PartOne
　　ChapterOneOnWealthThelandisthesourceormatterfromwhenceallwealthisproduced。Thelabourofmanistheformwhichproducesit：andwealthinitselfisnothingbutthemaintenance，conveniencies，andsuperfluitiesoflife。
　　Landproducesherbage，roots，corn，flax，cotton，hemp，shrubsandtimberofseveralkinds，withdiverssortsoffruits，bark，andfoliagelikethatofthemulberry-treeforsilkworms；
　　itsuppliesminesandminerals。Toallthisthelabourofmangivestheformofwealth。
　　Riversandseassupplyfishforthefoodofman，andmanyotherthingsforhisenjoyment。Buttheseseasandriversbelongtotheadjacentlandsorarecommontoall，andthelabourofmanextractsfromthemthefishandotheradvantages。
　　ChapterTwoOfHumanSocietiesWhichwaysoeverasocietyofmenisformedtheownershipofthelandtheyinhabitwillnecessarilybelongtoasmallnumberamongthem。
　　InwanderingsocietieslikeHordesofTartarsandCampsofIndianswhogofromoneplacetoanotherwiththeiranimalsandfamilies，itisnecessarythatthecaptainorkingwhoistheirleadershouldfixtheboundariesofeachheadofafamilyandthequartersofanIndividualaroundthecamp。Otherwisetherewouldalwaysbedisputesoverthequartersorconveniencies，woods，herbage，water，etc。butwhenthequartersandboundariesofeachmanaresettleditisasgoodasownershipwhiletheystayinthatplace。
　　Inthemoresettledsocieties：ifaprinceattheheadofanarmyhasconqueredacountry，hewilldistributethelandsamonghisofficersorfavouritesaccordingtotheirmeritorhispleasure（aswasoriginallythecaseinFrance）：hewillthenestablishlawstovestthepropertyinthemandtheirdescendants：orhewillreservetohimselftheownershipofthelandandemployhisofficersorfavouritestocultivateit：orwillgrantthelandtothemonconditionthattheypayforitanannualquitrentordue：orhewillgrantittothemwhilereservinghisfreedomtotaxthemeveryyearaccordingtohisneedsandtheircapacity。Inallthesecasestheseofficersorfavourites，whetherabsoluteownersordependents，whetherstewardsorbailiffsoftheproduceoftheland，willbefewinnumberinproportiontoalltheinhabitants。
　　Eveniftheprincedistributethelandequallyamongalltheinhabitantsitwillultimatelybedividedamongasmallnumber。
　　Onemanwillhaveseveralchildrenandcannotleavetoeachofthemaportionoflandequaltohisown；anotherwilldiewithoutchildren，andwillleavehisportiontosomeonewhohaslandalreadyratherthantoonewhohasnone；athirdwillbelazy，prodigal，orsickly，andbeobligedtosellhisportiontoanotherwhoisfrugalandindustrious，whowillcontinuallyaddtohisestatebynewpurchasesandwillemployuponitthelabourofthosewhohavingnolandoftheirownarecompelledtoofferhimtheirlabourinordertolive。
　　AtthefirstsettlementofRomeeachcitizenhadtwojournauxoflandallottedtohim。YettherewassoonafterasgreataninequalityintheestatesasthatwhichweseetodayinallthecountriesofEurope。Thelandwasdividedamongafewowners。
　　Supposingthenthatthelandofanewcountrybelongstoasmallnumberofpersons，eachownerwillmanagehislandhimselforletittooneormorefarmers：inthiscaseitisessentialthatthefarmersandlabourersshouldhavealivingwhethertheycultivatethelandfortheownerorforthefarmer。Theoverplusofthelandisatthedispositionoftheowner：hepaypartofittotheprinceorthegovernment，orelsethefarmerdoessodirectlyattheowner’sexpense。
　　Asfortheusetowhichthelandshouldbeput，thefirstnecessityistoemploypartofitforthemaintenanceandfoodofthosewhoworkuponitandmakeitproductive：therestdependsprincipallyuponthehumourandfashionoflivingoftheprince，thelords，andtheowner：ifthesearefondofdrink，vinesmustbecultivated；iftheyarefondofsilks，mulberry-treesmustbeplantedandsilkwormsraised，andmoreoverpartofthelandmustbeemployedtosupportthoseneededfortheselabours；iftheydelightinhorses，pastureisneeded，andsoon。
　　Ifhoweverwesupposethatthelandbelongstonooneinparticular，itisnoteasytoconceivehowasocietyofmencanbeformedthere：wesee，forexample，inthevillagecommonsalimitedfixedtothenumberofanimalsthateachofthecommonersmayputuponthem；andifthelandwerelefttothefirstoccupierinanewconquestordiscoveryofacountryitwouldalwaysbenecessarytofallbackuponalawtosettleownershipinordertoestablishasociety，whetherthelawresteduponforceoruponpolicy。
　　ChapterThreeOfVillagesTowhatevercultivationlandisput，whetherpasture，corn，vines，etc。thefarmersorlabourerswhocarryontheworkmustlivenearathand；otherwisethetimetakeningoingtotheirfieldsandreturningtotheirhouseswouldtakeuptoomuchoftheday。Hencethenecessityforvillagesestablishedinallthecountryandcultivatedland，wheretheremustalsobeenoughfarriersandwheelwrightsfortheinstruments，ploughs，andcartswhichareneeded；especiallywhenthevillageisatadistancefromthetowns。Thesizeofavillageisnaturallyproportionedinnumberofinhabitantstowhatthelanddependentonitrequiresfordailywork，andtotheartisanswhofindenoughemploymentthereintheserviceofthefarmersandlabourers：buttheseartisansarenotquitesonecessaryintheneighbourhoodoftownstowhichthelabourerscanresortwithoutmuchlossoftime。
　　Ifoneormoreoftheownersofthelanddependentonthevillageresidetherethenumberofinhabitantswillbegreaterinproportiontothedomesticservantsandartisansdrawnthither，andtheinnswhichwillbeestablishedtherefortheconvenienceofthedomesticservantsandworkmenwhoaremaintainedbythelandlords。
　　Ifthelandsareonlyproperformaintainingsheep，asinthesandydistrictsandmoorlands，thevillageswillbefewerandsmallersinceonlyafewshepherdsarerequiredontheland。
　　Ifthelandsonlyproducewoodsinsandysoilswherethereisnograssforbeasts，andiftheyaredistantfromtownsandriverswhichmakesthetimberuselessforconsumptionasoneseesinmanycasesinGermany，therewillbeonlysomanyhousesandvillagesasareneededtogatheracornsandfeedpigsinseason：
　　butifthelandsarealtogetherbarrentherewillbeneithervillagesnorinhabitants。
　　ChapterFourOfMarketTownsTherearesomevillageswheremarketshavebeenestablishedbytheinterestofsomeproprietororgentlemanatcourt。Thesemarkets，heldonceortwiceaweek，encourageseverallittleundertakersandmerchantstosetthemselvesupthere。Theybuyinthemarkettheproductsbroughtfromthesurroundingvillagesinordertocarrythemtothelargetownsforsale。Inthelargetownstheyexchangethemforiron，salt，sugarandothermerchandisewhichtheysellonmarketdaystothevillagers。Manysmallartisansalso，likelocksmiths，cabinetmakersandothers，settledownfortheserviceofthevillagerswhohavenoneintheirvillages，andatlengththesevillagesbecomemarkettowns。
　　Amarkettownbeingplacedinthecentreofthevillages，andatlengththesevillagesbecomemarkettowns。Amarkettownbeingplacedinthecentreofthevillageswhosepeoplecometomarket，itismorenaturalandeasythatthevillagersshouldbringtheirproductsthitherforsaleonmarketdaysandbuythearticlestheyneed，thanthatthemerchantsandfactorsshouldtransportthemtothevillagesinexchangefortheirproducts。（1）Forthemerchantstogoroundthevillageswouldunnecessarilyincreasethecostofcarriage。（2）Themerchantswouldperhapsbeobligedtogotoseveralvillagesbeforefindingthequalityandquantityofproducewhichtheywishedtobuy。（3）Thevillagerswouldgenerallybeintheirfieldswhenthemerchantsarrivedandnotknowingwhatproducetheseneededwouldhavenothingpreparedandfitforsale。（4）Itwouldbealmostimpossibletofixthepriceoftheproduceandthemerchandiseinthevillages，betweenthemerchantsandthevillagers。Inonevillagethemerchantwouldrefusethepriceaskedforproduce，hopingtofinditcheaperinanothervillage，andthevillagerwouldrefusethepriceofferedforhismerchandiseinthehopethatanothermerchantwouldcomealongandtakeitonbetterterms。
　　Allthesedifficultiesareavoidedwhenthevillagerscometotownonmarketdaystoselltheirproduceandtobuythethingstheyneed。Pricesarefixedbytheproportionbetweentheproduceexposedforsaleandthemoneyofferedforit；thistakesplaceinthesamespot，undertheeyesofallthevillagersofdifferentvillagesandofthemerchantsorundertakersofthetown。Whenthepricehasbeensettledbetweenafewtheothersfollowwithoutdifficultyandsothemarketplaceofthedayisdetermined。Thepeasantgoesbacktohisvillageandresumeshiswork。
　　Thesizeofthemarkettownisnaturallyproportionedtothenumberoffarmersandlabourersneededtocultivatethelandsdependentonit，andtothenumberofartisansandsmallmerchantsthatthevillagesborderingonthemarkettownemploywiththeirassistantsandhorses，andfinallytothenumberofpersonswhomthelandownersresidenttheresupport。
　　Whenthevillagesbelongingtoamarkettown（i。e。whosepeopleordinarilybringtheirproducetomarketthere）areconsiderableandhavealargeoutputthemarkettownwillbecomeconsiderableandlargeinproportion；butwhentheneighbouringvillageshavelittleproducethemarkettownalsoispoorandinsignificant。
　　ChapterFiveOfCitiesThelandlordswhohaveonlysmallestatesusuallyresideinmarkettownsandvillagesneartheirlandandfarmers。Thetransportoftheproducetheyderivefromthemintodistantcitieswouldnotenablethemtolivecomfortablythere。Butthelandlordswhohaveseverallargeestateshavethemeanstogoandliveatadistancefromthemtoenjoyagreeablesocietywithotherlandownersandgentlemenofthesamecondition。
　　Ifaprinceornoblemanwhohasreceivedlargegrantsoflandontheconquestordiscoveryofacountryfixeshisresidenceinsomepleasantspot，andseveralothernoblemencometolivetheretobewithinreachofseeingeachotherfrequentlyandenjoyingagreeablesociety，thisplacewillbecomeacity。
　　Greathouseswillbebuiltthereforthenoblemeninquestion，andaninfinityofothersforthemerchants，artisans，andpeopleofallsortsofprofessionswhomtheresidenceofthesenoblemenwillattractthither。Fortheserviceofthesenoblemen，bakers，butchers，brewers，winemerchants，manufacturersofallkinds，willbeneeded。Thesewillbuildhousesinthelocalityorwillrenthousesbuiltbyothers。Thereisnogreatnoblemanwhoseexpenseuponhishouse，hisretinueandservants，doesnotmaintainmerchantsandartisansofallkinds，asmaybeseenfromthedetailedcalculationswhichIhavecausedtobemadeinthesupplementofthisessay。
　　Asalltheseartisansandundertakersserveeachotheraswellasthenobilityitisoverlookedthattheupkeepofthemallfallsultimatelyonthenoblesandlandowners。Itisnotperceivedthatallthelittlehousesinacitysuchaswehavedescribeddependuponandsubsistattheexpenseofthegreathouses。Itwill，however，beshownlaterthatalltheclassesandinhabitantsofastateliveattheexpenseoftheproprietorsofland。Thecityinquestionwillincreasestillfurtherifthekingorthegovernmentestablishinitlawcourtstowhichthepeopleofthemarkettownsandvillagesoftheprovincemusthaverecourse。Anincreaseofundertakersandartisansofeverysortwillbeneededfortheserviceofthelegalofficialsandlawyers。
　　Ifinthissamecityworkshopsandmanufactoriesbesetupapartfromhomeconsumptionforexportandsaleabroad，thecitywillbelargeinproportiontotheworkmenandartisanswholivethereattheexpenseoftheforeigner。
　　Butifweputasidetheseconsiderationssoasnottocomplicateoursubject，wemaysaythattheassemblageofseveralrichlandownerslivingtogetherinthesameplacesufficestoformwhatiscalledacity，andthatmanycitiesinEurope，intheinteriorofthecountry，owethenumberoftheirinhabitantstothisassemblage：inwhichcasethesizeofacityisnaturallyproportionedtothenumberoflandlordswholivethere，orrathertotheproduceofthelandwhichbelongstothemafterdeductionofthecostofcarriagetothosewhoselandisthefurthestremoved，andthepartwhichtheyareobligedtofurnishtothekingorthegovernment，whichisusuallyconsumedinthecapital。
　　ChapterSixOfCapitalCitiesAcapitalcityisformedinthesamewayasaprovincialcitywiththisdifferencethatthelargestlandownersinallthestateresideinthecapital，thatthekingorsupremegovernmentisfixedinitandspendstherethegovernmentrevenue，thatthesupremecourtsofjusticearefixedthere，thatitisthecentreofthefashionswhichalltheprovincestakeforamodel，thatthelandownerswhoresideintheprovincesdonotfailtocomeoccasionallytopasssometimeinthecapitalandtosendtheirchildrenthithertobepolished。Thusallthelandsinthestatecontributemoreorlesstomaintainthosewhodwellinthecapital。
　　Ifasovereignquitsacitytotakeuphisabodeinanotherthenobilitywillnotfailtofollowhimandtomakeitsresidencewithhiminthenewcitywhichwillbecomegreatandimportantattheexpenseofthefirst。WehaveseenquitearecentexampleofthisinthecityofPetersburgtothedisadvantageofMoscow，andoneseesmanyoldcitieswhichwereimportantfallintoruinandothersspringfromtheirashes。
　　Greatcitiesareusuallybuiltontheseacoastoronthebanksoflargeriversfortheconvenienceoftransport；becausewatercarriageoftheproduceandmerchandisenecessaryforthesubsistenceandcomfortoftheinhabitantsismuchcheaperthancarriagesandlandtransport。
　　ChapterSevenTheLabouroftheHusbandmanisoflessValuethanthatoftheHandicraftsManAlabourer’ssonatsevenortwelveyearsofagebeginstohelphisfathereitherinkeepingtheflocks，diggingtheground，orinothersortsofcountrylabourwhichrequirenoartorskill。
　　Ifhisfatherputshimtoatradeheloseshisassistanceduringthetimeofhisapprenticeshipandisnecessitatedtoclothehimandtopaytheexpensesofhisapprenticeshipforsomeyears。Thesonisthusanexpensetothisfatherandhislabourbringsinnoadvantagetilltheendofsomeyears。The[working]
　　lifeofmanisestimatedbutat10or12years，andasseveralarelostinlearningatrademostofwhichinEnglandrequiresevenyearsofapprenticeship，ahusbandmanwouldneverbewillingtohaveatradetaughttohissonifthemechanicsdidnotearnmorethanthehusbandmen。
　　Thosewhoemployartisansorcraftsmenmustneedsthereforepayfortheirlabouratahigherratethanforthatofahusbandmanorcommonlabourer；andtheirlabourwillnecessarilybedearinproportiontothetimelostinlearningthetradeandthecostandriskincurredinbecomingproficient。
　　Thecraftsmenthemselvesdonotmakealltheirchildrenlearntheirownmystery：therewouldbetoomanyofthemfortheneedsofacityorastate；manywouldnotfindenoughwork；thework，however，isnaturallybetterpaidthanthatofhusbandmen。
　　ChapterEightSomeHandicraftsMenearnmore，othersless，accordingtothedifferentCasesandCircumstancesSupposingtwotailorsmakealltheclothsofavillage，onemayhavemorecustomersthantheother，whetherfromhismodeofattractingbusiness，orbecauseheworksbetterormoredurablythantheother，orfollowsthefashionsbetterinthecutofthegarments。
　　Ifonedies，theotherfindinghimselfmorepressedwithworkwillbeabletoraisethepriceofhislabour，givingsomecustomersapreferenceinpointofexpeditiontoothers，tillthevillagersfindittotheiradvantagetohavetheirclothsmadeinanothervillage，townorcitylosingthetimespentingoingandreturning，ortillsomeothertailorcomestoliveintheirvillageandtoshareinthebusinessofit。
　　Thecraftswhichrequirethemosttimeintrainingormostingenuityandindustrymustnecessarilybethebestpaid。A
　　skillfulcabinetmakermustreceiveahigherpriceforhisworkthananordinarycarpenter，andagoodwatchmakermorethanafarrier。
　　Theartsandcraftswhichareaccompaniedbyrisksanddangerslikethoseoffounders，mariners，silverminers，etc。
　　oughttobepaidinproportiontotherisks。Whenoverandabovethedangersskillisneededtheyoughttobepaidstillmore，e。g。pilots，divers，engineers，etc。Whencapacityandtrustworthinessareneededthelabourispaidstillmorehighly，asinthecaseofjewellers，bookkeepers，cashiersandothers。
　　Bytheseexamplesandahundredothersdrawnfromordinaryexperienceitiseasilyseenthatthedifferenceofpricepaidfordailyworkisbaseduponnaturalandobviousreasons。
　　ChapterNineTheNumberofLabourers，Handicraftsmenandothers，whoworkinaStateisnaturallyproportionedtotheDemandforthemIfallthelabourersinavillagebreedupseveralsonstothesameworktherewillbetoomanylabourerstocultivatethelandsbelongingtothevillage，andthesurplusadultsmustgotoseekalivelihoodelsewhere，whichtheygenerallydoincities：
　　ifsomeremainwiththeirfathers，astheywillnotallfindsufficientemploymenttheywillliveingreatpovertyandwillnotmarryforlackofmeanstobringupchildren，oriftheymarry，thechildrenwhocomewillsoondieofstarvationwiththeirparents，asweseeeverydayinFrance。
　　Thereforeifthevillagecontinueinthesamesituationasregardsemployment，andderivesitslivingfromcultivatingthesameportionofland，itwillnotincreaseinpopulationinathousandyears。
　　Thewomenandgirlsofthisvillagecan，itistrue，whentheyarenotworkinginthefields，busythemselvesinspinning，knittingorotherworkwhichcanbesoldinthecities；butthisrarelysufficestobringuptheextrachildren，wholeavethevillagetoseektheirfortuneelsewhere。
　　Thesamemaybesaidofthetradesmenofavillage。Ifatailormakesalltheclothsthereandbreedsupthreesonstothesametrade，asthereisbutworkenoughforonesuccessortohimthetwoothersmustgotoseektheirlivelihoodelsewhere：iftheydonotfindenoughemploymentintheneighbouringtowntheymustgofurtherafieldorchangetheiroccupationstogetalivingandbecomelackeys，soldiers，sailors，etc。
　　Bythesameprocessofreasoningitiseasytoconceivethatthelabourers，handicraftsmenandotherswhogaintheirlivingbywork，mustproportionthemselvesinnumbertotheemploymentanddemandfortheminmarkettownsandcities。
　　Butiffourtailorsareenoughtomakealltheclothsforatownandafiftharriveshemayattractsomecustomattheexpenseoftheotherfour；soiftheworkisdividedbetweenthefivetailorsneitherofthemwillhaveenoughemployment，andeachonewilllivemorepoorly。
　　Itoftenhappensthatlabourersandhandicraftsmenhavenotenoughemploymentwhentherearetoomanyofthemtosharethebusiness。Ithappensalsothattheyaredeprivedofworkbyaccidentsandbyvariationsindemand，orthattheyareoverburdenedwithworkaccordingtocircumstances。Bethatasitmay，whentheyhavenoworktheyquitthevillages，townsorcitieswheretheyliveinsuchnumbersthatthosewhoremainarealwaysproportionedtotheemploymentwhichsufficestomaintainthem；whenthereisacontinuousincreaseofworkthereisgaintobemadeandenoughothersarrivetoshareinit。
　　FromthisitiseasytounderstandthattheCharitySchoolsinEnglandandtheproposalsinFrancetoincreasethenumberofhandicraftsmen，areuseless。IftheKingofFrancesent100，000
　　ofhissubjectsathisexpenseintoHollandtolearnseafaring，theywouldbeofnouseontheirreturnifnomorevesselsweresenttoseathanbefore。Itistruethatitwouldbeagreatadvantagetoastatetoteachitssubjectstoproducethemanufactureswhicharecustomarilydrawnfromabroad，andalltheotherarticlesboughtthere，butIamconsideringonlyatpresentastateinrelationtoitself。
　　Asthehandicraftsmenearnmorethanthelabourerstheyarebetterabletobringuptheirchildrentocrafts；andtherewillneverbealackofcraftsmeninastatewhenthereisenoughworkfortheirconstantemployment。
　　ChapterTenThePriceandInstrinsicValueofaThingingeneralisthemeasureoftheLandandLabourwhichenterintoitsProductionOneacreoflandproducesmorecornorfeedsmoresheepthananother。Theworkofonemanisdearerthanthatofanother，asI
　　havealreadyexplained，accordingtothesuperiorskillandoccurrencesofthetimes。Iftwoacresoflandareofequalgoodness，onewillfeedasmanysheepandproduceasmuchwoolastheother，supposingthelabourtobethesame，andthewoolproducedbyoneacrewillbethesame，andthewoolproducedbyoneacrewillsellatthesamepriceasthatproducedbytheother。
　　Ifthewooloftheoneacreismadeintoasuitofcoarseclothandthewooloftheotherintoasuitoffinecloth，asthelatterwillrequiremoreworkanddearerworkmanshipitwillbesometimestentimesdearer，thoughbothcontainthesamequantityandqualityofwool。Thequantityoftheproduceofthelandandthequantityaswellasthequalityofthelabour，willofnecessityenterintotheprice。
　　ApoundofflaxwroughtintofineBrusselslacerequiresthelabourof14personsforayearorofonepersonfor14years，asmaybeseenfromacalculationofthedifferentprocessesinthesupplement，wherewealsoseethatthepriceobtainedforthelacesufficestopayforthemaintenanceofonepersonfor14
　　yearsaswellastheprofitsofalltheundertakersandmerchantsconcerned。
　　ThefinesteelspringwhichregulatesanEnglishwatchisgenerallysoldatapricewhichmakestheproportionofmaterialtolabour，orofsteeltospring，onetoonemillionsothatinthiscaselabourmakesupnearlyallthevalueofthespring。Seethecalculationinthesupplement。
　　Ontheotherhandthepriceofthehayinafield，onthespot，orawoodwhichitisproposedtocutdown，isfixedbythematterorproduceoftheland，accordingtoitsgoodness。
　　ThepriceofapitcherofSeinewaterisnothing，becausethereisanimmensesupplywhichdoesnotdryup；butinthestreetsofParispeoplegiveasolforit——thepriceormeasureofthelabourofthewatercarrier。
　　Bytheseexamplesandinductionsitwill，Ithink，beunderstoodthatthepriceorintrinsicvalueofathingisthemeasureofthequantityoflandandoflabourenteringintoitsproduction，havingregardtothefertilityorproduceofthelandandtothequalityofthelabour。
　　Butitoftenhappensthatmanythingswhichhaveactuallythisintrinsicvaluearenotsoldinthemarketaccordingtothatvalue：thatwilldependonthehumoursandfanciesofmenandontheirconsumption。
　　Ifagentlemancutscanalsanderectsterracesinhisgarden，theirintrinsicvaluewillbeproportionabletothelandandlabour；butthepriceinrealitywillnotalwaysfollowthisproportion。Ifheofferstosellthegardenpossiblynoonewillgivehimhalftheexpensehehasincurred。Itisalsopossiblethatifseveralpersonsdesireithemaybegivendoubletheintrinsicvalue，thatistwicethevalueofthelandandtheexpensehehasincurred。
　　Ifthefarmersinastatesowmorecornthanusual，muchmorethanisneededfortheyear’sconsumption，therealandintrinsicvalueofthecornwillcorrespondtothelandandlabourwhichenterintoitsproduction；butasthereistoogreatanabundanceofitandtherearemoresellersthanbuyersthemarketpriceofthecornwillnecessarilyfallbelowtheintrinsicpriceofvalue。Ifonthecontrarythefarmerssowlesscornthanisneededforconsumptiontherewillbemorebuyersthansellersandthemarketpriceofcornwillriseaboveitsintrinsicvalue。
　　Thereisneveravariationinintrinsicvalues，buttheimpossibilityofproportioningtheproductionofmerchandiseandproduceinastatetotheirconsumptioncausesadailyvariation，andaperpetualebbandflowinmarketprices。Howeverinwellorganizedsocietiesthemarketpricesofarticleswhoseconsumptionistolerablyconstantanduniformdonotvarymuchfromtheintrinsicvalue；andwhentherearenoyearsoftooscantyortooabundantproductionthemagistratesofthecityareabletofixthemarketpricesofmanythings，likebreadandmeat，withoutanyonhavingcausetocomplain。
　　Landisthematterandlabourtheformofallproduceandmerchandise，andasthosewholabourmustsubsistontheproduceofthelanditseemsthatsomerelationmightbefoundbetweenthevalueoflabourandthatoftheproduceoftheland：thiswillformthesubjectofthenextchapter。
　　ChapterElevenOftheParorRelationbetweentheValueofLandandLabourItdoesnotappearthatProvidencehasgiventherightofthepossessionoflandtoonemanpreferablytoanother：themostancienttitlesarefoundedonviolenceandconquest。ThelandsofMexiconowbelongtotheSpaniardsandthoseatJerusalemtotheTurks。Buthowsoeverpeoplecometothepropertyandpossessionoflandwehavealreadyobservedthatitalwaysfallsintothehandsofafewinproportiontothetotalinhabitants。
　　Iftheproprietorofagreatestatekeepsitinhisownhandshewillemployslavesorfreementoworkuponit。Ifhehasmanyslaveshemusthaveoverseerstokeepthematwork：hemustlikewisehaveslavecraftsmentosupplytheneedsandconvenienciesoflifeforhimselfandhisworkers，andmusthavetradestaughttoothersinordertocarryonthework。
　　Inthiseconomyhemustallowhislabouringslavestheirsubsistenceandwherewithaltobringuptheirchildren。Theoverseersmustallowadvantagesproportionabletotheconfidenceandauthoritywhichhegivesthem。Theslaveswhohavebeentaughtacraftmustbemaintainedwithoutanyreturnduringthetimeoftheirapprenticeshipandtheartisanslavesandtheiroverseerswhoshouldbecompetentinthecraftsmusthaveabettersubsistencethanthelabouringslaves，etc。sincethelossofanartisanwouldbegreaterthanthatofalabourerandmorecaremustbetakenofhimhavingregardtotheexpenseoftraininganothertotakehisplace。
　　Onthisassumptionthelabourofanadultslaveofthelowestclassisworthatleastasmuchasthequantityoflandwhichtheproprietorisobligedtoallotforhisfoodandnecessariesandalsotodoublethelandwhichservestobreedachilduptillheisofagefitforlabour，seeinghalfthechildrenthatareborndiebeforetheageof17，accordingtothecalculationsandobservationsofthecelebratedDr。Halley。Sothattwochildrenmustbereareduptokeeponeofthemtilworkingageanditwouldseemthateventhiswouldnotbeenoughtoensureacontinuanceoflaboursinceadultmendieatallages。
　　Itistruethattheonehalfofthechildrenwhodiebefore17diefasterinthefirstyearsafterbirththaninthefollowing，sinceagoodthirdofthosewhoareborndieintheirfirstyear。Thisseemstodiminishthecostofraisingachildtoworkingage，butasthemotherslosemuchtimeinnursingtheirchildreninillnessandinfancyandthedaughtersevenwhengrownuparenottheequalsofthemalesinworkandbarelyearntheirliving，itseemsthattokeeponeoftwochildrentomanhoodorworkingageasmuchlandmustbeemployedasforthesubsistenceofanadultsalve，whethertheproprietorraisesthemhimselfinhishouseorhasthechildrenraisedthereorthatthefatherbringsthemupinahouseorhamletapart。ThusIconcludethatthedailylabourofthemeanestslavecorrespondsinvaluetodoubletheproduceofthelandrequiredtomaintainhim，whethertheproprietorgiveithimforhissubsistenceandthatofhisfamilyorprovideshimandhisfamilysubsistenceinhisownhouse。Itdoesnotadmitofexactcalculation，andexactitudeisnotverynecessary；itsufficestobenearenoughtothetruth。
　　Iftheproprietoremploythelabourofvassalsorfreepeasantshewillprobablymaintainthemuponabetterfootthanslavesaccordingtothecustomoftheplacehelivesin，yetinthiscasealsothelabourofafreelaboureroughttocorrespondinvaluetodoubletheproduceoflandneededforhismaintenance。Butitwillalwaysbemoreprofitabletotheproprietortokeepslavesthantokeepfreepeasants，becausewhenhehasbroughtupanumbertoolargeforhisrequirementshecansellthesurplusslavesashedoeshiscattleandobtainforthemapriceproportionabletowhathehasspentinrearingthemtomanhoodorworkingage，exceptincasesofoldageorinfirmity。
　　Inthesamewayonmayappraisethelabourofslavecraftsmenattwicetheproduceofthelandwhichtheyconsume。
　　Overseerslikewise，allowingforthefavoursandprivilegesgiventothemabovethosewhoworkunderthem。
　　Whentheartisansorlabourershavetheirdoubleportionattheirowndisposaltheyemployonepartofitfortheirownupkeepiftheyaremarriedandtheotherfortheirchildren。Iftheyareunmarriedtheysetasidealittleoftheirdoubleportiontoenablethemtomarryandtomakealittlestoreforhousekeeping；butmostofthemwillconsumethedoubleportionfortheirownmaintenance。
　　Forexamplethemarriedlabourerwillcontenthimselfwithbread，cheese，vegetables，etc。，willrarelyeatmeat，willdrinklittlewinorbeer，andwillhaveonlyoldandshabbyclotheswhichhewillwearaslongashecan。Thesurplusofhisdoubleportionhewillemployinraisingandkeepinghischildren，whiletheunmarriedlabourerwilleatmeatasoftenashecan，willtreathimselftonewclothes，etc。andemployhisdoubleportiononhisownrequirements。Thushewillconsumetwiceasmuchpersonallyoftheproduceofthelandasthemarriedman。
　　Idonotheretakeintoaccounttheexpenseofthewife。I
　　supposethatherlabourbarelysufficestopayforherownliving，andwhenoneseesalargenumberoflittlechildreninoneofthesepoorfamiliesIsupposethatcharitablepersonscontributesomewhattotheirmaintenance，otherwisetheparentsmustdeprivethemselvesofsomeoftheirnecessariestoprovidealivingfortheirchildren。
　　Forthebetterunderstandingofthisitistobeobservedthatapoorlabourermaymaintainhimself，atthelowestcomputation，upontheproduceofanacreandahalfoflandifhelivesonbreadandvegetables，wearshempengarments，woodenshoes，etc。，whileifhecanallowhimselfwine，meat，woollenclothes，etc。hemaywithoutdrunkennessorgluttonyorexcessofanykindconsumetheproduceoffourtotenacresoflandofordinarygoodness，suchasmostofthelandinEuropetakingpartwithanother。Ihavecausedsomefigurestobedrawnupwhichwillbefoundinthesupplement，todeterminetheamountoflandofwhichonemancanconsumetheproduceundereachheadoffood，clothing，andothernecessariesoflifeinasingleyear，accordingtothemodeoflivinginEuropewherethepeasantsofdiverscountriesareoftennourishedandmaintainedverydifferently。
　　ForthisreasonIhavenotdeterminedtohowmuchlandthelabourofthemeanestpeasantcorrespondsinvaluewhenIlaiddownthatitisworthdoubletheproduceofthelandwhichservestomaintainhim：becausethisvariesaccordingtothemodeoflivingindifferentcountries。InsomeprovincesofFrancethepeasantkeepshimselfontheproduceofoneacreandahalfoflandandthevalueofhislabourmaybereckonedequaltotheproductofthreeacres。ButinthecountyofMiddlesexthepeasantusuallyspendstheproduceof5to8acresoflandandhislabourmaybevaluedattwiceasmuchasthis。
　　InthecountryoftheIroquoiswheretheinhabitantsdonotploughthelandandliveentirelybyhunting，themeanesthuntermayconsumetheproduceof50acresoflandsinceitprobablyrequiressomuchtosupporttheanimalsheeatsinoneyear，especiallyasthesesavageshavenottheindustrytogrowgrassbycuttingdownthetreesbutleaveeverythingtonature。Thelabourofthishuntermaythenbereckonedequalinvaluetotheproductof100acresofland。InthesouthernprovincesofChinathelandyieldsriceuptothreecropsinoneyearandahundredtimesasmuchasissown，owingtothegreatcarewhichtheyhaveofagricultureandthefertilityofthesoilwhichisneverfallow。Thepeasantswhoworktherealmostnakedliveonlyonriceanddrinkonlyricewater，anditappearsthatoneacrewillsupporttheremorethantenpeasants。Itisnotsurprising，therefore，thatthepopulationisprodigiousinnumber。Inanycaseitseemsfromtheseexamplesthatnatureisaltogetherindifferentwhetherthatearthproducegrass，trees，orgrain，ormaintainsalargeorsmallnumberofvegetables，animals，ormen。
　　FarmersinEuropeseemtocorrespondtooverseersoflabouringslavesinothercountries，andthemastertradesmenwhoemployseveraljourneymentotheoverseersofartisanslaves。
　　Thesemastersknowprettywellhowmuchworkajouneymanartisancandoinadayineachcraft，andoftenpaytheminproportiontotheworktheydo，sothatthejourneymenworkfortheirowninterestashardastheycanwithoutfurtherinspection。
　　AsthefarmersandmastersofcraftsinEuropeareallundertakersworkingatarisk，somegetrichandgainmorethanadoublesubsistence，othersareruinedandbecomebankrupt，aswillbeexplainedmoreindetailintreatingofundertakers；butthemajoritysupportthemselvesandtheirfamiliesfromdaytoday，andtheirlabourorsuperintendencemaybevaluedataboutthricetheproduceofthelandwhichservesfortheirmaintenance。
　　Evidentlythesefarmersandmastercraftsmen，iftheysuperintendthelabouroftenlabourersorjourneymen，wouldbeequallycapableofsuperintendingthelabouroftwenty，accordingtothesizeoftheirfarmsorthenumberoftheircustomers，andthisrendersuncertainthevalueoftheirlabourorsuperintendence。
　　Bytheseexamplesandotherswhichmightbeaddedinthesamesense，itisseenthatthevalueoftheday’sworkhasarelationtotheproduceofthesoil，andthattheintrinsicvalueofanythingmaybemeasuredbythequantityoflandusedinitsproductionandthequantityoflabourwhichentersintoit，inotherwordsbythequantityoflandofwhichtheproduceisallottedtothosewhohaveworkeduponit；andasallthelandbelongstotheprinceandthelandownersallthingswhichhavethisintrinsicvaluehaveitonlyattheirexpense。
　　Themoneyorcoinwhichfindstheproportionofvaluesinexchangeisthemostcertainmeasureforjudgingoftheparbetweenlandandlabourandtherelationofonetotheotherindifferentcountrieswherethisparvariesaccordingtothegreaterorlessproduceofthelandallottedtothosewholabour。
　　If，forexample，onemanearnanounceofsilvereverydaybyhiswork，andanotherinthesameplaceearnonlyhalfanounce，onecanconcludethatthefirsthasasmuchagainoftheproduceofthelandtodisposeofasthesecond。
　　SirWilliamPetty，inalittlemanuscriptoftheyear1685，considersthispar，orequationbetweenlandandlabour，asthemostimportantconsiderationinpoliticalarithmetic，buttheresearchwhichhehasmadeintoitinpassingisfancifulandremotefromnaturallaws，becausehehasattachedhimselfnottocausesandprinciplesbutonlytoeffects，asMrLocke，MrDavenantandalltheotherEnglishauthorswhohavewrittenonthissubjecthavedoneafterhim。
　　ChapterTwelveAllClassesandIndividualsinaStatesubsistorareenrichedattheExpenseoftheProprietorsofLandTherearenonebuttheprinceandtheproprietorsoflandwholiveindependent；allotherclassesandinhabitantsarehiredorareundertakers。Theproofanddetailofthiswillbedevelopedinthenextchapter。
　　Iftheprinceandproprietorsoflandclosetheirestatesandwillnotsufferthemtobecultivateditisclearthattherewouldbeneitherfoodnorraymentforanyoftheinhabitants；
　　consequentlyalltheindividualsaresupportednotonlybytheproduceofthelandwhichiscultivatedforthebenefitoftheownersbutalsoattheexpenseofthesesameownersfromwhosepropertytheyderiveallthattheyhave。
　　Thefarmershavegenerallytwothirdsoftheproduceoftheland，onefortheircostsandthesupportoftheirassistants，theotherfortheprofitoftheirundertaking：onthesetwothirdsthefarmerprovidesgenerallydirectlyorindirectlysubsistenceforallthosewholiveinthecountry，andalsomechanicsorundertakersinthecityinrespectofthemerchandiseofthecityconsumedinthecountry。
　　Theproprietorhasusuallyonethirdoftheproduceofhislandandonthisthirdhemaintainsallthemechanicsandotherswhomheemploysinthecityaswell，frequently，asthecarrierswhobringtheproduceofthecountrytothecity。
　　Itisgenerallycalculatedthatonehalfoftheinhabitantsofakingdomsubsistandmaketheirabodeincities，andtheotherhalfliveinthecountry；onthissuppositionthefarmerwhohastwothirdsorfoursixthoftheproduceoftheland，payseitherdirectlyorindirectlyonesixthtothecitizensinexchangeforthemerchandisewhichhetakesfromthem。Thissixthwiththeonethirdortwosixthswhichtheproprietorspendsinthecitymakesthreesixthsoronehalfoftheproduceoftheland。Thiscalculationisonlytoconveyageneralideaoftheproportion；butinfact，ifhalfoftheinhabitantsliveinthecitiestheyconsumemorethanhalfoftheland’sproduce，astheylivebetterthanthosewhoresideinthecountryandspendmoreoftheproduceofthelandbeingallmechanicsordependentsoftheproprietorsandconsequentlybettermaintainedthantheassistantsanddependentsofthefarmers。
　　Butletthismatterbehowitwill，ifweexaminethemeansbywhichaninhabitantissupporteditwillalwaysappearinreturningbacktothefountainhead，thatthesemeansarisefromthelandoftheproprietoreitherinthetwothirdsreservedbythefarmer，ortheonethirdwhichremainstothelandlord。
　　Ifaproprietorhadonlytheamountoflandwhichheletsouttoonefarmerthefarmerwouldgetabetterlivingoutofitthanhimself；butthenoblesandlargelandownersinthecitieshavesometimesseveralhundredsoffarmersandarethemselvesveryfewinnumberinproportiontoalltheinhabitantsofastate。
　　Truethereareofteninthecitiesseveralundertakersandmechanicswholivebyforeigntrade，andthereforeattheexpenseofforeignlandowners：butatpresentIamconsideringonlyastateinregardtoitsownproduceandindustry，nottocomplicatemyargumentbyaccidentalcircumstances。
　　Thelandbelongstotheproprietorsbutwouldbeuselesstothemifitwerenotcultivated。Themorelabourisexpendedonit，otherthingsbeingequal，themoreitproduces；andthemoreitsproductsareworkedup，otherthingsbeingequal，themorevaluetheyhaveasmerchandise。Hencetheproprietorshaveneedoftheinhabitantsasthesehaveoftheproprietors；butinthiseconomyitisfortheproprietors，whohavethedispositionandthedirectionofthelandedcapital，togivethemostadvantageousturnandmovementtothewhole。Alsoeverythinginastatedependsonthefancy，methods，andfashionsoflifeoftheproprietorsoflandinespecial，asIwillendeavourtomakeclearlaterinthisessay。
　　Itisneedandnecessitywhichenablefarmers，mechanicsofeverykind，merchants，officers，soldiers，sailors，domesticservantsandalltheotherclasseswhoworkorareemployedinthestate，toexist。Alltheseworkingpeopleservenotonlytheprinceandthelandownersbuteachother，sothattherearemanyofthemwhodonotworkdirectlyforthelandowners，andsoitisnotseenthattheysubsistonthecapitaloftheseproprietorsandliveattheirexpense。Asforthosewhoexerciseprofessionswhicharenotessential，likedancers，actors，painters，musicians，etc。theyareonlysupportedinthestateforpleasureorforornament，andtheirnumberisalwaysverysmallinproportiontotheotherinhabitants。
　　ChapterThirteenThecirculationandexchangeofgoodsandmerchandiseaswellastheirproductionarecarriedoninEuropebyUndertakers，andatariskThefarmerisanundertakerwhopromisestopaytothelandowner，forhisfarmorland，afixedsumofmoney（generallysupposedtobeequalinvaluetothethirdoftheproduce）
　　withoutassuranceoftheprofithewillderivefromthisenterprise。Heemployspartofthelandtofeedflocks，producecorn，wine，hay，etc。accordingtohisjudgmentwithoutbeingabletoforeseewhichofthesewillpaybest。Thepriceoftheseproductswilldependpartlyontheweather，partlyonthedemand；
　　ifcornisabundantrelativelytoconsumptionitwillbedirtcheap，ifthereisscarcityitwillbedear。Whocanforeseetheincreaseorreductionofexpensewhichmaycomeaboutinthefamilies？Andyetthepriceofthefarmer’sproducedependsnaturallyupontheseunforeseencircumstances，andconsequentlyheconductstheenterpriseofhisfarmatanuncertainty。
　　Thecityconsumesmorethanhalfthefarmer’sproduce。Hecarriesittomarketthereorsellsitinthemarketofthenearesttown，orperhapsafewindividualssetupascarriersthemselves。Thesebindthemselvestopaythefarmerafixedpriceforhisproduce，thatofthemarketpriceoftheday，togetinthecityanuncertainpricewhichshouldhoweverdefraythecostofcarriageandleavethemaprofit。Butthedailyvariationinthepriceofproduceinthecity，thoughnotconsiderable，makestheirprofituncertain。
　　Theundertakerormerchantwhocarriestheproductsofthecountrytothecitycannotstaytheretosellretailastheyareconsumed。Nocityfamilywillburdenitselfwiththepurchaseallatonceoftheproduceitmayneed，eachfamilybeingsusceptibleofincreaseordecreaseinnumberandinconsumptionoratleastvaryinginthechoiceofproduceitwillconsume。Wineisalmosttheonlyarticleofconsumptionstockedinafamily。Inanycasethemajorityofcitizenswholivefromdaytodayandyetarethelargestconsumerscannotlayinastockofcountryproduce。
　　Forthisreasonmanypeoplesetupinacityasmerchantsorundertakers，tobuythecountryproducefromthosewhobringitortoorderittobebroughtontheiraccount。Theypayacertainpricefollowingthatoftheplacewheretheypurchaseit，toresellwholesaleorretailatanuncertainprice。
　　Suchundertakersarethewholesalersinwooandcorn，bakers，butchers，manufacturersandmerchantsofallkindswhobuycountryproduceandmaterialstoworkthemupandresellthemgraduallyastheinhabitantsrequirethem。
　　Theseundertakerscanneverknowhowgreatwillbethedemandintheircity，norhowlongtheircustomerswillbuyofthemsincetheirrivalswilltryallsortsofmeanstoattractcustomersfromthem。Allthiscausessomuchuncertaintyamongtheseundertakersthateverydayoneseessomeofthembecomebankrupt。
　　Themanufacturerwhohasboughtwoolfromthemerchantordirectfromthefarmercannotforetelltheprofithewillmakeinsellinghisclothsandstuffstothemerchanttailor。Ifthelatterhavenotareasonablesalehewillnotloadhimselfwiththeclothsandstuffsofthemanufacturer，especiallyifthosestuffsceasetobeinthefashion。
　　Thedraperisanundertakerwhobuysclothsandstuffsfromthemanufactureratacertainpricetosellthemagainatanuncertainprice，becausehecannotforeseetheextentofthedemand。Hecanofcoursefixapriceandstandoutagainstsellingunlesshegetsit，butifhiscustomersleavehimtobuycheaperfromanother，hewillbeeatenupbyexpenseswhilewaitingtosellatthepricehedemands，andthatwillruinhimassoonasorsoonerthanifhesoldwithoutprofit。
　　Shopkeepersandretailersofeverykindareundertakerswhobuyatacertainpriceandsellintheirshopsorthemarketsatanuncertainprice。Whatencouragesandmaintainstheseundertakersinastateisthattheconsumerswhoaretheircustomerspreferpayingalittlemoretogetwhattheywantreadytohandinsmallquantitiesratherthanlayinastockandthatmostofthemhavenotthemeanstolayinsuchastockbybuyingatfirsthand。
　　Alltheseundertakersbecomeconsumersandcustomersoneinregardtotheother，thedraperofthewinemerchantandviceversa。Theyproportionthemselvesinastatetothecustomersorconsumption。Iftherearetoomanyhattersinacityorinastreetforthenumberofpeoplewhobuyhatsthere，somewhoareleastpatronisedmustbecomebankrupt：iftheybetoofewitwillbeaprofitableundertakingwhichwillencouragenewhatterstoopenshopsthereandsoitisthattheundertakersofallkindsadjustthemselvestorisksinastate。
　　Alltheotherundertakerslikethosewhotakechargeofmines，theatres，building，etc。，themerchantsbyseaandland，etc。，cook-shopkeepers，pastrycooks，innkeepers，etc。aswellastheundertakersoftheirownlabourwhoneednocapitaltoestablishthemselves，likejourneymenartisans，coppersmiths，needlewomen，chimneysweeps，watercarriers，liveatuncertaintyandproportionthemselvestotheircustomers。Mastercraftsmenlikeshoemakers，tailors，carpenters，wigmakers，etc。whoemployjourneymenaccordingtotheworktheyhave，liveatthesameuncertaintysincetheircustomersmayforesakethemfromonedaytoanother：theundertakersoftheirownlabourinartandscience，likepainters，physicians，lawyers，etc。liveinthelikeuncertainty。Ifoneattorneyorbarristersearn5000poundssterlingyearlyintheserviceofhisclientsorinhispracticeandanotherearnonly500theymaybeconsideredashavingsomuchuncertainwagesfromthosewhoemploythem。
　　Itmayperhapsbeurgedthatundertakersseektosnatchalltheycanintheircallingandtogetthebetteroftheircustomers，butthisisoutsidemysubject。
　　Byalltheseinductionsandmanyotherswhichmightbemadeinatopicrelatingtoalltheinhabitantsofastate，itmaybelaiddownthatexpecttheprinceandtheproprietorsofland，alltheinhabitantsofastatearedependent；thattheycanbedividedintotwoclasses，undertakersandhiredpeople；andthatalltheundertakersareasitwereonunfixedwagesandtheothersonwagesfixedsolongastheyreceivethemthoughtheirfunctionsandranksmaybeveryunequal。Thegeneralwhohashispay，thecourtierhispensionandthedomesticservantwhohaswagesallfallintothislastclass。Alltherestareundertakers，whethertheysetupwithacapitaltoconducttheirenterprise，orareundertakersoftheirownlabourwithoutcapital，andtheymayberegardedaslivingatuncertainty；thebeggarsevenandtherobbersareundertakersofthisclass。
　　Finallyalltheinhabitantsofastatederivetheirlivingandtheiradvantagesfromthepropertyofthelandownersandaredependent。
　　Itistrue，however，thatifsomepersononhighwagesorsomelargeundertakerhassavedcapitalorwealth，thatisifhehavestoresofcorn，wool，copper，gold，silverorsomeproduceormerchandiseinconstantuseorventinastate，havinganintrinsicorarealvalue，hemaybejustlyconsideredindependentsofarasthiscapitalgoes。Hemaydisposeofittoacquireamortgage，andinterestfromlandandfrompublicloanssecureduponland：hemaylivestillbetterthanthesmalllandownersandevenbuythepropertyofsomeofthem。
　　Butproduceandmerchandise，evengoldandsilver，aremuchmoresubjecttoaccidentandlossthantheownershipofland；andhoweveronemayhavegainedorsavedthemtheyarealwaysderivedfromthelandofactualproprietorseitherbygainorbysavingofthewagesdestinedforone’ssubsistence。
　　Thenumberofproprietorsofmoneyinalargestateisoftenconsiderableenough；andthoughthevalueofallthemoneywhichcirculatesinthestatebarelyexceedstheninthortenthpartofthevalueoftheproducedrawnfromthesoilyet，astheproprietorsofmoneylendconsiderableamountsforwhichtheyreceiveinteresteitherbymortgageortheproduceandmerchandiseofthestate，thesumsduetothemusuallyexceedallthemoneyinthestate，andtheyoftenbecomesopowerfulabodythattheycouldincertaincasesrivaltheproprietorsoflandsiftheselastwerenotoftenequallyproprietorsofmoney，andiftheownersoflargesumsofmoneydidnotalwaysseektobecomelandownersthemselves。
　　Itisneverthelessalwaystruethatallthesumsgainedorsavedhavebeendrawnfromthelandoftheactualproprietors；
　　butasmanyoftheseruinthemselvesdailyinastateandtheotherswhoacquirethepropertyoftheirlandtaketheirplace，theindependencegivenbytheownershipoflandappliesonlytothosewhokeepthepossessionofit；andasalllandhasalwaysthatitisfromtheirpropertythatalltheinhabitantsofthestatederivetheirlivingandalltheirwealth。Iftheseproprietorsconfinedthemselvestolivingontheirrentsitwouldbebeyondquestion，andinthatcaseitwouldbemuchmoredifficultfortheotherinhabitantstoenrichthemselvesattheirexpense。
　　Iwillthenlayitdownasaprinciplethattheproprietorsoflandalonearenaturallyindependentinastate：thatalltheotherclassesaredependentwhetherundertakersorhired，andthatalltheexchangeandcirculationofthestateisconductedbythemediumoftheseundertakers。
　　ChapterFourteenTheFancies，theFashions，andtheModesofLivingofthePrince，andespeciallyoftheLandowners，determinetheusetowhichLandisputinaStateandcausethevariationsintheMarketpriceofallthingsIftheownerofalargeestate（whichIwishtoconsiderhereasiftherewerenootherintheworld）hasitcultivatedhimselfhewillfollowhisfancyintheuseofwhichhewillputit。（1）Hewillnecessarilyusepartofitforcorntofeedthelabourers，mechanicsandoverseerswhoworkforhim，anotherparttofeedthecattle，sheepandotheranimalsnecessaryfortheirclothingandfoodorothercommoditiesaccordingtothewayinwhichhewishestomaintainthem。（2）Hewillturnpartofthelandintoparks，gardens，fruittreesorvinesashefeelsinclinedandintomeadowsforthehorseshewilluseforhispleasure，etc。
　　Letusnowsupposethattoavoidsomuchcareandtroublehemakesabargainwiththeoverseersofthelabourers，givesthemfarmsorpiecesoflandandleavestothemtheresponsibilityformaintainingintheusualmannerallthelabourerstheysupervise，sothattheoverseers，nowbecomefarmersorundertakers，givethelabourersforworkingonthelandorfarmanotherthirdoftheproducefortheirfood，clothingandotherrequirements，suchastheyhadwhentheowneremployedthem；supposefurtherthattheownermakesabargainwiththeoverseersofthemechanicsforthefoodandotherthingsthathegavethem，thathemakestheoverseersbecomemastercraftsmen，fixesacommonmeasure，likesilver，tosettlethepriceatwhichthefarmerswillsupplythemwithwoodandtheywillsupplyhimwithcloth，andthatthepricesaresuchastogivethemastercraftsmenthesameadvantagesandenjoymentsastheyhadwhenoverseers，andthejourneymenmechanicswillbesettledbythedayorbythepiece：
　　themerchandisewhichtheyhavemade，hats，stockings，shoes，clothes，etc。willbesoldtothelandowner，thefarmers，thelabourers，andtheothermechanicsreciprocallyatapricewhichleavestoallofthemthesameadvantagesasbefore；andthefarmerswillsell，ataproportionateprice，theirproduceandrawmaterial。
　　Itwillthencometopassthattheoverseersbecomeundertakers，willbetheabsolutemastersofthosewhoworkunderthem，andwillhavemorecareandsatisfactioninworkingontheirownaccount。Wesupposethanthatafterthischangeallthepeopleonthislargeestatelivejustastheydidbefore，andsoalltheportionsandfarmsofthisgreatestatewillbeputtothesameuseasitformerlywas。
　　Forifsomeofthefarmerssowedmorecornthanusualtheymustfeedfewersheep，andhavelesswoolandmuttontosell。
　　Thentherewillbetoomuchcornandtoolittlewoolfortheconsumptionoftheinhabitants。Woolwillthereforebedear，whichwillforcetheinhabitantstoweartheirclotheslongerthanusual，andtherewillbetoomuchcornandasurplusforthenextyear。Aswesupposethatthelandownerhasstipulatedforthepaymentinsilverofthethirdoftheproduceofthefarmtobepaidtohim，thefarmerswhohavetoomuchcornandtoolittlewool，willnotbeabletopayhimhisrent。Ifheexcusesthemtheywilltakecarethenextyeartohavelesscornandmorewool，forfarmersalwaystakecaretousetheirlandfortheproductionofthosethingswhichtheythinkwillfetchthebestpriceatmarket。If，however，nextyeartheyhavetoomuchwoolandtoolittlecornforthedemand，theywillnotfailtochangefromyeartoyeartheuseofthelandtilltheyarriveatproportioningtheirproductionprettywelltotheconsumptionoftheinhabitants。Soafarmerwhohasarrivedatabouttheproportionofconsumptionwillhavepartofhisfarmingrass，forhay，anotherforcorn，woolandsoon，andhewillnotchangehisplanunlessheseessomeconsiderablechangeinthedemand；
　　butinthisexamplewehavesupposedthatallthepeopleliveinthesamewayaswhenthelandownercultivatedthelandforhimself，andconsequentlythefarmerswillemploythelandforthesamepurposesasbefore。
　　Theowner，whohasathisdisposalthethirdoftheproduceoftheland，istheprincipalagentinthechangeswhichmayoccurindemand。Labourersandmechanicswholivefromdaytodaychangetheirmodeoflivingonlyfromnecessity。Ifafewfarmers，mastercraftsmenorotherundertakersineasycircumstancesvarytheirexpenseandcompensationtheyalwaystakeastheirmodelthelordsandownersoftheland。Theyimitatethemintheirclothing，meals，andmodeoflife。Ifthelandownerspleasetowearfinelinen，silk，orlace，thedemandforthesemerchandiseswillbegreaterthanthatoftheproprietorsforthemselves。
　　Ifalordorownerwhohasletoutallhislandstofarm，takethefancytochangeconsiderablyhismodeofliving；ifforinstancehedecreasesthenumberofhisdomesticservantsandincreasesthenumberofhishorses：notonlywillhisservantsbeforcedtoleavetheestateinquestionbutalsoaproportionatenumberofartisansandoflabourerswhoworkedtomaintainthem。
　　Theportionoflandwhichwasusedtomaintaintheseinhabitantswillbelaiddowntograssforthenewhorses，andifalllandownersinthestatedidtheliketheywouldsoonincreasethenumberofhorsesanddiminishthenumberofmen。
　　Whenalandownerhasdismissedagreatnumberofdomesticservants，andincreasedthenumberofhishorses，therewillbetoomuchcornfortheneedsoftheinhabitants，andsothecornwillbecheapandthehaydear。Inconsequencethefarmerswillincreasetheirgrasslandanddiminishtheircorntoproportionittothedemand。Inthiswaythefanciesorfashionsoflandownersdeterminetheuseofthelandandbringaboutthevariationsofdemandwhichcausethevariationsofmarketprices。
　　Ifallthelandownersofastatecultivatedtheirownestatestheywouldusethemtoproducewhattheywant；andasthevariationsofdemandarechieflycausedbytheirmodeoflivingthepriceswhichtheyofferinthemarketdecidethefarmerstoallthechangeswhichtheymakeintheemploymentanduseoftheland。
　　Idonotconsiderherethevariationsinmarketpriceswhichmayarisefromthegoodorbadharvestoftheyear，ortheextraordinaryconsumptionwhichmayoccurfromforeigntroopsorotheraccidents，soasnottocomplicatemysubject，consideringonlyastateinitsnaturalanduniformcondition。
　　ChapterFifteenTheIncreaseandDecreaseoftheNumberofPeopleinaStatechieflydependonthetaste，thefashions，andthemodesoflivingoftheproprietorsoflandExperienceshowsthattrees，plantsandothervegetablescanbeincreasedtoanyquantitywhichtheextentofgroundlaidoutforthemcansupport。
　　Thesameexperienceshowsthatallkindsoftheanimalcreationaretobemultipliedtoanyquantitywhichthelandallottedtothemcansupport。Horses，cattle，sheepcaneasilybemultiplieduptothenumberthatthelandwillsupport。ThefieldswhichserveforthissupportmaybeimprovedbyirrigationasinMilan。Haymaybesavedandcattlefedinshedsandraisedinlargernumbersthaniftheywereleftinthefields。Sheepmaybefedonturnips，asinEngland，bywhichmeansanacreoflandwillgofurtherfortheirnourishmentthanifitwerepasture。Inaword，wecanmultiplyallsortsofanimalsinsuchnumbersaswewishtomaintaineventoinfinityifwecouldfindlandstoinfinitytotonourishthem；andthemultiplicationofanimalshasnootherboundsthanthegreaterorlessmeansallottedfortheirsubsistence。Itisnottobedoubtedthatifalllandweredevotedtothesimplesustenanceofmantheracewouldincreaseuptothenumberthatthelandwouldsupportinthemannertobeexplained。