INTRODUCTION。
　　TheCratylushasalwaysbeenasourceofperplexitytothestudentofPlato。Whileinfancyandhumour，andperfectionofstyleandmetaphysicaloriginality，thisdialoguemayberankedwiththebestofthePlatonicwritings，therehasbeenanuncertaintyaboutthemotiveofthepiece，whichinterpretershavehithertonotsucceededindispelling。WeneednotsupposethatPlatousedwordsinordertoconcealhisthoughts，orthathewouldhavebeenunintelligibletoaneducatedcontemporary。InthePhaedrusandEuthydemuswealsofindadifficultyindeterminingthepreciseaimoftheauthor。Platowrotesatiresintheformofdialogues，andhismeaning，likethatofothersatiricalwriters，hasoftensleptintheearofposterity。Twocausesmaybeassignedforthisobscurity：1st，thesubtletyandallusivenessofthisspeciesofcomposition；2nd，thedifficultyofreproducingastateoflifeandliteraturewhichhaspassedaway。Asatireisunmeaningunlesswecanplaceourselvesbackamongthepersonsandthoughtsoftheageinwhichitwaswritten。HadthetreatiseofAntisthenesuponwords，orthespeculationsofCratylus，orsomeotherHeracleiteanofthefourthcenturyB。C。，onthenatureoflanguagebeenpreservedtous；orifwehadlivedatthetime，andbeen’richenoughtoattendthefifty-drachmacourseofProdicus，’weshouldhaveunderstoodPlatobetter，andmanypointswhicharenowattributedtotheextravaganceofSocrates’humourwouldhavebeenfound，liketheallusionsofAristophanesintheClouds，tohavegonehometothesophistsandgrammariansoftheday。
　　Fortheagewasverybusywithphilologicalspeculation；andmanyquestionswerebeginningtobeaskedaboutlanguagewhichwereparalleltootherquestionsaboutjustice，virtue，knowledge，andwereillustratedinasimilarmannerbytheanalogyofthearts。Wasthereacorrectnessinwords，andweretheygivenbynatureorconvention？Inthepresocraticphilosophymankindhadbeenstrivingtoattainanexpressionoftheirideas，andnowtheywerebeginningtoaskthemselveswhethertheexpressionmightnotbedistinguishedfromtheidea？Theywerealsoseekingtodistinguishthepartsofspeechandtoenquireintotherelationofsubjectandpredicate。Grammarandlogicweremovingaboutsomewhereinthedepthsofthehumansoul，buttheywerenotyetawakenedintoconsciousnessandhadnotfoundnamesforthemselves，ortermsbywhichtheymightbeexpressed。Ofthesebeginningsofthestudyoflanguageweknowlittle，andtherenecessarilyarisesanobscuritywhenthesurroundingsofsuchaworkastheCratylusaretakenaway。Moreover，inthis，asinmostofthedialoguesofPlato，allowancehastobemadeforthecharacterofSocrates。
　　Forthetheoryoflanguagecanonlybepropoundedbyhiminamannerwhichisconsistentwithhisownprofessionofignorance。Hencehisridiculeofthenewschoolofetymologyisinterspersedwithmanydeclarations’thatheknowsnothing，’’thathehaslearnedfromEuthyphro，’andthelike。Eventhetruestthingswhichhesaysaredepreciatedbyhimself。Heprofessestobeguessing，buttheguessesofPlatoarebetterthanalltheothertheoriesoftheancientsrespectinglanguageputtogether。
　　ThedialoguehardlyderivesanylightfromPlato’sotherwritings，andstilllessfromScholiastsandNeoplatonistwriters。Socratesmustbeinterpretedfromhimself，andonfirstreadingwecertainlyhaveadifficultyinunderstandinghisdrift，orhisrelationtothetwootherinterlocutorsinthedialogue。DoesheagreewithCratylusorwithHermogenes，andisheseriousinthosefancifuletymologies，extendingovermorethanhalfthedialogue，whichheseemssogreatlytorelish？Orisheseriousinpartonly；andcanweseparatehisjestfromhisearnest？——Suntbona，suntquaedummediocria，suntmalaplura。Mostofthemareridiculouslybad，andyetamongthemarefound，asifbyaccident，principlesofphilologywhichareunsurpassedinanyancientwriter，andeveninadvanceofanyphilologerofthelastcentury。MaywesupposethatPlato，likeLucian，hasbeenamusinghisfancybywritingacomedyintheformofaprosedialogue？Andwhatisthefinalresultoftheenquiry？IsPlatoanupholderoftheconventionaltheoryoflanguage，whichheacknowledgestobeimperfect？ordoeshemeantoimplythataperfectlanguagecanonlybebasedonhisowntheoryofideas？Orifthislatterexplanationisrefutedbyhissilence，theninwhatrelationdoeshisaccountoflanguagestandtotherestofhisphilosophy？Ormaywebesoboldastodenytheconnexionbetweenthem？（Fortheallusiontotheideasattheendofthedialogueismerelyintendedtoshowthatwemustnotputwordsintheplaceofthingsorrealities，whichisathesisstronglyinsistedonbyPlatoinmanyotherpassages）……ThesearesomeofthefirstthoughtswhichariseinthemindofthereaderoftheCratylus。Andtheconsiderationofthemmayformaconvenientintroductiontothegeneralsubjectofthedialogue。
　　WemustnotexpectallthepartsofadialogueofPlatototendequallytosomeclearly-definedend。Hisideaofliteraryartisnottheabsoluteproportionofthewhole，suchasweappeartofindinaGreektempleorstatue；norshouldhisworksbetriedbyanysuchstandard。Theyhaveoftenthebeautyofpoetry，buttheyhavealsothefreedomofconversation。
　　’Wordsaremoreplasticthanwax’（Rep。），andmaybemouldedintoanyform。
　　Hewandersonfromonetopictoanother，carelessoftheunityofhiswork，notfearingany’judge，orspectator，whomayrecallhimtothepoint’
　　（Theat。），’whithertheargumentblowswefollow’（Rep。）。Tohavedeterminedbeforehand，asinamoderndidactictreatise，thenatureandlimitsofthesubject，wouldhavebeenfataltothespiritofenquiryordiscovery，whichisthesoulofthedialogue……TheseremarksareapplicabletonearlyalltheworksofPlato，buttotheCratylusandPhaedrusmorethananyothers。SeePhaedrus，Introduction。
　　ThereisanotheraspectunderwhichsomeofthedialoguesofPlatomaybemoretrulyviewed：——theyaredramaticsketchesofanargument。WehavefoundthatintheLysis，Charmides，Laches，Protagoras，Meno，wearrivedatnoconclusion——thedifferentsidesoftheargumentwerepersonifiedinthedifferentspeakers；butthevictorywasnotdistinctlyattributedtoanyofthem，northetruthwhollythepropertyofany。AndintheCratyluswehavenoreasontoassumethatSocratesiseitherwhollyrightorwhollywrong，orthatPlato，thoughheevidentlyinclinestohim，hadanyotheraimthanthatofpersonifying，inthecharactersofHermogenes，Socrates，andCratylus，thethreetheoriesoflanguagewhicharerespectivelymaintainedbythem。
　　Thetwosubordinatepersonsofthedialogue，HermogenesandCratylus，areattheoppositepolesoftheargument。ButafterawhilethediscipleoftheSophistandthefollowerofHeracleitusarefoundtobenotsofarremovedfromoneanotherasatfirstsightappeared；andbothshowaninclinationtoacceptthethirdviewwhichSocratesinterposesbetweenthem。First，Hermogenes，thepoorbrotheroftherichCallias，expoundsthedoctrinethatnamesareconventional；likethenamesofslaves，theymaybegivenandalteredatpleasure。Thisisoneofthoseprincipleswhich，whetherappliedtosocietyorlanguage，explainseverythingandnothing。Forinallthingsthereisanelementofconvention；buttheadmissionofthisdoesnothelpustounderstandtherationalgroundorbasisinhumannatureonwhichtheconventionproceeds。SocratesfirstofallintimatestoHermogenesthathisviewoflanguageisonlyapartofasophisticalwhole，andultimatelytendstoabolishthedistinctionbetweentruthandfalsehood。Hermogenesisveryreadytothrowasidethesophisticaltenet，andlistenswithasortofhalfadmiration，halfbelief，tothespeculationsofSocrates。
　　Cratylusisofopinionthatanameiseitheratruenameornotanameatall。Heisunabletoconceiveofdegreesofimitation；awordiseithertheperfectexpressionofathing，oramereinarticulatesound（afallacywhichisstillprevalentamongtheorizersabouttheoriginoflanguage）。
　　Heisatonceaphilosopherandasophist；forwhilewantingtorestlanguageonanimmutablebasis，hewoulddenythepossibilityoffalsehood。
　　Heisinclinedtoderivealltruthfromlanguage，andinlanguageheseesreflectedthephilosophyofHeracleitus。HisviewsarenotlikethoseofHermogenes，hastilytakenup，butaresaidtobetheresultofmatureconsideration，althoughheisdescribedasstillayoungman。WithatenacitycharacteristicoftheHeracleiteanphilosophers，heclingstothedoctrineoftheflux。（CompareTheaet。）OftherealCratylusweknownothing，exceptthatheisrecordedbyAristotletohavebeenthefriendorteacherofPlato；norhaveweanyproofthatheresembledthelikenessofhiminPlatoanymorethantheCritiasofPlatoisliketherealCritias，ortheEuthyphrointhisdialogueliketheotherEuthyphro，thediviner，inthedialoguewhichiscalledafterhim。
　　Betweenthesetwoextremes，whichhavebothofthemasophisticalcharacter，theviewofSocratesisintroduced，whichisinamannertheunionofthetwo。Languageisconventionalandalsonatural，andthetrueconventional-naturalistherational。Itisaworknotofchance，butofart；thedialecticianistheartificerofwords，andthelegislatorgivesauthoritytothem。Theyaretheexpressionsorimitationsinsoundofthings。Inasense，Cratylusisrightinsayingthatthingshavebynaturenames；fornatureisnotopposedeithertoartortolaw。Butvocalimitation，likeanyothercopy，maybeimperfectlyexecuted；andinthiswayanelementofchanceorconventionentersin。Thereismuchwhichisaccidentalorexceptionalinlanguage。Somewordshavehadtheiroriginalmeaningsoobscured，thattheyrequiretobehelpedoutbyconvention。Butstillthetruenameisthatwhichhasanaturalmeaning。Thusnature，art，chance，allcombineintheformationoflanguage。AndthethreeviewsrespectivelypropoundedbyHermogenes，Socrates，Cratylus，maybedescribedastheconventional，theartificialorrational，andthenatural。TheviewofSocratesisthemeeting-pointoftheothertwo，justasconceptualismisthemeeting-pointofnominalismandrealism。
　　WecanhardlysaythatPlatowasawareofthetruth，that’languagesarenotmade，butgrow。’Butstill，whenhesaysthat’thelegislatormadelanguagewiththedialecticianstandingonhisrighthand，’weneednotinferfromthisthatheconceivedwords，likecoins，tobeissuedfromthemintoftheState。Thecreatoroflawsandofsociallifeisnaturallyregardedasthecreatoroflanguage，accordingtoHellenicnotions，andthephilosopherishisnaturaladvisor。Wearenottosupposethatthelegislatorisperforminganyextraordinaryfunction；heismerelytheEponymusoftheState，whoprescribesrulesforthedialecticianandforallotherartists。AccordingtoatrulyPlatonicmodeofapproachingthesubject，language，likevirtueintheRepublic，isexaminedbytheanalogyofthearts。Wordsareworksofartwhichmaybeequallymadeindifferentmaterials，andarewellmadewhentheyhaveameaning。Oftheprocesswhichhethusdescribes，Platohadprobablynoverydefinitenotion。Buthemeanstoexpressgenerallythatlanguageistheproductofintelligence，andthatlanguagesbelongtoStatesandnottoindividuals。
　　AbetterconceptionoflanguagecouldnothavebeenformedinPlato’sage，thanthatwhichheattributestoSocrates。YetmanypersonshavethoughtthatthemindofPlatoismoretrulyseeninthevaguerealismofCratylus。
　　Thismisconceptionhasprobablyarisenfromtwocauses：first，thedesiretobringPlato’stheoryoflanguageintoaccordancewiththereceiveddoctrineofthePlatonicideas；secondly，theimpressioncreatedbySocrateshimself，thatheisnotinearnest，andisonlyindulgingthefancyofthehour。
　　1。Weshallhaveoccasiontoshowmoreatlength，intheIntroductiontofuturedialogues，thattheso-calledPlatonicideasareonlyasemi-
　　mythicalform，inwhichheattemptstorealizeabstractions，andthattheyarereplacedinhislaterwritingsbyarationaltheoryofpsychology。
　　（SeeintroductionstotheMenoandtheSophist。）AndintheCratylushegivesageneralaccountofthenatureandoriginoflanguage，inwhichAdamSmith，Rousseau，andotherwritersofthelastcentury，wouldhavesubstantiallyagreed。Attheendofthedialogue，hespeaksasintheSymposiumandRepublicofabsolutebeautyandgood；butheneversupposedthattheywerecapableofbeingembodiedinwords。Ofthenamesoftheideas，hewouldhavesaid，ashesaysofthenamesoftheGods，thatweknownothing。EventherealismofCratylusisnotbasedupontheideasofPlato，butuponthefluxofHeracleitus。Here，asintheSophistandPoliticus，Platoexpresslydrawsattentiontothewantofagreementinwordsandthings。Henceweareledtoinfer，thattheviewofSocratesisnotthelessPlato’sown，becausenotbasedupontheideas；2nd，thatPlato’stheoryoflanguageisnotinconsistentwiththerestofhisphilosophy。
　　2。WedonotdenythatSocratesispartlyinjestandpartlyinearnest。
　　Heisdiscoursinginahigh-flownvein，whichmaybecomparedtothe’dithyrambicsofthePhaedrus。’Theyaremysteriesofwhichheisspeaking，andheprofessesakindofludicrousfearofhisimaginarywisdom。WhenheisarguingoutofHomer，aboutthenamesofHector’sson，orwhenhedescribeshimselfasinspiredormaddenedbyEuthyphro，withwhomhehasbeensittingfromtheearlydawn（comparePhaedrusandLysias；
　　Phaedr。）andexpresseshisintentionofyieldingtotheillusionto-day，andto-morrowhewillgotoapriestandbepurified，weeasilyseethathiswordsarenottobetakenseriously。Inthispartofthedialoguehisdreadofcommittingimpiety，thepretendedderivationofhiswisdomfromanother，theextravaganceofsomeofhisetymologies，and，ingeneral，themannerinwhichthefun，fastandfurious，viresacquiriteundo，remindusstronglyofthePhaedrus。Thejestisalongone，extendingovermorethanhalfthedialogue。Butthen，werememberthattheEuthydemusisastilllongerjest，inwhichtheironyispreservedtotheveryend。Thereheisparodyingtheingeniousfolliesofearlylogic；intheCratylusheisridiculingthefanciesofanewschoolofsophistsandgrammarians。ThefallaciesoftheEuthydemusarestillretainedattheendofourlogicbooks；andtheetymologiesoftheCratylushavealsofoundtheirwayintolaterwriters。SomeofthesearenotmuchworsethantheconjecturesofHemsterhuis，andothercriticsofthelastcentury；butthisdoesnotprovethattheyareserious。ForPlatoisinadvanceofhisageinhisconceptionoflanguage，asmuchasheisinhisconceptionofmythology。
　　（ComparePhaedrus。）
　　Whenthefervourofhisetymologicalenthusiasmhasabated，Socratesends，ashehasbegun，witharationalexplanationoflanguage。Stillhepreserveshis’knownothing’disguise，andhimselfdeclareshisfirstnotionsaboutnamestoberecklessandridiculous。Havingexplainedcompoundwordsbyresolvingthemintotheiroriginalelements，henowproceedstoanalysesimplewordsintothelettersofwhichtheyarecomposed。TheSocrateswho’knowsnothing，’herepassesintotheteacher，thedialectician，thearrangerofspecies。Thereisnothinginthispartofthedialoguewhichiseitherweakorextravagant。PlatoisasupporteroftheOnomatopoetictheoryoflanguage；thatistosay，hesupposeswordstobeformedbytheimitationofideasinsounds；healsorecognisestheeffectoftime，theinfluenceofforeignlanguages，thedesireofeuphony，tobeformativeprinciples；andheadmitsacertainelementofchance。Buthegivesnoimitationinallthisthatheispreparingthewayfortheconstructionofanideallanguage。OrthathehasanyEleaticspeculationtoopposetotheHeracleiteanismofCratylus。
　　ThetheoryoflanguagewhichispropoundedintheCratylusisinaccordancewiththelaterphaseofthephilosophyofPlato，andwouldhavebeenregardedbyhimasinthemaintrue。Thedialogueisalsoasatireonthephilologicalfanciesoftheday。Socratesinpursuitofhisvocationasadetectoroffalseknowledge，lightsbyaccidentonthetruth。Heisguessing，heisdreaming；hehasheard，ashesaysinthePhaedrus，fromanother：nooneismoresurprisedthanhimselfathisowndiscoveries。
　　Andyetsomeofhisbestremarks，asforexamplehisviewofthederivationofGreekwordsfromotherlanguages，orofthepermutationsofletters，oragain，hisobservationthatinspeakingoftheGodsweareonlyspeakingofournamesofthem，occuramongtheseflightsofhumour。
　　Wecanimagineacharacterhavingaprofoundinsightintothenatureofmenandthings，andyethardlydwellinguponthemseriously；blendinginextricablysenseandnonsense；sometimesenvelopinginablazeofjeststhemostseriousmatters，andthenagainallowingthetruthtopeerthrough；enjoyingtheflowofhisownhumour，andpuzzlingmankindbyanironicalexaggerationoftheirabsurdities。SuchwereAristophanesandRabelais；such，inadifferentstyle，wereSterne，JeanPaul，Hamann，——
　　writerswhosometimesbecomeunintelligiblethroughtheextravaganceoftheirfancies。SuchisthecharacterwhichPlatointendstodepictinsomeofhisdialoguesastheSilenusSocrates；andthroughthismediumwehavetoreceiveourtheoryoflanguage。
　　Thereremainsadifficultywhichseemstodemandamoreexactanswer：Inwhatrelationdoesthesatiricaloretymologicalportionofthedialoguestandtotheserious？GrantingallthatcanbesaidabouttheprovokingironyofSocrates，abouttheparodyofEuthyphro，orProdicus，orAntisthenes，howdoesthelongcatalogueofetymologiesfurnishanyanswertothequestionofHermogenes，whichisevidentlythemainthesisofthedialogue：Whatisthetruth，orcorrectness，orprincipleofnames？
　　Afterillustratingthenatureofcorrectnessbytheanalogyofthearts，andthen，asintheRepublic，ironicallyappealingtotheauthorityoftheHomericpoems，Socratesshowsthatthetruthorcorrectnessofnamescanonlybeascertainedbyanappealtoetymology。Thetruthofnamesistobefoundintheanalysisoftheirelements。Butwhydoesheadmitetymologieswhichareabsurd，basedonHeracleiteanfancies，fourfoldinterpretationsofwords，impossibleunionsandseparationsofsyllablesandletters？
　　1。Theanswertothisdifficultyhasbeenalreadyanticipatedinpart：
　　Socratesisnotadogmaticteacher，andthereforeheputsonthiswildandfancifuldisguise，inorderthatthetruthmaybepermittedtoappear：2。
　　asBenfeyremarks，anerroneousexamplemayillustrateaprincipleoflanguageaswellasatrueone：3。manyoftheseetymologies，as，forexample，thatofdikaion，areindicated，bythemannerinwhichSocratesspeaksofthem，tohavebeencurrentinhisownage：4。thephilosophyoflanguagehadnotmadesuchprogressaswouldhavejustifiedPlatoinpropoundingrealderivations。LikehismasterSocrates，hesawthroughthehollownessoftheincipientsciencesoftheday，andtriestomoveinacircleapartfromthem，layingdowntheconditionsunderwhichtheyaretobepursued，but，asintheTimaeus，cautiousandtentative，whenheisspeakingofactualphenomena。Tohavemadeetymologiesseriously，wouldhaveseemedtohimliketheinterpretationofthemythsinthePhaedrus，thetask’ofanotveryfortunateindividual，whohadagreatdealoftimeonhishands。’TheironyofSocratesplaceshimaboveandbeyondtheerrorsofhiscontemporaries。
　　TheCratylusisfullofhumourandsatiricaltouches：theinspirationwhichcomesfromEuthyphro，andhisprancingsteeds，thelightadmixtureofquotationsfromHomer，andthespuriousdialecticwhichisappliedtothem；
　　thejestaboutthefifty-drachmacourseofProdicus，whichisdeclaredonthebestauthority，viz。hisown，tobeacompleteeducationingrammarandrhetoric；thedoubleexplanationofthenameHermogenes，eitheras’notbeinginluck，’or’beingnospeaker；’thedearly-boughtwisdomofCallias，theLacedaemonianwhosenamewas’Rush，’and，aboveall，thepleasurewhichSocratesexpressesinhisowndangerousdiscoveries，which’to-morrowhewillpurgeaway，’aretrulyhumorous。Whiledeliveringalectureonthephilosophyoflanguage，Socratesisalsosatirizingtheendlessfertilityofthehumanmindinspinningargumentsoutofnothing，andemployingthemosttriflingandfancifulanalogiesinsupportofatheory。Etymologyinancientasinmoderntimeswasafavouriterecreation；andSocratesmakesmerryattheexpenseoftheetymologists。ThesimplicityofHermogenes，whoisreadytobelieveanythingthatheistold，heightenstheeffect。
　　Socratesinhisgenialandironicalmoodhitsrightandleftathisadversaries：Ouranosissocalledapotouorantaano，which，assomephilosopherssay，isthewaytohaveapuremind；thesophistsarebyafancifulexplanationconvertedintoheroes；’thegiversofnameswerelikesomephilosopherswhofancythattheearthgoesroundbecausetheirheadsarealwaysgoinground。’Thereisagreatdealof’mischief’lurkinginthefollowing：’IfoundmyselfingreaterperplexityaboutjusticethanI
　　wasbeforeIbegantolearn；’’Therhoinkatoptronmustbetheadditionofsomeonewhocaresnothingabouttruth，butthinksonlyofputtingthemouthintoshape；’’TalesandfalsehoodshavegenerallytodowiththeTragicandgoatishlife，andtragedyistheplaceofthem。’Severalphilosophersandsophistsarementionedbyname：first，ProtagorasandEuthydemusareassailed；thentheinterpretersofHomer，oipalaioiOmerikoi（compareArist。Met。）andtheOrphicpoetsarealludedtobytheway；thenhediscoversahiveofwisdominthephilosophyofHeracleitus；——
　　thedoctrineofthefluxiscontainedinthewordousia（=osiathepushingprinciple），ananticipationofAnaxagorasisfoundinpsucheandselene。
　　Again，heridiculesthearbitrarymethodsofpullingoutandputtinginletterswhichwereinvogueamongthephilologersofhistime；orslightlyscoffsatcontemporaryreligiousbeliefs。Lastly，heisimpatientofhearingfromthehalf-convertedCratylusthedoctrinethatfalsehoodcanneitherbespoken，noruttered，noraddressed；apieceofsophistryattributedtoGorgias，whichreappearsintheSophist。Andheproceedstodemolish，withnolessdelightthanhehadsetup，theHeracleiteantheoryoflanguage。
　　InthelatterpartofthedialogueSocratesbecomesmoreserious，thoughhedoesnotlayasidebutratheraggravateshisbanteroftheHeracleiteans，whomhere，asintheTheaetetus，hedelightstoridicule。Whatwastheoriginofthisenmitywecanhardlydetermine：——wasitduetothenaturaldislikewhichmaybesupposedtoexistbetweenthe’patronsoftheflux’
　　andthe’friendsoftheideas’（Soph。）？orisittobeattributedtotheindignationwhichPlatofeltathavingwastedhistimeupon’CratylusandthedoctrinesofHeracleitus’inthedaysofhisyouth？Socrates，touchingonsomeofthecharacteristicdifficultiesofearlyGreekphilosophy，endeavourstoshowCratylusthatimitationmaybepartialorimperfect，thataknowledgeofthingsishigherthanaknowledgeofnames，andthattherecanbenoknowledgeifallthingsareinastateoftransition。ButCratylus，whodoesnoteasilyapprehendtheargumentfromcommonsense，remainsunconvinced，andonthewholeinclinestohisformeropinion。Someprofoundphilosophicalremarksarescatteredupanddown，admittingofanapplicationnotonlytolanguagebuttoknowledgegenerally；suchastheassertionthat’consistencyisnotestoftruth：’oragain，’Ifweareover-preciseaboutwords，truthwillsay"toolate"tousastothebelatedtravellerinAegina。’
　　Theplaceofthedialogueintheseriescannotbedeterminedwithcertainty。Thestyleandsubject，andthetreatmentofthecharacterofSocrates，haveacloseresemblancetotheearlierdialogues，especiallytothePhaedrusandEuthydemus。Themannerinwhichtheideasarespokenofattheendofthedialogue，alsoindicatesacomparativelyearlydate。Theimaginativeelementisstillinfullvigour；theSocratesoftheCratylusistheSocratesoftheApologyandSymposium，notyetPlatonized；andhedescribes，asintheTheaetetus，thephilosophyofHeracleitusby’unsavoury’similes——hecannotbelievethattheworldislike’aleakyvessel，’or’amanwhohasarunningatthenose’；heattributesthefluxoftheworldtotheswimminginsomefolks’heads。Ontheotherhand，therelationofthoughttolanguageisomittedhere，butistreatedofintheSophist。Thesegroundsarenotsufficienttoenableustoarriveatapreciseconclusion。ButweshallnotbefarwronginplacingtheCratylusaboutthemiddle，oratanyrateinthefirsthalf，oftheseries。
　　Cratylus，theHeracleiteanphilosopher，andHermogenes，thebrotherofCallias，havebeenarguingaboutnames；theformermaintainingthattheyarenatural，thelatterthattheyareconventional。Cratylusaffirmsthathisownisatruename，butwillnotallowthatthenameofHermogenesisequallytrue。HermogenesasksSocratestoexplaintohimwhatCratylusmeans；or，farrather，hewouldliketoknow，WhatSocrateshimselfthinksaboutthetruthorcorrectnessofnames？Socratesreplies，thathardisknowledge，andthenatureofnamesisaconsiderablepartofknowledge：hehasneverbeentohearthefifty-drachmacourseofProdicus；andhavingonlyattendedthesingle-drachmacourse，heisnotcompetenttogiveanopiniononsuchmatters。WhenCratylusdeniesthatHermogenesisatruename，hesupposeshimtomeanthatheisnotatruesonofHermes，becauseheisneverinluck。Buthewouldliketohaveanopencouncilandtohearbothsides。
　　Hermogenesisofopinionthatthereisnoprincipleinnames；theymaybechanged，aswechangethenamesofslaves，wheneverweplease，andthealterednameisasgoodastheoriginalone。
　　Youmeantosay，forinstance，rejoinsSocrates，thatifIagreetocallamanahorse，thenamanwillberightlycalledahorsebyme，andamanbytherestoftheworld？But，surely，thereisinwordsatrueandafalse，astherearetrueandfalsepropositions。Ifawholepropositionbetrueorfalse，thenthepartsofapropositionmaybetrueorfalse，andtheleastpartsaswellasthegreatest；andtheleastpartsarenames，andthereforenamesmaybetrueorfalse。WouldHermogenesmaintainthatanybodymaygiveanametoanything，andasmanynamesashepleases；andwouldallthesenamesbealwaystrueatthetimeofgivingthem？
　　Hermogenesrepliesthatthisistheonlywayinwhichhecanconceivethatnamesarecorrect；andheappealstothepracticeofdifferentnations，andofthedifferentHellenictribes，inconfirmationofhisview。Socratesasks，whetherthethingsdifferasthewordswhichrepresentthemdiffer：——
　　ArewetomaintainwithProtagoras，thatwhatappearsis？Hermogeneshasalwaysbeenpuzzledaboutthis，butacknowledges，whenheispressedbySocrates，thatthereareafewverygoodmenintheworld，andagreatmanyverybad；andtheverygoodarethewise，andtheverybadarethefoolish；
　　andthisisnotmereappearancebutreality。NorishedisposedtosaywithEuthydemus，thatallthingsequallyandalwaysbelongtoallmen；inthatcase，again，therewouldbenodistinctionbetweenbadandgoodmen。
　　Butthen，theonlyremainingpossibilityis，thatallthingshavetheirseveraldistinctnatures，andareindependentofournotionsaboutthem。
　　Andnotonlythings，butactions，havedistinctnatures，andaredonebydifferentprocesses。Thereisanaturalwayofcuttingorburning，andanaturalinstrumentwithwhichmencutorburn，andanyotherwaywillfail；——thisistrueofallactions。Andspeakingisakindofaction，andnamingisakindofspeaking，andwemustnameaccordingtoanaturalprocess，andwithaproperinstrument。Wecutwithaknife，wepiercewithanawl，weweavewithashuttle，wenamewithaname。Andasashuttleseparatesthewarpfromthewoof，soanamedistinguishesthenaturesofthings。Theweaverwillusetheshuttlewell，——thatis，likeaweaver；andtheteacherwillusethenamewell，——thatis，likeateacher。Theshuttlewillbemadebythecarpenter；theawlbythesmithorskilledperson。Butwhomakesaname？Doesnotthelawgivenames，anddoesnottheteacherreceivethemfromthelegislator？Heistheskilledpersonwhomakesthem，andofallskilledworkmenheistherarest。Buthowdoesthecarpentermakeorrepairtheshuttle，andtowhatwillhelook？Willhenotlookattheidealwhichhehasinhismind？Andasthedifferentkindsofworkdiffer，sooughttheinstrumentswhichmakethemtodiffer。Theseveralkindsofshuttlesoughttoanswerinmaterialandformtotheseveralkindsofwebs。AndthelegislatoroughttoknowthedifferentmaterialsandformsofwhichnamesaremadeinHellasandothercountries。Butwhoistobethejudgeoftheproperform？Thejudgeofshuttlesistheweaverwhousesthem；thejudgeoflyresistheplayerofthelyre；thejudgeofshipsisthepilot。Andwillnotthejudgewhoisabletodirectthelegislatorinhisworkofnaming，behewhoknowshowtousethenames——hewhocanaskandanswerquestions——inshort，thedialectician？Thepilotdirectsthecarpenterhowtomaketherudder，andthedialecticiandirectsthelegislatorhowheistoimposenames；fortoexpresstheidealformsofthingsinsyllablesandlettersisnottheeasytask，Hermogenes，whichyouimagine。
　　’Ishouldbemorereadilypersuaded，ifyouwouldshowmethisnaturalcorrectnessofnames。’
　　IndeedIcannot；butIseethatyouhaveadvanced；foryounowadmitthatthereisacorrectnessofnames，andthatnoteveryonecangiveaname。
　　Butwhatisthenatureofthiscorrectnessortruth，youmustlearnfromtheSophists，ofwhomyourbrotherCalliashasboughthisreputationforwisdomratherdearly；andsincetheyrequiretobepaid，you，havingnomoney，hadbetterlearnfromhimatsecond-hand。’Well，butIhavejustgivenupProtagoras，andIshouldbeinconsistentingoingtolearnofhim。’Thenifyourejecthimyoumaylearnofthepoets，andinparticularofHomer，whodistinguishesthenamesgivenbyGodsandmentothesamethings，asintheverseabouttheriverGodwhofoughtwithHephaestus，’whomtheGodscallXanthus，andmencallScamander；’orinthelinesinwhichhementionsthebirdwhichtheGodscall’Chalcis，’andmen’Cymindis；’orthehillwhichmencall’Batieia，’andtheGods’Myrinna’sTomb。’Hereisanimportantlesson；fortheGodsmustofcourseberightintheiruseofnames。AndthisisnottheonlytruthaboutphilologywhichmaybelearntfromHomer。DoeshenotsaythatHector’ssonhadtwonames——
　　’HectorcalledhimScamandrius，buttheothersAstyanax’？
　　Now，ifthemencalledhimAstyanax，isitnotprobablethattheothernamewasconferredbythewomen？Andwhicharemorelikelytoberight——thewiserorthelesswise，themenorthewomen？Homerevidentlyagreedwiththemen：andofthenamegivenbythemheoffersanexplanation；——theboywascalledAstyanax（’kingofthecity’），becausehisfathersavedthecity。ThenamesAstyanaxandHector，moreover，arereallythesame，——theonemeansaking，andtheotheris’aholderorpossessor。’Forasthelion’swhelpmaybecalledalion，orthehorse’sfoalafoal，sothesonofakingmaybecalledaking。Butifthehorsehadproducedacalf，thenthatwouldbecalledacalf。Whetherthesyllablesofanamearethesameornotmakesnodifference，providedthemeaningisretained。Forexample；
　　thenamesofletters，whethervowelsorconsonants，donotcorrespondtotheirsounds，withtheexceptionofepsilon，upsilon，omicron，omega。ThenameBetahasthreelettersaddedtothesound——andyetthisdoesnotalterthesenseoftheword，orpreventthewholenamehavingthevaluewhichthelegislatorintended。Andthesamemaybesaidofakingandthesonofaking，wholikeotheranimalsresembleeachotherinthecourseofnature；
　　thewordsbywhichtheyaresignifiedmaybedisguised，andyetamiddifferencesofsoundtheetymologistmayrecognisethesamenotion，justasthephysicianrecognisesthepowerofthesamedrugsunderdifferentdisguisesofcolourandsmell。HectorandAstyanaxhaveonlyoneletteralike，buttheyhavethesamemeaning；andAgis（leader）isaltogetherdifferentinsoundfromPolemarchus（chiefinwar），orEupolemus（goodwarrior）；butthetwowordspresentthesameideaofleaderorgeneral，likethewordsIatroclesandAcesimbrotus，whichequallydenoteaphysician。Thesonsucceedsthefatherasthefoalsucceedsthehorse，butwhen，outofthecourseofnature，aprodigyoccurs，andtheoffspringnolongerresemblestheparent，thenthenamesnolongeragree。ThismaybeillustratedbythecaseofAgamemnonandhissonOrestes，ofwhomtheformerhasanamesignificantofhispatienceatthesiegeofTroy；whilethenameofthelatterindicateshissavage，man-of-the-mountainnature。
　　Atreusagain，forhismurderofChrysippus，andhiscrueltytoThyestes，isrightlynamedAtreus，which，totheeyeoftheetymologist，isateros（destructive），ateires（stubborn），atreotos（fearless）；andPelopsisotapelasoron（hewhoseeswhatisnearonly），becauseinhiseagernesstowinHippodamia，hewasunconsciousoftheremoterconsequenceswhichthemurderofMyrtiluswouldentailuponhisrace。ThenameTantalus，ifslightlychanged，offerstwoetymologies；eitherapotestoulithoutalanteias，orapotoutalantatoneinai，signifyingatoncethehangingofthestoneoverhisheadintheworldbelow，andthemiserywhichhebroughtuponhiscountry。Andthenameofhisfather，Zeus，Dios，Zenos，hasanexcellentmeaning，thoughhardtobeunderstood，becausereallyasentencewhichisdividedintotwoparts（Zeus，Dios）。Forhe，beingthelordandkingofall，istheauthorofourbeing，andinhimalllive：thisisimpliedinthedoubleform，Dios，Zenos，whichbeingputtogetherandinterpretedisdionzepanta。Theremay，atfirstsight，appeartobesomeirreverenceincallinghimthesonofCronos，whoisaproverbforstupidity；butthemeaningisthatZeushimselfisthesonofamightyintellect；Kronos，quasikoros，notinthesenseofayouth，butquasitokatharonkaiakeratontounou——thepureandgarnishedmind，whichinturnisbegottenofUranus，whoissocalledapotouorantaano，fromlookingupwards；which，asphilosopherssay，isthewaytohaveapuremind。TheearlierportionofHesiod’sgenealogyhasescapedmymemory，orIwouldtrymoreconclusionsofthesamesort。’Youtalklikeanoracle。’IcaughttheinfectionfromEuthyphro，whogavemealonglecturewhichbeganatdawn，andhasnotonlyenteredintomyears，butfilledmysoul，andmyintentionistoyieldtotheinspirationto-day；andto-morrowIwillbeexorcisedbysomepriestorsophist。’Goon；Iamanxioustoheartherest。’Nowthatwehaveageneralnotion，howshallweproceed？Whatnameswillaffordthemostcrucialtestofnaturalfitness？Thoseofheroesandordinarymenareoftendeceptive，becausetheyarepatronymicsorexpressionsofawish；letustrygodsanddemi-gods。Godsaresocalled，apotouthein，fromtheverb’torun；’becausethesun，moon，andstarsrunabouttheheaven；andtheybeingtheoriginalgodsoftheHellenes，astheystillareoftheBarbarians，theirnameisgiventoallGods。ThedemonsarethegoldenraceofHesiod，andbygoldenhemeansnotliterallygolden，butgood；andtheyarecalleddemons，quasidaemones，whichinoldAtticwasusedfordaimones——goodmenarewellsaidtobecomedaimoneswhentheydie，becausetheyareknowing。Eros（withanepsilon）isthesamewordaseros（withaneta）：’thesonsofGodsawthedaughtersofmenthattheywerefair；’orperhapstheywereaspeciesofsophistsorrhetoricians，andsocalledapotouerotan，oreirein，fromtheirhabitofspinningquestions；foreireinisequivalenttolegein。IgetallthisfromEuthyphro；andnowanewandingeniousideacomesintomymind，and，ifIamnotcareful，IshallbewiserthanIoughttobebyto-morrow’sdawn。Myideais，thatwemayputinandpulloutlettersatpleasureandaltertheaccents（as，forexample，DiiphilosmaybeturnedintoDiphilos），andwemaymakewordsintosentencesandsentencesintowords。Thenameanthrotosisacaseinpoint，foraletterhasbeenomittedandtheaccentchanged；theoriginalmeaningbeingoanathronaopopen——hewholooksupatwhathesees。Psuchemaybethoughttobethereviving，orrefreshing，oranimatingprinciple——eanapsuchousatosoma；butIamafraidthatEuthyphroandhisdiscipleswillscornthisderivation，andImustfindanother：shallweidentifythesoulwiththe’orderingmind’ofAnaxagoras，andsaythatpsuche，quasiphuseche=ephusinecheiorochei？——thismighteasilyberefinedintopsyche。
　　’Thatisamoreartisticetymology。’
　　Afterpsuchefollowssoma；this，byaslightpermutation，maybeeither=
　　（1）the’grave’ofthesoul，or（2）maymean’thatbywhichthesoulsignifies（semainei）herwishes。’Butmoreprobably，thewordisOrphic，andsimplydenotesthatthebodyistheplaceofwardinwhichthesoulsuffersthepenaltyofsin，——enosozetai。’IshouldliketohearsomemoreexplanationsofthenamesoftheGods，likethatexcellentoneofZeus。’ThetruestnamesoftheGodsarethosewhichtheygivethemselves；
　　buttheseareunknowntous。Lesstruearethosebywhichwepropitiatethem，asmensayinprayers，’MayhegraciouslyreceiveanynamebywhichI
　　callhim。’Andtoavoidoffence，Ishouldliketoletthemknowbeforehandthatwearenotpresumingtoenquireaboutthem，butonlyaboutthenameswhichtheyusuallybear。LetusbeginwithHestia。WhatdidhemeanwhogavethenameHestia？’Thatisaverydifficultquestion。’O，mydearHermogenes，Ibelievethattherewasapowerofphilosophyandtalkamongthefirstinventorsofnames，bothinourownandinotherlanguages；foreveninforeignwordsaprincipleisdiscernible。Hestiaisthesamewithesia，whichisanoldformofousia，andmeansthefirstprincipleofthings：thisagreeswiththefactthattoHestiathefirstsacrificesareoffered。Thereisalsoanotherreading——osia，whichimpliesthat’pushing’
　　（othoun）isthefirstprincipleofallthings。AndhereIseemtodiscoveradelicateallusiontothefluxofHeracleitus——thatantediluvianphilosopherwhocannotwalktwiceinthesamestream；andthisfluxofhismayaccomplishyetgreatermarvels。ForthenamesCronosandRheacannothavebeenaccidental；thegiverofthemmusthaveknownsomethingaboutthedoctrineofHeracleitus。Moreover，thereisaremarkablecoincidenceinthewordsofHesiod，whenhespeaksofOceanus，’theoriginofGods；’andintheverseofOrpheus，inwhichhedescribesOceanusespousinghissisterTethys。Tethysisnothingmorethanthenameofaspring——todiattomenonkaiethoumenon。Poseidonisposidesmos，thechainofthefeet，becauseyoucannotwalkonthesea——theepsilonisinsertedbywayofornament；orperhapsthenamemayhavebeenoriginallypolleidon，meaning，thattheGodknewmanythings（pollaeidos）：hemayalsobetheshaker，apotouseiein，——inthiscase，pianddeltahavebeenadded。Plutoisconnectedwithploutos，becausewealthcomesoutoftheearth；orthewordmaybeaeuphemismforHades，whichisusuallyderivedapotouaeidous，becausetheGodisconcernedwiththeinvisible。ButthenameHadeswasreallygivenhimfromhisknowing（eidenai）allgoodthings。Meningeneralarefoolishlyafraidofhim，andtalkwithhorroroftheworldbelowfromwhichnoonemayreturn。Thereasonwhyhissubjectsneverwishtocomeback，eveniftheycould，isthattheGodenchainsthembythestrongestofspells，namelybythedesireofvirtue，whichtheyhopetoobtainbyconstantassociationwithhim。HeistheperfectandaccomplishedSophistandthegreatbenefactoroftheotherworld；forhehasmuchmorethanhewantsthere，andhenceheiscalledPlutoortherich。Hewillhavenothingtodowiththesoulsofmenwhileinthebody，becausehecannotworkhiswillwiththemsolongastheyareconfusedandentangledbyfleshlylusts。Demeteristhemotherandgiveroffood——edidousametertesedodes。Hereiseratetis，orperhapsthelegislatormayhavebeenthinkingoftheweather，andhasmerelytransposedthelettersofthewordaer。Pherephatta，thatwordofawe，ispheretapha，whichisonlyaneuphoniouscontractionofetoupheromenouephaptomene，——allthingsareinmotion，andsheinherwisdommoveswiththem，andthewiseGodHadesconsortswithher——thereisnothingveryterribleinthis，anymorethanintheherotherappellationPersephone，whichisalsosignificantofherwisdom（sophe）。Apolloisanothername，whichissupposedtohavesomedreadfulmeaning，butissusceptibleofatleastfourperfectlyinnocentexplanations。First，heisthepurifierorpurgerorabsolver（apolouon）；
　　secondly，heisthetruediviner，Aplos，asheiscalledintheThessaliandialect（aplos=aplous，sincere）；thirdly，heisthearcher（aeiballon），alwaysshooting；oragain，supposingalphatomeanamaoromou，Apollobecomesequivalenttoamapolon，whichpointstobothhismusicalandhisheavenlyattributes；forthereisa’movingtogether’alikeinmusicandintheharmonyofthespheres。Thesecondlambdaisinsertedinordertoavoidtheill-omenedsoundofdestruction。TheMusesaresocalled——apotoumosthai。ThegentleLetoorLethoisnamedfromherwillingness（ethelemon），orbecausesheisreadytoforgiveandforget（lethe）。
　　Artemisissocalledfromherhealthywell-balancednature，diatoartemes，orasaretesistor；orasaloverofvirginity，arotonmisesasa。Oneoftheseexplanationsisprobablytrue，——perhapsallofthem。Dionysusisodidoustonoinon，andoinosisquasioionousbecausewinemakesthosethink（oiesthai）thattheyhaveamind（nous）whohavenone。TheestablishedderivationofAphroditediatentouathrougenesinmaybeacceptedontheauthorityofHesiod。Again，thereisthenameofPallas，orAthene，whichwe，whoareAthenians，mustnotforget。Pallasisderivedfromarmeddances——apotoupalleintaopla。ForAthenewemustturntotheallegoricalinterpretersofHomer，whomakethenameequivalenttotheonoe，orpossiblythewordwasoriginallyethonoeandsignifiedmoralintelligence（enetheinoesis）。Hephaestus，again，isthelordoflight——otouphaeosistor。Thisisagoodnotion；and，topreventanyothergettingintoourheads，letusgoontoAres。Heisthemanlyone（arren），ortheunchangeableone（arratos）。EnoughoftheGods；for，bytheGods，Iamafraidofthem；butifyousuggestotherwords，youwillseehowthehorsesofEuthyphroprance。’OnlyonemoreGod；tellmeaboutmygodfatherHermes。’Heisermeneus，themessengerorcheaterorthieforbargainer；
　　oroeireinmomenos，thatis，eiremesorermes——thespeakerorcontriverofspeeches。’WellsaidCratylus，then，thatIamnosonofHermes。’Pan，asthesonofHermes，isspeechorthebrotherofspeech，andiscalledPanbecausespeechindicateseverything——opanmenuon。Hehastwoforms，atrueandafalse；andisintheupperpartsmooth，andinthelowerpartshaggy。HeisthegoatofTragedy，inwhichthereareplentyoffalsehoods。
　　’Willyougoontotheelements——sun，moon，stars，earth，aether，air，fire，water，seasons，years？’Verygood：andwhichshallItakefirst？
　　Letusbeginwithelios，orthesun。TheDoricformelioshelpsustoseethatheissocalledbecauseathisrisinghegathers（alizei）mentogether，orbecauseherollsabout（eilei）theearth，orbecausehevariegates（aiolei=poikillei）theearth。SeleneisananticipationofAnaxagoras，beingacontractionofselaenoneoaeia，thelight（selas）whichiseveroldandnew，andwhich，asAnaxagorassays，isborrowedfromthesun；thenamewasharmonizedintoselanaia，aformwhichisstillinuse。
　　’Thatisatruedithyrambicname。’Meisissocalledapotoumeiousthai，fromsufferingdiminution，andastronisfromastrape（lightning），whichisanimprovementofanastrope，thatwhichturnstheeyesinsideout。’Howdoyouexplainpurnudor？’Isuspectthatpur，which，likeudornkuon，isfoundinPhrygian，isaforeignword；fortheHelleneshaveborrowedmuchfromthebarbarians，andIalwaysresorttothistheoryofaforeignoriginwhenIamataloss。Aermaybeexplained，otiaireitaapotesges；or，otiaeirei；or，otipneumaexautouginetai（comparethepoeticwordaetai）。Soaitherquasiaeitheerotiaeitheiperitonaera：ge，gaiaquasigenneteira（comparetheHomericformgegaasi）；ora（withanomega），or，accordingtotheoldAtticformora（withanomicron），isderivedapotouorizein，becauseitdividestheyear；eniautosandetosarethesamethought——oeneautoetazon，cutintotwoparts，eneautoandetazon，likedionzeintoDiosandZenos。
　　’Youmakesurprisingprogress。’True；Iamrunawaywith，andamnotevenyetatmyutmostspeed。’Ishouldlikeverymuchtohearyouraccountofthevirtues。Whatprincipleofcorrectnessisthereinthosecharmingwords，wisdom，understanding，justice，andtherest？’Toexplainallthatwillbeaseriousbusiness；still，asIhaveputonthelion’sskin，appearancesmustbemaintained。Myopinionis，thatprimitivemenwerelikesomemodernphilosophers，who，byalwaysgoingroundintheirsearchafterthenatureofthings，becomedizzy；andthisphenomenon，whichwasreallyinthemselves，theyimaginedtotakeplaceintheexternalworld。
　　Youhavenodoubtremarked，thatthedoctrineoftheuniversalflux，orgenerationofthings，isindicatedinnames。’No，Ineverdid。’Phronesisisonlyphoraskairounoesis，orperhapsphorasonesis，andinanycaseisconnectedwithpheresthai；gnomeisgonesskepsiskainomesis；noesisisneouorgignomenonesis；thewordneosimpliesthatcreationisalwaysgoingon——theoriginalformwasneoesis；sophrosuneissoteriaphroneseos；
　　epistemeiseepomenetoispragmasin——thefacultywhichkeepsclose，neitheranticipatingnorlaggingbehind；sunesisisequivalenttosunienai，sumporeuesthaitenpsuche，andisakindofconclusion——sullogismostis，akinthereforeinideatoepisteme；sophiaisverydifficult，andhasaforeignlook——themeaningis，touchingthemotionorstreamofthings，andmaybeillustratedbythepoeticalesutheandtheLacedaemonianpropernameSous，orRush；agathonisroagastonentetachuteti，——forallthingsareinmotion，andsomeareswifterthanothers：dikaiosuneisclearlyetoudikaiousunesis。Theworddikaionismoretroublesome，andappearstomeanthesubtlepenetratingpowerwhich，astheloversofmotionsay，preservesallthings，andisthecauseofallthings，quasidiaiongoingthrough——theletterkappabeinginsertedforthesakeofeuphony。Thisisagreatmysterywhichhasbeenconfidedtome；butwhenIaskforanexplanationI
　　amthoughtobtrusive，andanotherderivationisproposedtome。Justiceissaidtobeokaion，orthesun；andwhenIjoyfullyrepeatthisbeautifulnotion，Iamanswered，’What，istherenojusticewhenthesunisdown？’
　　AndwhenIentreatmyquestionertotellmehisownopinion，hereplies，thatjusticeisfireintheabstract，orheatintheabstract；whichisnotveryintelligible。Otherslaughatsuchnotions，andsaywithAnaxagoras，thatjusticeistheorderingmind。’Ithinkthatsomeonemusthavetoldyouthis。’Andnottherest？Letmeproceedthen，inthehopeofprovingtoyoumyoriginality。Andreiaisquasianpeiaquasieanoroe，thestreamwhichflowsupwards，andisopposedtoinjustice，whichclearlyhinderstheprincipleofpenetration；arrenandanerhaveasimilarderivation；guneisthesameasgone；theluisderivedapotestheles，becausetheteatmakesthingsflourish（tethelenai），andthewordthalleinitselfimpliesincreaseofyouth，whichisswiftandsuddenever（theinandallesthai）。Iamgettingoverthegroundfast：butmuchhasstilltobeexplained。Thereistechne，forinstance。This，byanaphaeresisoftauandanepenthesisofomicronintwoplaces，maybeidentifiedwithechonoe，andsignifies’thatwhichhasmind。’
　　’Averypooretymology。’Yes；butyoumustrememberthatalllanguageisinprocessofchange；lettersaretakeninandputoutforthesakeofeuphony，andtimeisalsoagreataltererofwords。Forexample，whatbusinesshastheletterrhointhewordkatoptron，orthelettersigmainthewordsphigx？Theadditionsareoftensuchthatitisimpossibletomakeouttheoriginalword；andyet，ifyoumayputinandpullout，asyoulike，anynameisequallygoodforanyobject。Thefactis，thatgreatdictatorsofliteraturelikeyourselfshouldobservetherulesofmoderation。’Iwilldomybest。’Butdonotbetoomuchofaprecisian，oryouwillparalyzeme。Ifyouwillletmeaddmechane，apotoumekous，whichmeanspolu，andanein，Ishallbeatthesummitofmypowers，fromwhichelevationIwillexaminethetwowordskakiaandarete。Thefirstiseasilyexplainedinaccordancewithwhathaspreceded；forallthingsbeinginaflux，kakiaistokakosion。Thisderivationisillustratedbytheworddeilia，whichoughttohavecomeafterandreia，andmayberegardedasoliandesmostespsuches，justasaporiasignifiesanimpedimenttomotion（fromalphanot，andporeuesthaitogo），andareteiseuporia，whichistheoppositeofthis——theeverflowing（aeireousaoraeireite），ortheeligible，quasiairete。YouwillthinkthatIaminventing，butIsaythatifkakiaisright，thenareteisalsoright。Butwhatiskakon？Thatisaveryobscureword，towhichIcanonlyapplymyoldnotionanddeclarethatkakonisaforeignword。Next，letusproceedtokalon，aischron。Thelatterisdoubtlesscontractedfromaeischoroun，quasiaeiischonroun。
　　Theinventorofwordsbeingapatronoftheflux，wasagreatenemytostagnation。Kalonistokalountapragmata——thisismind（nousordianoia）；whichisalsotheprincipleofbeauty；andwhichdoingtheworksofbeauty，isthereforerightlycalledthebeautiful。Themeaningofsumpheronisexplainedbypreviousexamples；——likeepisteme，signifyingthatthesoulmovesinharmonywiththeworld（sumphora，sumpheronta）。
　　Kerdosistopasikerannumenon——thatwhichmingleswithallthings：
　　lusitelounisequivalenttototesphorasluontotelos，andisnottobetakeninthevulgarsenseofgainful，butratherinthatofswift，beingtheprinciplewhichmakesmotionimmortalandunceasing；ophelimonisapotouophellein——thatwhichgivesincrease：thisword，whichisHomeric，isofforeignorigin。Blaberonistoblamtonorboulomenonapteintourou——
　　thatwhichinjuresorseekstobindthestream。Theproperwordwouldbeboulapteroun，butthisistoomuchofamouthful——likeapreludeonthefluteinhonourofAthene。Thewordzemiodesisdifficult；greatchanges，asIwassaying，havebeenmadeinwords，andevenasmallchangewillaltertheirmeaningverymuch。Theworddeonisoneofthesedisguisedwords。Youknowthataccordingtotheoldpronunciation，whichisespeciallyaffectedbythewomen，whoaregreatconservatives，iotaanddeltawereusedwhereweshouldnowuseetaandzeta：forexample，whatwenowcallemerawasformerlycalledimera；andthisshowsthemeaningofthewordtohavebeen’thedesiredonecomingafternight，’andnot，asisoftensupposed，’thatwhichmakesthingsgentle’（emera）。Soagain，zugonisduogon，quasidesisdueineisagogen——（thebindingoftwotogetherforthepurposeofdrawing。Deon，asordinarilywritten，hasanevilsense，signifyingthechain（desmos）orhindranceofmotion；butinitsancientformdionisexpressiveofgood，quasidiion，thatwhichpenetratesorgoesthroughall。Zemiodesisreallydemiodes，andmeansthatwhichbindsmotion（dountitoion）：edoneiseprostenonrsinteinousapraxis——thedeltaisaninsertion：lupeisderivedapotesdialuseostousomatos：aniaisfromalphaandienai，togo：algedonisaforeignword，andissocalledapotoualgeinou：oduneisapotesenduseosteslupes：achthedonisinitsverysoundaburden：chapaexpressestheflowofsoul：terpsisisapotouterpnou，andterpnonisproperlyerpnon，becausethesensationofpleasureislikenedtoabreath（pnoe）whichcreeps（erpei）throughthesoul：euphrosuneisnamedfrompheresthai，becausethesoulmovesinharmonywithnature：epithumiaiseepitonthumoniousadunamis：thumosisapotesthuseostespsuches：imeros——otieimenospeiepsuche：pothos，thedesirewhichisinanotherplace，allothipou：eroswasancientlyesros，andsocalledbecauseitflowsinto（esrei）thesoulfromwithout：
　　doxaisedioxistoueidenai，orexpressestheshootingfromabow（toxon）。