtheiropinionofthesameconductinanotherperson，andtheywouldimmediatelyreprobateit。Butintheirowncase，andunderallthecircumstancesoftheirsituationwiththesebodilycravings，thedecisionofthecompoundbeingisdifferentfromtheconvictionoftherationalbeing。
　　Ifthisbethejustviewofthesubject，andboththeoryandexperienceunitetoprovethatitis，almostallMrGodwin’sreasoningsonthesubjectofcoercioninhisseventhchapter，willappeartobefoundedonerror。Hespendssometimeinplacinginaridiculouspointofviewtheattempttoconvinceaman’sunderstandingandtoclearupadoubtfulpropositioninhismind，byblows。Undoubtedlyitisbothridiculousandbarbarous，andsoiscock—fighting，butonehaslittlemoretodowiththerealobjectofhumanpunishmentsthantheother。Onefrequent（indeedmuchtoofrequent）modeofpunishmentisdeath。MrGodwinwillhardlythinkthisintendedforconviction，atleastitdoesnotappearhowtheindividualorthesocietycouldreapmuchfuturebenefitfromanunderstandingenlightenedinthismanner。
　　Theprincipalobjectswhichhumanpunishmentshaveinviewareundoubtedlyrestraintandexample;restraint，orremoval，ofanindividualmemberwhosevicioushabitsarelikelytobeprejudicialtothesociety’;andexample，whichbyexpressingthesenseofthecommunitywithregardtoaparticularcrime，andbyassociatingmorenearlyandvisiblycrimeandpunishment，holdsoutamoralmotivetodissuadeothersfromthecommissionofit。
　　Restraint，MrGodwinthinks，maybepermittedasatemporaryexpedient，thoughhereprobatessolitaryimprisonment，whichhascertainlybeenthemostsuccessful，and，indeed，almosttheonlyattempttowardsthemoralameliorationofoffenders。Hetalksoftheselfishpassionsthatarefosteredbysolitudeandofthevirtuesgeneratedinsociety。Butsurelythesevirtuesarenotgeneratedinthesocietyofaprison。Weretheoffenderconfinedtothesocietyofableandvirtuousmenhewouldprobablybemoreimprovedthaninsolitude。Butisthispracticable？MrGodwin’singenuityismorefrequentlyemployedinfindingoutevilsthaninsuggestingpracticalremedies。
　　Punishment，forexample，istotallyreprobated。Byendeavouringtomakeexamplestooimpressiveandterrible，nationshave，indeed，beenledintothemostbarbarouscruelties，buttheabuseofanypracticeisnotagoodargumentagainstitsuse。Theindefatigablepainstakeninthiscountrytofindoutamurder，andthecertaintyofitspunishment，haspowerfullycontributedtogeneratethatsentimentwhichisfrequentinthemouthsofthecommonpeople，thatamurderwillsoonerorlatercometolight;andthehabitualhorrorinwhichmurderisinconsequenceheldwillmakeaman，intheagonyofpassion，throwdownhisknifeforfearheshouldbetemptedtouseitinthegratificationofhisrevenge。InItaly，wheremurderers，byflyingtoasanctuary，areallowedmorefrequentlytoescape，thecrimehasneverbeenheldinthesamedetestationandhasconsequentlybeenmorefrequent。Noman，whoisatallawareoftheoperationofmoralmotives，candoubtforamoment，thatifeverymurderinItalyhadbeeninvariablypunished，theuseofthestilettointransportsofpassionwouldhavebeencomparativelybutlittleknown。
　　Thathumanlawseitherdo，orcan，proportionthepunishmentaccuratelytotheoffence，nopersonwillhavethefollytoassert。Fromtheinscrutabilityofmotivesthethingisabsolutelyimpossible，butthisimperfection，thoughitmaybecalledaspeciesofinjustice，isnovalidargumentagainsthumanlaws。Itisthelotofman，thathewillfrequentlyhavetochoosebetweentwoevils;anditisasufficientreasonfortheadoptionofanyinstitution，thatitisthebestmodethatsuggestsitselfofpreventinggreaterevils。Acontinualendeavourshouldundoubtedlyprevailtomaketheseinstitutionsasperfectasthenatureofthemwilladmit。Butnothingissoeasyastofindfaultwithhumaninstitutions;nothingsodifficultastosuggestadequatepracticalimprovements。Itistobelamented，thatmoremenoftalentsemploytheirtimeintheformeroccupationthaninthetatter。
　　Thefrequencyofcrimeamongmen，who，asthecommonsayingis，knowbetter，sufficientlyproves，thatsometruthsmaybebroughthometotheconvictionofthemindwithoutalwaysproducingthepropereffectupontheconduct。Thereareothertruthsofanaturethatperhapsnevercanbeadequatelycommunicatedfromonemantoanother。Thesuperiorityofthepleasuresofintellecttothoseofsense，MrGodwinconsidersasafundamentaltruth。Takingallcircumstancesintoconsideration，Ishouldbedisposedtoagreewithhim;buthowamItocommunicatethistruthtoapersonwhohasscarcelyeverfeltintellectualpleasure？Imayaswellattempttoexplainthenatureandbeautyofcolourstoablindman。IfIameversolaborious，patient，andclear，andhavethemostrepeatedopportunitiesofexpostulation，anyrealprogresstowardtheaccomplishmentofmypurposeseemsabsolutelyhopeless。Thereisnocommonmeasurebetweenus。Icannotproceedstepbystep……Itisatruthofanatureabsolutelyincapableofdemonstration。AllthatIcansayis，thatthewisestandbestmeninallageshadagreedingivingthepreference，verygreatly，tothepleasuresofintellect;andthatmyownexperiencecompletelyconfirmedthetruthoftheirdecisions;thatIhadfoundsensualpleasuresvain，transient，andcontinuallyattendedwithtediumanddisgust;butthatintellectualpleasuresappearedtomeeverfreshandyoung，filledupallmyhourssatisfactorily，gaveanewzesttolife，anddiffusedalastingserenityovermymind。
　　Ifhebelieveme，itcanonlybefromrespectandvenerationformyauthority。Itiscredulity，andnotconviction。Ihavenotsaidanything，norcananythingbesaid，ofanaturetoproducerealconviction。Theaffairisnotanaffairofreasoning，butofexperience。Hewouldprobablyobserveinreply，whatyousaymaybeverytruewithregardtoyourselfandmanyothergoodmen，butformyownpartIfeelverydifferentlyuponthesubject。Ihaveveryfrequentlytakenupabookandalmostasfrequentlygonetosleepoverit;butwhenIpassaneveningwithagayparty，oraprettywoman，Ifeelalive，andinspirits，andtrulyenjoymyexistence。
　　Undersuchcircumstances，reasoningandargumentsarenotinstrumentsfromwhichsuccesscanbeexpected。Atsomefuturetimeperhaps，realsatietyofsensualpleasures，orsomeaccidentalimpressionsthatawakenedtheenergiesofhismind，mighteffectthat，inamonth，whichthemostpatientandableexpostulationsmightbeincapableofeffectinginfortyyears。