takesomeotherkindofwickednessundertheirpatronage，andwonderatthedepravityoftheirancestors。Noristhisall。Posterity，thathighcourtofappealwhichisnevertiredofeulogizingitsownjusticeanddiscernment，actsonsuchoccasionslikeaRomandictatorafterageneralmutiny。Findingthedelinquentstoonumeroustobeallpunished，itselectssomeofthemathazard，tobearthewholepenaltyofanoffenceinwhichtheyarenotmoredeeplyimplicatedthanthosewhoescape。Whetherdecimationbeaconvenientmodeofmilitaryexecution，weknownot；butwesolemnlyprotestagainsttheintroductionofsuchaprincipleintothephilosophyofhistory。
　　Inthepresentinstance，thelothasfallenonMachiavelli，amanwhosepublicconductwasuprightandhonorable，whoseviewsofmorality，wheretheydifferedfromthoseofthepersonsaroundhim，seemedtohavedifferedforthebetter，andwhoseonlyfaultwas，that，havingadoptedsomeofthemaximsthengenerallyreceived，hearrangedthemmoreluminously，andexpressedthemmoreforcibly，thananyotherwriter。
　　Havingnow，wehope，insomedegreeclearedthepersonalcharacterofMachiavelli，wecometotheconsiderationofhisworks。Asapoet，heisnotentitledtoaveryhighplace；4butthecomediesdeservemoreattention。
　　[Footnote4：IntheoriginalessayMacaulayhadheresomecriticalremarksonthepoetryofMachiavelli，butheomittedthemonrepublication。]
　　The"Mandragola，"inparticular，issuperiortothebestofGoldoni，andinferioronlytothebestofMoliere。Itistheworkofamanwho，ifhehaddevotedhimselftothedrama，wouldprobablyhaveattainedthehighesteminence，andproducedapermanentandsalutaryeffectonthenationaltaste。
　　Thisweinfer，notsomuchfromthedegreeasfromthekindofitsexcellence。
　　Therearecompositionswhichindicatestillgreatertalent，andwhichareperusedwithstillgreaterdelight，fromwhichweshouldhavedrawnverydifferentconclusions。Booksquiteworthlessarequiteharmless。Thesuresignofthegeneraldeclineofanartisthefrequentoccurrence，notofdeformity，butofmisplacedbeauty。Ingeneral，tragedyiscorruptedbyeloquence，andcomedybywit。
　　Therealobjectofthedramaistheexhibitionofhumancharacter。This，weconceive，isnoarbitrarycanon，originatinginlocalandtemporaryassociations，likethosecanonswhichregulatethenumberofactsinaplay，orofsyllablesinaline。Tothisfundamentallaweveryotherregulationissubordinate。Thesituationswhichmostsignallydevelopcharacterformthebestplot。Themothertongueofthepassionsisthebeststyle。
　　Thisprinciple，rightlyunderstood，doesnotdebarthepoetfromanygraceofcomposition。Thereisnostyleinwhichsomemanmaynot，undersomecircumstances，expresshimself。Thereis，therefore，nostylewhichthedramarejects，nonewhichitdoesnotoccasionallyrequire。Itisinthediscernmentofplace，oftime，andofperson，thattheinferiorartistsfail。ThefantasticrhapsodyofMercutio，theelaboratedeclamationofAntony，are，whereShakespearehasplacedthem，naturalandpleasing。ButDrydenwouldhavemadeMercutiochallengeTybaltinhyperbolesasfancifulasthoseinwhichhedescribesthechariotofMab。CorneillewouldhaverepresentedAntonyasscoldingandcoaxingCleopatrawithallthemeasuredrhetoricofafuneraloration。
　　NowritershaveinjuredthecomedyofEnglandsodeeplyasCongreveandSheridan。Bothweremenofsplendidwitandpolishedtaste。Unhappily，theymadealltheircharactersintheirownlikeness。Theirworksbearthesamerelationtothelegitimatedramawhichatransparencybearstoapainting。
　　Therearenodelicatetouches，nohuesimperceptiblyfadingintoeachother：
　　thewholeislightedupwithauniversalglare。Outlinesandtintsareforgotteninthecommonblazewhichilluminatesall。Theflowersandfruitsoftheintellectabound；butitistheabundanceofajungle，notofagarden，unwholesome，bewildering，unprofitablefromitsveryplenty，rankfromitsveryfragrance。
　　Everyfop，everyboor，everyvalet，isamanofwit。Theverybuttsanddupes，Tattle，Witwould，Puff，Acres，outshinethewholeHotelofRambouillet。
　　Toprovethewholesystemofthisschoolerroneous，itisonlynecessarytoapplythetestwhichdissolvedtheenchantedFlorimel，toplacethetruebythefalseThalia，tocontrastthemostcelebratedcharacterswhichhavebeendrawnbythewritersofwhomwespeakwiththeBastardin"KingJohn，"ortheNursein"RomeoandJuliet。"ItwasnotsurelyfromwantofwitthatShakespeareadoptedsodifferentamanner。BenedickandBeatricethrowMirabelandMillamant5intotheshade。AllthegoodsayingsofthefacetioushoursofAbsoluteandSurfacemighthavebeenclippedfromthesinglecharacterofFalstaffwithoutbeingmissed。ItwouldhavebeeneasyforthatfertilemindtohavegivenBardolphandShallowasmuchwitasPrinceHal，andtohavemadeDogberryandVergesretortoneachotherinsparklingepigrams。
　　Butheknewthatsuchindiscriminateprodigalitywas，tousehisownadmirablelanguage，"fromthepurposeofplaying，whoseend，bothatthefirstandnow，was，andis，tohold，asitwere，themirroruptonature。"
　　[Footnote5：InCongreve’s"WayoftheWorld。"]
　　Thisdigressionwillenableourreaderstounderstandwhatwemeanwhenwesay，that，inthe"Mandragola，"Machiavellihasprovedthathecompletelyunderstoodthenatureofthedramaticart，andpossessedtalentswhichwouldhaveenabledhimtoexcelinit。Bythecorrectandvigorousdelineationofhumannature，itproducesinterestwithoutapleasingorskillfulplot，andlaughterwithouttheleastambitionofwit。Thelover，notaverydelicateorgenerouslover，andhisadvisertheparasite，aredrawnwithspirit。
　　Thehypocriticalconfessorisanadmirableportrait。Heis，ifwemistakenot，theoriginalofFatherDominic，6thebestcomiccharacterofDryden。ButoldNiciasisthegloryofthepiece。Wecannotcalltomindanythingthatresembleshim。ThefollieswhichMoliereridiculesarethoseofaffectation，notthoseoffatuity。Coxcombsandpedants，notabsolutesimpletons，arehisgame。Shakespearehasindeedavastassortmentoffools；buttheprecisespeciesofwhichwespeakisnot，ifwerememberright，tobefoundthere。
　　Shallowisafool。Buthisanimalspiritssupply，toacertaindegree，theplaceofcleverness。HistalkistothatofSirJohnwhatsoda-wateristochampagne。
　　Ithastheeffervescence，thoughnotthebodyortheflavor。SlenderandSirAndrewAguecheekarefools，troubledwithanuneasyconsciousnessoftheirfolly，which，inthelatter，producesmeeknessanddocility，andintheformer，awkwardness，obstinacy，andconfusion。Clotenisanarrogantfool，Osricafoppishfool，Ajaxasavagefool；butNiciasis，asThersitessaysofPatroclus，afoolpositive。Hismindisoccupiedbynostrongfeeling；ittakeseverycharacter，andretainsnone；itsaspectisdiversified，notbypassions，butbyfaintandtransitorysemblancesofpassion，amockjoy，amockfear，amocklove，amockpride，whichchaseeachotherlikeshadowsoveritssurface，andvanishassoonastheyappear。Heisjustidiotenoughtobeanobject，notofpityorhorror，butofridicule。HebearssomeresemblancetopoorCalandrino，whosemishaps，asrecountedbyBoccaccio，havemadeallEuropemerryformorethanfourcenturies。HeperhapsresemblesstillmorecloselySimondeVilla，towhomBrunoandBuffalmaccopromisedtheloveoftheCountessCivillari。Niciasis，likeSimon，ofalearnedprofession；
　　andthedignitywithwhichhewearsthedoctoralfurrendershisabsurditiesinfinitelymoregrotesque。TheoldTuscanistheverylanguageforsuchabeing。
　　Itspeculiarsimplicitygiveseventothemostforciblereasoningandthemostbrilliantwitaninfantineair，generallydelightful，buttoaforeignreadersometimesalittleludicrous。Heroesandstatesmenseemtolispwhentheyuseit。ItbecomesNiciasincomparably，andrendersallhissillinessinfinitelymoresilly。
　　[Footnote6：InDryden’s"SpanishFriar。"]
　　Wemayadd，thattheverseswithwhichthe"Mandragola"isinterspersedappeartoustobethemostspiritedandcorrectofallthatMachiavellihaswritteninmetre。Heseemstohaveentertainedthesameopinion，forhehasintroducedsomeoftheminotherplaces。Thecontemporariesoftheauthorwerenotblindtothemeritsofthisstrikingpiece。ItwasactedatFlorencewiththegreatestsuccess。LeoXwasamongitsadmirers，andbyhisorderitwasrepresentedatRome。7
　　[Footnote7：NothingcanbemoreevidentthanthatPaulusJoviusdesignatesthe"Mandragola"underthenameofthe"Nicias。"Weshouldnothavenoticedwhatissoperfectlyobvious，wereitnotthatthisnaturalandpalpablemisnomerhasledthesagaciousandindustriousBayleintoagrosserror-M。]
　　The"Clizia"isanimitationofthe"Casina"ofPlautus，whichisitselfanimitationofthelostkxnpoumevolofDiphilus。8Plautuswas，unquestionably，oneofthebestLatinwriters；butthe"Casina"isbynomeansoneofhisbestplays，norisitonewhichoffersgreatfacilitiestoanimitator。
　　Thestoryisasalienfrommodernhabitsoflifeasthemannerinwhichitisdevelopedfromthemodernfashionofcomposition。Theloverremainsinthecountryandtheheroineinherchamberduringthewholeaction，leavingtheirfatetobedecidedbyafoolishfather，acunningmother，andtwoknavishservants。
　　Machiavellihasexecutedhistaskwithjudgmentandtaste。Hehasaccommodatedtheplottoadifferentstateofsociety，andhasverydexterouslyconnecteditwiththehistoryofhisowntimes。Therelationofthetrickputonthedotingoldloverisexquisitelyhumorous。ItisfarsuperiortothecorrespondingpassageintheLatincomedy，andscarcelyyieldstotheaccountwhichFalstaffgivesofhisducking。
　　[Footnote8：AwriteroftheGreek"NewComedy，"
　　whichfollowedthatofAristophanes。]
　　Twoothercomedies，withouttitles，theoneinprose，theotherinverse，appearamongtheworksofMachiavelli。Theformerisveryshort，livelyenough，butofnogreatvalue。Thelatterwecanscarcelybelievetobegenuine。Neitheritsmeritsnoritsdefectsremindusofthereputedauthor。Itwasfirstprintedin1796，fromamanuscriptdiscoveredinthecelebratedlibraryoftheStrozzi。Itsgenuineness，ifwehavebeenrightlyinformed，isestablishedsolelybythecomparisonofhands。Oursuspicionsarestrengthenedbythecircumstance，thatthesamemanuscriptcontainedadescriptionoftheplagueof1527，whichhasalso，inconsequence，beenaddedtotheworksofMachiavelli。Ofthislastcomposition，thestrongestexternalevidencewouldscarcelyinduceustobelievehimguilty。Nothingwaseverwrittenmoredetestableinmatterandmanner。Thenarrations，thereflections，thejokes，thelamentations，arealltheveryworstoftheirrespectivekinds，atoncetriteandaffected，threadbaretinselfromtheRagFairs9andMonmouthstreets9ofliterature。Afoolishschoolboymightwritesuchapiece，and，afterhehadwrittenit，thinkitmuchfinerthantheincomparableintroductionof"TheDecameron。"Butthatashrewdstatesman，whoseearliestworksarecharacterizedbymanlinessofthoughtandlanguage，should，atnearsixtyyearsofage，descendtosuchpuerility，isutterlyinconceivable。
　　[Footnote9：Old-clothesmarketsinLondon。]
　　Thelittlenovelof"Belphegor"ispleasantlyconceived，andpleasantlytold。
　　Buttheextravaganceofthesatireinsomemeasureinjuresitseffect。
　　Machiavelliwasunhappilymarried；andhiswishtoavengehisowncause，andthatofhisbrethreninmisfortune，carriedhimbeyondeventhelicenseoffiction。Jonsonseemstohavecombinedsomehintstakenfromthistale，withothersfromBoccaccio，intheplotof"TheDevilisanAss，"aplaywhich，thoughnotthemosthighlyfinishedofhiscompositions，isperhapsthatwhichexhibitsthestrongestproofsofgenius。
　　ThepoliticalcorrespondenceofMachiavelli，firstpublishedin1767，isunquestionablygenuine，andhighlyvaluable。Theunhappycircumstancesinwhichhiscountrywasplacedduringthegreaterpartofhispubliclifegaveextraordinaryencouragementtodiplomatictalents。FromthemomentthatCharlesVIIIdescendedfromtheAlpsthewholecharacterofItalianpoliticswaschanged。ThegovernmentsofthePeninsulaceasedtoformanindependentsystem。Drawnfromtheiroldorbitbytheattractionofthelargerbodieswhichnowapproachthem，theybecamemeresatellitesofFranceandSpain。Alltheirdisputes，internalandexternal，weredecidedbyforeigninfluence。Thecontestsofoppositefactionswerecarriedon，notasformerlyintheSenatehouseorinthemarket-place，butintheante-chambersofLouisandFerdinand。Underthesecircumstances，theprosperityoftheItalianStatesdependedfarmoreontheabilityoftheirforeignagents，thanontheconductofthosewhowereintrustedwiththedomesticadministration。Theambassadorhadtodischargefunctionsfarmoredelicatethantransmittingordersofknighthood，introducingtourists，orpresentinghisbrethrenwiththehomageofhishighconsideration。Hewasanadvocatetowhosemanagementthedearestinterestsofhisclientswereintrusted，aspyclothedwithaninviolablecharacter。Insteadofconsulting，byareservedmannerandambiguousstyle，thedignityofthosewhomherepresented，hewastoplungeintoalltheintriguesofthecourtatwhichheresided，todiscoverandflattereveryweaknessoftheprince，andofthefavoritewhogovernedtheprince，andofthelackeywhogovernedthefavorite。Hewastocomplimentthemistress，andbribetheconfessor，topanegyrizeorsupplicate，tolaughorweep，toaccommodatehimselftoeverycaprice，tolulleverysuspicion，totreasureeveryhint，tobeeverything，toobserveeverything，toendureeverything。HighastheartofpoliticalintriguehadbeencarriedinItaly，theseweretimeswhichrequireditall。
　　OnthesearduouserrandsMachiavelliwasfrequentlyemployed。HewassenttotreatwiththeKingoftheRomansandwiththeDukeofValentinois。
　　HewastwiceambassadorattheCourtofRome，andthriceatthatofFrance。
　　Inthesemissions，andinseveralothersofinferiorimportance，heacquittedhimselfwithgreatdexterity。Hisdespatchesformoneofthemostamusingandinstructivecollectionsextant。Thenarrativesareclearandagreeablywritten，theremarksonmenandthingscleverandjudicious。Theconversationsarereportedinaspiritedandcharacteristicmanner。Wefindourselvesintroducedintothepresenceofthemenwho，duringtwentyeventfulyears，swayedthedestiniesofEurope。Theirwitandtheirfolly，theirfretfulnessandtheirmerriment，areexposedtous。Weareadmittedtooverheartheirchat，andtowatchtheirfamiliargestures。Itisinterestingandcurioustorecognize，incircumstanceswhicheludethenoticeofhistorians，thefeebleviolenceandshallowcunningofLouisXII；thebustlinginsignificanceofMaximilian，cursedwithanimpotentpruriencyforrenown，rashyettimid，obstinateyetfickle，alwaysinahurry，yetalwaystoolate；thefierceandhaughtyenergywhichgavedignitytotheeccentricitiesofJulius；thesoftandgracefulmannerswhichmaskedtheinsatiableambitionandtheimplacablehatredofCaesarBorgia。
　　WehavementionedCaesarBorgia。ItisimpossiblenottopauseforamomentonthenameofamaninwhomthepoliticalmoralityofItalywassostronglypersonified，partiallyblendedwiththesternerlineamentsoftheSpanishcharacter。OntwoimportantoccasionsMachiavelliwasadmittedtohissociety-once，atthemomentwhenCaesar’ssplendidvillainyachieveditsmostsignaltriumph，whenhecaughtinonesnare，andcrushedatoneblow，allhismostformidablerivals；andagainwhen，exhaustedbydisease，andoverwhelmedbymisfortuneswhichnohumanprudencecouldhaveaverted，hewastheprisonerofthedeadliestenemyofhishouse。Theseinterviewsbetweenthegreatestspeculativeandthegreatestpracticalstatesmenoftheagearefullydescribedinthe"Correspondence，"andform，perhaps，themostinterestingpartofit。Fromsomepassagesin"ThePrince，"andperhapsalsofromsomeindistincttraditions，severalwritershavesupposedaconnectionbetweenthoseremarkablemenmuchcloserthaneverexisted。Theenvoyhasevenbeenaccusedofpromptingthecrimesoftheartfulandmercilesstyrant。
　　But，fromtheofficialdocuments，itisclearthattheirintercourse，thoughostensiblyamicable，wasinrealityhostile。Itcannotbedoubted，however，thattheimaginationofMachiavelliwasstronglyimpressed，andhisspeculationsongovernmentcolored，bytheobservationswhichhemadeonthesingularcharacterandequallysingularfortunesofamanwho，undersuchdisadvantages，hadachievedsuchexploits；who，whensensuality，variedthroughinnumerableforms，couldnolongerstimulatehissatedmind，foundamorepowerfulanddurableexcitementintheintensethirstofempireandrevenge；whoemergedfromtheslothandluxuryoftheRomanpurplethefirstprinceandgeneraloftheage；who，trainedinanunwarlikeprofession，formedagallantarmyoutofthedregsofanunwarlikepeople；who，afteracquiringsovereigntybydestroyinghisenemies，acquiredpopularitybydestroyinghistools；whohadbeguntoemployforthemostsalutaryendsthepowerwhichhehadattainedbythemostatrociousmeans；whotoleratedwithinthesphereofhisirondespotismnoplundereroroppressorbuthimself；andwhofellatlastamidstthemingledcursesandregretsofapeopleofwhomhisgeniushadbeenthewonder，andmighthavebeenthesalvation。SomeofthosecrimesofBorgiawhichtousappearthemostodious，wouldnot，fromcauseswhichwehavealreadyconsidered，havestruckanItalianofthefifteenthcenturywithequalhorror。PatrioticfeelingalsomightinduceMachiavellitolookwithsomeindulgenceandregretonthememoryoftheonlyleaderwhocouldhavedefendedtheindependenceofItalyagainsttheconfederatespoilersofCambray。
　　PartIII
　　Onthissubject，Machiavellifeltmoststrongly。Indeed，theexpulsionoftheforeigntyrants，andtherestorationofthatgoldenagewhichhadprecededtheirruptionofCharlesVIII，wereprojectswhich，atthattime，fascinatedallthemaster-spiritsofItaly。Themagnificentvisiondelightedthegreatbutill-regulatedmindofJulius。Itdividedwithmanuscriptsandsaucers，paintersandfalcons，theattentionofthefrivolousLeo。ItpromptedthegeneroustreasonofMorone。ItimpartedatransientenergytothefeeblemindandbodyofthelastSforza。ItexcitedforonemomentanhonestambitioninthefalseheartofPescara。Ferocityandinsolencewerenotamongthevicesofthenationalcharacter。Tothediscriminatingcrueltiesofpoliticians，committedforgreatendsonselectvictims，themoralcodeoftheItalianswastooindulgent。
　　But，thoughtheymighthaverecoursetobarbarityasanexpedient，theydidnotrequireitasastimulant。Theyturnedwithloathingfromtheatrocityofthestrangerswhoseemedtolovebloodforitsownsake；who，notcontentwithsubjugating，wereimpatienttodestroy；whofoundafiendishpleasureinrazingmagnificentcities，cuttingthethroatsofenemieswhocriedforquarter，orsuffocatinganunarmedpopulationbythousandsinthecavernstowhichithadfledforsafety。Suchwerethecrueltieswhichdailyexcitedtheterroranddisgustofapeopleamongwhom，tilllately，theworstthatasoldierhadtofearinapitchedbattlewasthelossofhishorseandtheexpenseofhisransom。
　　TheswinishintemperanceofSwitzerland；thewolfishavariceofSpain；
　　thegrosslicentiousnessoftheFrench，indulgedinviolationofhospitality，ofdecency，ofloveitself；thewantoninhumanitywhichwascommontoalltheinvaders-hadmadethemobjectsofdeadlyhatredtotheinhabitantsofthePeninsula。Thewealthwhichhadbeenaccumulatedduringcenturiesofprosperityandreposewasrapidlymeltingaway。Theintellectualsuperiorityoftheoppressedpeopleonlyrenderedthemmorekeenlysensibleoftheirpoliticaldegradation。Literatureandtaste，indeed，stilldisguisedwithaflushofhecticlovelinessandbrilliancytheravagesofanincurabledecay。
　　Theironhadnotyetenteredintothesoul。Thetimewasnotyetcomewheneloquencewastobegagged，andreasontobehoodwinked，whentheharpofthepoetwastobehungonthewillowsofArno，andtherighthandofthepaintertoforgetitscunning。Yetadiscerningeyemighteventhenhaveseenthatgeniusandlearningwouldnotlongsurvivethestateofthingsfromwhichtheyhadsprung，andthatthegreatmenwhosetalentsgavelustretothatmelancholyperiodhadbeenformedundertheinfluenceofhappierdays，andwouldleavenosuccessorsbehindthem。Thetimeswhichshinewiththegreatestsplendorinliteraryhistoryarenotalwaysthosetowhichthehumanmindismostindebted。Ofthiswemaybeconvinced，bycomparingthegenerationwhichfollowsthemwiththatwhichhadprecededthem。Thefirstfruitswhicharereapedunderabadsystemoftenspringfromseedsownunderagoodone。
　　Thusitwas，insomemeasure，withtheAugustanage。ThusitwaswiththeageofRaphaelandAriosto，ofAldusandVida。
　　Machiavellideeplyregrettedthemisfortunesofhiscountry，andclearlydiscernedthecauseandtheremedy。ItwasthemilitarysystemoftheItalianpeoplewhichhadextinguishedtheirvaloranddiscipline，andlefttheirwealthaneasypreytoeveryforeignplunderer。Thesecretaryprojectedascheme，alikehonorabletohisheartandtohisintellect，forabolishingtheuseofmercenarytroops，andfororganizinganationalmilitia。
　　Theexertionswhichhemadetoeffectthisgreatobjectoughtalonetorescuehisnamefromobloquy。Thoughhissituationandhishabitswerepacific，hestudiedwithintenseassiduitythetheoryofwar。Hemadehimselfmasterofallitsdetails。TheFlorentinegovernmententeredintohisviews。Acouncilofwarwasappointed。Leviesweredecreed。Theindefatigableministerflewfromplacetoplaceinordertosuperintendtheexecutionofhisdesign。
　　Thetimeswere，insomerespects，favorabletotheexperiment。Thesystemofmilitarytacticshadundergoneagreatrevolution。Thecavalrywasnolongerconsideredasformingthestrengthofanarmy。Thehourswhichacitizencouldsparefromhisordinaryemployments，thoughbynomeanssufficienttofamiliarizehimwiththeexerciseofaman-at-arms，mightrenderhimausefulfoot-soldier。Thedreadofaforeignyoke，ofplunder，massacre，andconflagration，mighthaveconqueredthatrepugnancetomilitarypursuitswhichboththeindustryandtheidlenessofgreattownscommonlygenerate。
　　Foratimetheschemepromisedwell。Thenewtroopsacquittedthemselvesrespectablyinthefield。Machiavellilookedwithparentalraptureonthesuccessofhisplan，andbegantohopethatthearmsofItalymightoncemorebeformidabletothebarbariansoftheTagusandtheRhine。Butthetideofmisfortunecameonbeforethebarrierswhichshouldhavewithstooditwereprepared。Foratime，indeed，Florencemightbeconsideredaspeculiarlyfortunate。FamineandswordandpestilencehaddevastatedthefertileplainsandstatelycitiesofthePo。AllthecursesdenouncedofoldagainstTyreseemedtohavefallenonVenice。Hermerchantsalreadystoodafaroff，lamentingfortheirgreatcity。Thetimeseemednearwhenthesea-weedshouldovergrowhersilentRialto，andthefishermanwashhisnetsinherdesertedarsenal。Napleshadbeenfourtimesconqueredandreconqueredbytyrantsequallyindifferenttoitswelfare，andequallygreedyforitsspoils。
　　Florence，asyet，hadonlytoenduredegradationandextortion，tosubmittothemandatesofforeignpowers，tobuyoverandoveragain，atanenormousprice，whatwasalreadyjustlyherown，toreturnthanksforbeingwronged，andtoaskpardonforbeingintheright。Shewasatlengthdeprivedoftheblessings，evenofthisinfamousandservilerepose。Hermilitaryandpoliticalinstitutionsweresweptawaytogether。TheMedicireturned，inthetrainofforeigninvaders，fromtheirlongexile。ThepolicyofMachiavelliwasabandoned；andhispublicserviceswererequitedwithpoverty，imprisonment，andtorture。
　　Thefallenstatesmanstillclungtohisprojectwithunabatedardor。
　　Withtheviewofvindicatingitfromsomepopularobjections，andofrefutingsomeprevailingerrorsonthesubjectofmilitaryscience，hewrotehis"SevenBooksontheArtofWar。"Thisexcellentworkisintheformofadialogue。
　　TheopinionsofthewriterareputintothemouthofFabrizioColonna，apowerfulnoblemanoftheecclesiasticalState，andanofficerofdistinguishedmeritintheserviceoftheKingofSpain。ColonnavisitsFlorenceonhiswayfromLombardytohisowndomains。HeisinvitedtomeetsomefriendsatthehouseofCosimoRucellai，anamiableandaccomplishedyoungman，whoseearlydeathMachiavellifeelinglydeplores。Afterpartakingofanelegantentertainment，theyretirefromtheheatintothemostshadyrecessesofthegarden。Fabrizioisstruckbythesightofsomeuncommonplants。Cosimosays，that，thoughrareinmoderndays，theyarefrequentlymentionedbytheclassicalauthors，andthathisgrandfather，likemanyotherItalians，amusedhimselfwithpractisingtheancientmethodsofgardening。Fabrizioexpresseshisregretthatthosewho，inlatertimes，affectedthemannersoftheoldRomans，shouldselectforimitationthemosttriflingpursuits。Thisleadstoaconversationonthedeclineofmilitarydiscipline，andonthebestmeansofrestoringit。TheinstitutionoftheFlorentinemilitiaisablydefended，andseveralimprovementsaresuggestedinthedetails。
　　TheSwissandtheSpaniardswere，atthattime，regardedasthebestsoldiersinEurope。TheSwissbattalionconsistedofpikemen，andboreacloseresemblancetotheGreekphalanx。TheSpaniards，likethesoldiersofRome，werearmedwiththeswordandtheshield。ThevictoriesofFlaminiusandAemiliusovertheMacedoniankingsseemtoprovethesuperiorityoftheweaponsusedbythelegions。ThesameexperimenthadbeenrecentlytriedwiththesameresultatthebattleofRavenna，oneofthosetremendousdaysintowhichhumanfollyandwickednesscompressthewholedevastationofafamineoraplague。Inthatmemorableconflict，theinfantryofAragon，theoldcompanionsofGonsalvo，desertedbyalltheirallies，hewedapassagethroughthethickestoftheimperialpikes，andeffectedanunbrokenretreat，inthefaceofthegendarmerieofDeFoix，andtherenownedartilleryofEste。
　　Fabrizio，orratherMachiavelli，proposestocombinethetwosystems，toarmtheforemostlineswiththepikeforthepurposeofrepulsingcavalry，andthoseintherearwiththesword，asbeingaweaponbetteradaptedforeveryotherpurpose。Throughoutthework，theauthorexpressesthehighestadmirationofthemilitaryscienceoftheancientRomans，andthegreatestcontemptforthemaximswhichhadbeeninvogueamongsttheItaliancommandersoftheprecedinggeneration。Heprefersinfantrytocavalry，andfortifiedcampstofortifiedtowns。Heisinclinedtosubstituterapidmovementsanddecisiveengagementsforthelanguidanddilatoryoperationsofhiscountrymen。
　　Heattachesverylittleimportancetotheinventionofgunpowder。Indeed，heseemstothinkthatitoughtscarcelytoproduceanychangeinthemodeofarmingorofdisposingtroops。Thegeneraltestimonyofhistorians，itmustbeallowed，seemstoprovethattheill-constructedandill-servedartilleryofthosetimes，thoughusefulinasiege，wasoflittlevalueonthefieldofbattle。
　　OnthetacticsofMachiavelliwewillnotventuretogiveanopinion，butwearecertainthathisbookismostableandinteresting。Asacommentaryonthehistoryofhistimes，itisinvaluable。Theingenuity，thegrace，andtheperspicuityofthestyle，andtheeloquenceandanimationofparticularpassages，mustgivepleasure，eventoreaderswhotakenointerestinthesubject。
　　"ThePrince"andthe"DiscoursesonLivy"werewrittenafterthefalloftherepublicangovernment。TheformerwasdedicatedtotheyoungLorenzode’
　　Medici。Thiscircumstanceseemstohavedisgustedthecontemporariesofthewriterfarmorethatthedoctrineswhichhaverenderedthenameoftheworkodiousinlattertimes。Itwasconsideredasanindicationofpoliticalapostasy。
　　Thefact，however，seemstohavebeen，thatMachiavelli，despairingofthelibertyofFlorence，wasinclinedtosupportanygovernmentwhichmightpreserveherindependence。TheintervalwhichseparatedademocracyandadespotismSoderiniandLorenzo，seemedtovanishwhencomparedwiththedifferencebetweentheformerandthepresentstateofItaly，betweenthesecurity，theopulence，andthereposewhichshehadenjoyedunderitsnativerulers，andthemiseryinwhichshehadbeenplungedsincethefatalyearinwhichthefirstforeigntyranthaddescendedfromtheAlps。Thenobleandpatheticexhortationwithwhich"ThePrince"concludesshowshowstronglythewriterfeltuponthissubject。
　　"ThePrince"tracestheprogressofanambitiousman，the"Discourses"
　　theprogressofanambitiouspeople。Thesameprinciplesonwhich，intheformerwork，theelevationofanindividualisexplained，areapplied，inthelatter，tothelongerdurationandmorecomplexinterestofasociety。Toamodernstatesmantheformofthe"Discourses"mayappeartobepuerile。Intruth，Livyisnotahistorianonwhomimplicitreliancecanbeplaced，evenincaseswherehemusthavepossessedconsiderablemeansofinformation。AndthefirstDecade，towhichMachiavellihasconfinedhimself，isscarcelyentitledtomorecreditthanourChronicleofBritishKingswhoreignedbeforetheRomaninvasion。ButthecommentatorisindebtedtoLivyforlittlemorethanafewtextswhichhemightaseasilyhaveextractedfromtheVulgateor"TheDecameron。"Thewholetrainofthoughtisoriginal。
　　Onthepeculiarimmoralitywhichhasrendered"ThePrince"unpopular，andwhichisalmostequallydiscernibleinthe"Discourses"wehavealreadygivenouropinionatlength。Wehaveattemptedtoshowthatitbelongedrathertotheagethantotheman，thatitwasapartialtaint，andbynomeansimpliedgeneraldepravity。Wecannot，however，denythatitisagreatblemish，andthatitconsiderablydiminishesthepleasurewhich，inotherrespects，thoseworksmustaffordtoeveryintelligentmind。
　　Itis，indeed，impossibletoconceiveamorehealthfulandvigorousconstitutionoftheunderstandingthanthatwhichtheseworksindicate。Thequalitiesoftheactiveandthecontemplativestatesmanappeartohavebeenblendedinthemindofthewriterintoarareandexquisiteharmony。Hisskillinthedetailsofbusinesshadnotbeenacquiredattheexpenseofhisgeneralpowers。
　　Ithadnotrenderedhismindlesscomprehensive；butithadservedtocorrecthisspeculations，andtoimparttothemthatvividandpracticalcharacterwhichsowidelydistinguishesthemfromthevaguetheoriesofmostpoliticalphilosophers。
　　Everymanwhohasseentheworldknowsthatnothingissouselessasageneralmaxim。Ifitbeverymoralandverytrue，itmayserveforacopytoacharityboy。If，likethoseofRochefoucauld，itbesparklingandwhimsical，itmaymakeanexcellentmottoforanessay。Butfewindeedofthemanywiseapophthegmswhichhavebeenuttered，fromthetimeoftheSevenSagesofGreecetothatof"PoorRichard，"havepreventedasinglefoolishaction。
　　WegivethehighestandthemostpeculiarpraisetothepreceptsofMachiavelliwhenwesaythattheymayfrequentlybeofrealuseinregulatingconduct，notsomuchbecausetheyaremorejustormoreprofoundthanthosewhichmightbeculledfromotherauthors，asbecausetheycanbemorereadilyappliedtotheproblemsofreallife。
　　Thereareerrorsintheseworks。Buttheyareerrorswhichawriter，situatedlikeMachiavelli，couldscarcelyavoid。Theyarise，forthemostpart，fromasingledefectwhichappearstoustopervadehiswholesystem。Inhispoliticalscheme，themeanshadbeenmoredeeplyconsideredthantheends。Thegreatprinciple，thatsocietiesandlawsexistonlyforthepurposeofincreasingthesumofprivatehappiness，isnotrecognizedwithsufficientclearness。
　　Thegoodofthebody，distinctfromthegoodofthemembers，andsometimeshardlycompatiblewiththegoodofthemembers，seemstobetheobjectwhichheproposestohimself。Ofallpoliticalfallacies，thishasperhapshadthewidestandthemostmischievousoperation。ThestateofsocietyinthelittlecommonwealthsofGreece，thecloseconnectionandmutualdependenceofthecitizens，andtheseverityofthelawsofwar，tendedtoencourageanopinionwhich，undersuchcircumstances，couldhardlybecallederroneous。
　　TheinterestsofeveryindividualwereinseparablyboundupwiththoseoftheState。Aninvasiondestroyedhiscorn-fieldsandvineyards，drovehimfromhishome，andcompelledhimtoencounterallthehardshipsofamilitarylife。A
　　treatyofpeacerestoredhimtosecurityandcomfort。Avictorydoubledthenumberofhisslaves。Adefeatperhapsmadehimaslavehimself。WhenPericles，inthePeloponnesianwar，toldtheAthenians，that，iftheircountrytriumphed，theirprivatelosseswouldspeedilyberepaired，butthat，iftheirarmsfailedofsuccess，everyindividualamongstthemwouldprobablyberuined，hespokenomorethanthetruth。Hespoketomenwhomthetributeofvanquishedcitiessuppliedwithfoodandclothing，withtheluxuryofthebathandtheamusementsofthetheatre，onwhomthegreatnessoftheircountryconferredrank，andbeforewhomthemembersoflessprosperouscommunitiestrembled；tomenwho，incaseofachangeinthepublicfortunes，would，atleast，bedeprivedofeverycomfortandeverydistinctionwhichtheyenjoyed。Tobebutcheredonthesmokingruinsoftheircity，tobedraggedinchainstoaslave-market，toseeonechildtornfromthemtodiginthequarriesofSicily，andanothertoguardtheharemsofPersepolis，thesewerethefrequentandprobableconsequencesofnationalcalamities。Hence，amongtheGreeks，patriotismbecameagoverningprinciple，orratheranungovernablepassion。Theirlegislatorsandtheirphilosopherstookitforgranted，that，inprovidingforthestrengthandgreatnessoftheState，theysufficientlyprovidedforthehappinessofthepeople。ThewritersoftheRomanEmpirelivedunderdespots，intowhosedominionahundrednationsweremelteddown，andwhosegardenswouldhavecoveredthelittlecommonwealthsofPhliusandPlataea。Yettheycontinuedtoemploythesamelanguage，andtocantaboutthedutyofsacrificingeverythingtoacountrytowhichtheyowednothing。
　　CausessimilartothosewhichhadinfluencedthedispositionoftheGreeksoperatedpowerfullyonthelessvigorousanddaringcharacteroftheItalians。
　　TheItalians，liketheGreeks，weremembersofsmallcommunities。Everymanwasdeeplyinterestedinthewelfareofthesocietytowhichhebelonged，apartakerinitswealthanditspoverty，initsgloryanditsshame。
　　IntheageofMachiavellithiswaspeculiarlythecase。Publiceventshadproducedanimmensesumofmiserytoprivatecitizens。TheNortherninvadershadbroughtwanttotheirboards，infamytotheirbeds，firetotheirroofs，andtheknifetotheirthroats。Itwasnaturalthatamanwholivedintimesliketheseshouldoverratetheimportanceofthosemeasuresbywhichanationisrenderedformidabletoitsneighbors，andundervaluethosewhichmakeitprosperouswithinitself。
　　NothingismoreremarkableinthepoliticaltreatisesofMachiavellithanthefairnessofmindwhichtheyindicate。Itappearswheretheauthorisinthewrong，almostasstronglyaswhereheisintheright。Heneveradvancesafalseopinionbecauseitisneworsplendid，becausehecanclotheitinahappyphrase，ordefenditbyaningenioussophism。Hiserrorsareatonceexplainedbyareferencetothecircumstancesinwhichhewasplaced。
　　Theyevidentlywerenotsoughtout：theylayinhisway，andcouldscarcelybeavoided。Suchmistakesmustnecessarilybecommittedbyearlyspeculatorsineveryscience。
　　ThepoliticalworksofMachiavellideriveapeculiarinterestfromthemournfulearnestnesswhichhemanifestswheneverhetouchesontopicsconnectedwiththecalamitiesofhisnativeland。Itisdifficulttoconceiveanysituationmorepainfulthatofagreatman，condemnedtowatchthelingeringagonyofanexhaustedcountry，totenditduringthealternatefitsofstupefactionandravingwhichprecedeitsdissolution，andtoseethesymptomsofvitalitydisappearonebyone，tillnothingisleftbutcoldness，darkness，andcorruption。TothisjoylessandthanklessdutywasMachiavellicalled。
　　Intheenergeticlanguageoftheprophet，hewas"madforthesightofhiseyeswhichhesaw"-disunionintheCouncil，effeminacyinthecamp，libertyextinguished，commercedecaying，nationalhonorsullied，anenlightenedandflourishingpeoplegivenovertotheferocityofignorantsavages。Thoughhisopinionshadnotescapedthecontagionofthatpoliticalimmoralitywhichwascommonamonghiscountrymen，hisnaturaldispositionseemstohavebeenrathersternandimpetuousthanpliantandartful。WhenthemiseryanddegradationofFlorence，andthefouloutragewhichhehadhimselfsustained，recurtohismind，thesmoothcraftofhisprofessionandhisnationisexchangedforthehonestbitternessofscornandanger。Hespeakslikeonesickofthecalamitoustimesandabjectpeopleamongwhomhislotiscast。HepinesforthestrengthandgloryofancientRome，forthefascesofBrutusandtheswordofScipio，thegravityofthecurulechair，andthebloodypompofthetriumphalsacrifice。Heseemstobetransportedbacktothedayswhen800，000ItalianwarriorssprungtoarmsattherumorofaGallicinvasion。
　　HebreathesallthespiritofthoseintrepidandhaughtySenatorswhoforgotthedearesttiesofnatureintheclaimsofpublicduty，wholookedwithdisdainontheelephantsandonthegoldofPyrrhus，andlistenedwithunalteredcomposuretothetremendoustidingsofCannae。Likeanancienttempledeformedbythebarbarousarchitectureofalaterage，hischaracteracquiresaninterestfromtheverycircumstanceswhichdebaseit。Theoriginalproportionsarerenderedmorestrikingbythecontrastwhichtheypresenttothemeanandincongruousadditions。
　　Theinfluenceofthesentimentswhichwehavedescribedwasnotapparentinhiswritingsalone。Hisenthusiasm，barredfromthecareerwhichitwouldhaveselectedforitself，seemstohavefoundaventindesperatelevity。
　　Heenjoyedavindictivepleasureinoutragingtheopinionsofasocietywhichhedespised。
　　Hebecamecarelessofthedecencieswhichwereexpectedfromamansohighlydistinguishedintheliteraryandpoliticalworld。Thesarcasticbitternessofhisconversationdisgustedthosewhoweremoreinclinedtoaccusehislicentiousnessthantheirowndegeneracy，andwhowereunabletoconceivethestrengthofthoseemotionswhichareconcealedbythejestsofthewretched，andbythefolliesofthewise。
　　ThehistoricalworksofMachiavellistillremaintobeconsidered。ThelifeofCastruccioCastracaniwilloccupyusforaveryshorttime，andwouldscarcelyhavedemandedournoticehaditnotattractedamuchgreatershareofpublicattentionthanitdeserves。Fewbooks，indeed，couldbemoreinterestingthanacarefulandjudiciousaccount，fromsuchapen，oftheillustriousPrinceofLucca，themosteminentofthoseItalianchiefs，who，likePisistratusandGelon，acquiredapowerfeltratherthanseen，andresting，notonlaworonprescription，butonthepublicfavorandontheirgreatpersonalqualities。Suchaworkwouldexhibittoustherealnatureofthatspeciesofsovereignty，sosingularandsooftenmisunderstood，whichtheGreeksdenominatedtyranny，andwhich，modifiedinsomedegreebythefeudalsystem，reappearedinthecommonwealthsofLombardyandTuscany。ButthislittlecompositionofMachiavelliisinnosenseahistory。Ithasnopretensionstofidelity。Itistrifle，andnotaverysuccessfultrifle。
　　Itisscarcelymoreauthenticthanthenovelof"Belphegor，"andisverymuchduller。
　　Thelastgreatworkofthisillustriousmanwasthehistoryofhisnativecity。ItwaswrittenbycommandofthePope，who，aschiefofthehouseofMedici，wasatthattimesovereignofFlorence。ThecharactersofCosimo，ofPiero，andofLorenzo，are，however，treatedwithafreedomandimpartialityequallyhonorabletothewriterandtothepatron。Themiseriesandhumiliationsofdependence，thebreadwhichismorebitterthaneveryotherfood，thestairswhicharemorepainfulthaneveryotherascent，hasnotbrokenthespiritofMachiavelli。ThemostcorruptingpostinacorruptingprofessionhadnotdepravedthegenerousheartofClement。
　　Thehistorydoesnotappeartobethefruitofmuchindustryorresearch。
　　Itisunquestionablyinaccurate。Butitiselegant，lively，andpicturesque，beyondanyotherintheItalianlanguage。Thereader，webelieve，carriesawayfromitamorevividandamorefaithfulimpressionofthenationalcharacterandmannersthanfrommorecorrectaccounts。Thetruthis，thatthebookbelongsrathertoancientthantomodernliterature。Itisinthestyle，notofDavilaandClarendon，butofHerodotusandTacitus。Theclassicalhistoriesmayalmostbecalledromancesfoundedinfact。Therelationis，nodoubt，inallitsprincipelpoints，strictlytrue。Butthenumerouslittleincidentswhichheightentheinterest，thewords，thegestures，thelooks，areevidentlyfurnishedbytheimaginationoftheauthor。Thefashionoflatertimesisdifferent。
　　Amoreexactnarrativeisgivenbythewriter。
　　Itmaybedoubtedwhethermoreexactnotionsareconveyedtothereader。
　　Thebestportraitsareperhapsthoseinwhichthereisaslightmixtureofcaricature，andwearenotcertainthatthebesthistoriesarenotthoseinwhichalittleoftheexaggerationoffictitiousnarrativeisjudiciouslyemployed。
　　Somethingislostinaccuracy，butmuchisgainedineffect。Thefainterlinesareneglected，butthegreatcharacteristicfeaturesareimprintedonthemindforever。
　　ThehistoryterminateswiththedeathofLorenzode’Medici。Machiavellihad，itseems，intendedtocontinuehisnarrativetoalaterperiod。Buthisdeathpreventedtheexecutionofhisdesign，andthemelancholytaskofrecordingthedesolationandshameofItalydevolvedonGuicciardini。
　　MachiavellilivedlongenoughtoseethecommencementofthelaststruggleforFlorentineliberty。Soonafterhisdeathmonarchywasfinallyestablished，notsuchamonarchyasthatofwhichCosimohadlaidthefoundationsdeepintheinstitutionsandfeelingsofhiscountrymen，andwhichLorenzohadembellishedwiththetrophiesofeveryscienceandeveryart，butaloathsometyranny，proudandmean，cruelandfeeble，bigotedandlascivious。
　　ThecharacterofMachiavelliwashatefultothenewmastersofItaly，andthosepartsofhistheorywhichwereinstrictaccordancewiththeirowndailypracticeaffordedapretextforblackeninghismemory。Hisworksweremisrepresentedbythelearned，misconstruedbytheignorant，censuredbytheChurch，abusedwithalltherancorofsimulatedvirtuebythetoolsofabasegovernmentandthepriestsofabasersuperstition。Thenameofthemanwhosegeniushadilluminatedallthedarkplacesofpolicy，andtowhosepatrioticwisdomanoppressedpeoplehadowedtheirlastchanceofemancipationandrevenge，passedintoaproverbofinfamy。Formorethantwohundredyearshisboneslayundistinguished。AtlengthanEnglishnoblemanpaidthelasthonorstothegreateststatesmanofFlorence。
　　IntheChurchofSantaCroceamonumentwaserectedtohismemory，whichiscontemplatedwithreverencebyallwhocandistinguishthevirtuesofagreatmindthroughthecorruptionsofadegenerateage，andwhichwillbeapproachedwithstilldeeperhomagewhentheobjecttowhichhispubliclifewasdevotedshallbeattained，whentheforeignyokeshallbebroken，whenasecondProcidashallavengethewrongsofNaples，whenahappierRienzishallrestorethegoodestateofRome，whenthestreetsofFlorenceandBolognashallagainresoundwiththeirancientwarcry，"Popolo；popolo；
　　muoianoitiranni！"10
　　[Footnote10："Thepeople！thepeople！Deathtothetyrants！"-
　　Machiavelli’s"HistoryofFlorence，"BookIII。]