Thisisdoubtlesswhynegroesandsavagesaresolittleafraidofthewildbeaststheymaymeetinthewoods。TheCaraibsofVenezuelaamongothersliveinthisrespectinabsolutesecurityandwithoutthesmallestinconvenience。Thoughtheyarealmostnaked，FrancisCorréaltellsus，theyexposethemselvesfreelyinthewoods，armedonlywithbowsandarrows;butnoonehaseverheardofoneofthembeingdevouredbywildbeasts。
　　Butmanhasotherenemiesmoreformidable，againstwhichisisnotprovidedwithsuchmeansofdefence：thesearethenaturalinfirmitiesofinfancy，oldage，andillnessofeverykind，melancholyproofsofourweakness，ofwhichthetwofirstarecommontoallanimals，andthelastbelongschieflytomaninastateofsociety。Withregardtoinfancy，itisobservablethatthemother，carryingherchildalwayswithher，cannurseitwithmuchgreatereasethanthefemalesofmanyotheranimals，whichareforcedtobeperpetuallygoingandcoming，withgreatfatigue，onewaytofindsubsistence，andanothertosuckleorfeedtheiryoung。Itistruethatifthewomanhappenstoperish，theinfantisingreatdangerofperishingwithher;butthisriskiscommontomanyotherspeciesofanimals，whoseyoungtakealongtimebeforetheyareabletoprovideforthemselves。
　　Andifourinfancyislongerthantheirs，ourlivesarelongerinproportion;
　　sothatallthingsareinthisrespectfairlyequal;thoughthereareotherrulestobeconsideredregardingthedurationofthefirstperiodoflife，andthenumberofyoung，whichdonotaffectthepresentsubject。Inoldage，whenmenarelessactiveandperspirelittle，theneedforfooddiminisheswiththeabilitytoprovideit。Asthesavagestatealsoprotectsthemfromgoutandrheumatism，andoldageis，ofallills，thatwhichhumanaidcanleastalleviate，theyceasetobe，withoutothersperceivingthattheyarenomore，andalmostwithoutperceivingitthemselves。
　　Withrespecttosickness，Ishallnotrepeatthevainandfalsedeclamationswhichmosthealthypeoplepronounceagainstmedicine;butIshallaskifanysolidobservationshavebeenmadefromwhichitmaybejustlyconcludedthat，inthecountrieswheretheartofmedicineismostneglected，themeandurationofman’slifeislessthaninthosewhereitismostcultivated。
　　Howindeedcanthisbethecase，ifwebringonourselvesmorediseasesthanmedicinecanfurnishremedies？Thegreatinequalityinmannerofliving，theextremeidlenessofsome，andtheexcessivelabourofothers，theeasinessofexcitingandgratifyingoursensualappetites，thetooexquisitefoodsofthewealthywhichoverheatandfillthemwithindigestion，and，ontheotherhand，theunwholesomefoodofthepoor，often，badasitis，insufficientfortheirneeds，whichinducesthem，whenopportunityoffers，toeatvoraciouslyandoverchargetheirstomachs;allthese，togetherwithsittinguplate，andexcessesofeverykind，immoderatetransportsofeverypassion，fatigue，mentalexhaustion，theinnumerablepainsandanxietiesinseparablefromeveryconditionoflife，bywhichthemindofmanisincessantlytormented;
　　thesearetoofatalproofsthatthegreaterpartofourillsareofourownmaking，andthatwemighthaveavoidedthemnearlyallbyadheringtothatsimple，uniformandsolitarymanneroflifewhichnatureprescribed。
　　Ifshedestinedmantobehealthy，Iventuretodeclarethatastateofreflectionisastatecontrarytonature，andthatathinkingmanisadepravedanimal。Whenwethinkofthegoodconstitutionofthesavages，atleastofthosewhomwehavenotruinedwithourspirituousliquors，andreflectthattheyaretroubledwithhardlyanydisorders，savewoundsandoldage，wearetemptedtobelievethat，infollowingthehistoryofcivilsociety，weshallbetellingalsothatofhumansickness。Such，atleast，wastheopinionofPlato，whoinferredfromcertainremediesprescribed，orapproved，byPodaliriusandMachaonatthesiegeofTroy，thatseveralsicknesseswhichtheseremediesgaverisetoinhistime，werenotthenknowntomankind：andCelsustellsusthatdiet，whichisnowsonecessary，wasfirstinventedbyHippocrates。
　　Beingsubjectthereforetosofewcausesofsickness，man，inthestateofnature，canhavenoneedofremedies，andstilllessofphysicians：
　　noristhehumanraceinthisrespectworseoffthanotheranimals，anditiseasytolearnfromhunterswhethertheymeetwithmanyinfirmanimalsinthecourseofthechase。Itiscertaintheyfrequentlymeetwithsuchascarrythemarksofhavingbeenconsiderablywounded，withmanythathavehadbonesorevenlimbsbroken，yethavebeenhealedwithoutanyothersurgicalassistancethanthatoftime，oranyotherregimenthanthatoftheirordinarylife。Atthesametimetheircuresseemnottohavebeenlessperfect，fortheirnothavingbeentorturedbyincisions，poisonedwithdrugs，orwastedbyfasting。Inshort，howeverusefulmedicine，properlyadministered，maybeamongus，itiscertainthat，ifthesavage，whenheissickandlefttohimself，hasnothingtohopebutfromnature，hehas，ontheotherhand，nothingtofearbutfromhisdisease;whichrendershissituationoftenpreferabletoourown。
　　Weshouldbeware，therefore，ofconfoundingthesavagemanwiththemenwehavedailybeforeoureyes。Naturetreatsalltheanimalslefttohercarewithapredilectionthatseemstoshowhowjealoussheisofthatright。Thehorse，thecat，thebull，andeventheassaregenerallyofgreaterstature，andalwaysmorerobust，andhavemorevigour，strengthandcourage，whentheyrunwildintheforeststhanwhenbredinthestall。
　　Bybecomingdomesticated，theylosehalftheseadvantages;anditseemsasifallourcaretofeedandtreatthemwellservesonlytodepravethem。
　　Itisthuswithmanalso：ashebecomessociableandaslave，hegrowsweak，timidandservile;hiseffeminatewayoflifetotallyenervateshisstrengthandcourage。Tothisitmaybeaddedthatthereisstillagreaterdifferencebetweensavageandcivilisedman，thanbetweenwildandtamebeasts：formenandbruteshavingbeentreatedalikebynature，theseveralconveniencesinwhichmenindulgethemselvesstillmorethantheydotheirbeasts，aresomanyadditionalcausesoftheirdeeperdegeneracy。
　　Itisnotthereforesogreatamisfortunetotheseprimitivemen，norsogreatanobstacletotheirpreservation，thattheygonaked，havenodwellingsandlackallthesuperfluitieswhichwethinksonecessary。Iftheirskinsarenotcoveredwithhair，theyhavenoneedofsuchcoveringinwarmclimates;and，incoldcountries，theysoonlearntoappropriatetheskinsofthebeaststheyhaveovercome。Iftheyhavebuttwolegstorunwith，theyhavetwoarmstodefendthemselveswith，andprovidefortheirwants。Theirchildrenareslowlyandwithdifficultytaughttowalk;
　　buttheirmothersareabletocarrythemwithease;anadvantagewhichotheranimalslack，asthemother，ifpursued，isforcedeithertoabandonheryoung，ortoregulateherpacebytheirs。Unless，inshort，wesupposeasingularandfortuitousconcurrenceofcircumstancesofwhichIshallspeaklater，andwhichwouldbeunlikelytoexist，itisplainineverystateofthecase，thatthemanwhofirstmadehimselfclothesoradwellingwasfurnishinghimselfwiththingsnotatallnecessary;forhehadtillthendonewithoutthem，andthereisnoreasonwhyheshouldnothavebeenabletoputupinmanhoodwiththesamekindoflifeashadbeenhisininfancy。
　　Solitary，indolent，andperpetuallyaccompaniedbydanger，thesavagecannotbutbefondofsleep;hissleeptoomustbelight，likethatoftheanimals，whichthinkbutlittleandmaybesaidtoslumberallthetimetheydonotthink。Self-preservationbeinghischiefandalmostsoleconcern，hemustexercisemostthosefacultieswhicharemostconcernedwithattackordefence，eitherforovercominghisprey，orforpreventinghimfrombecomingthepreyofotheranimals。Ontheotherhand，thoseorganswhichareperfectedonlybysoftnessandsensualitywillremaininagrossandimperfectstate，incompatiblewithanysortofdelicacy;sothat，hissensesbeingdividedonthishead，histouchandtastewillbeextremelycoarse，hissight，hearingandsmellexceedinglyfineandsubtle。Suchingeneralistheanimalcondition，andsuch，accordingtothenarrativesoftravellers，isthatofmostsavagenations。ItisthereforenomatterforsurprisethattheHottentotsoftheCapeofGoodHopedistinguishshipsatsea，withthenakedeye，atasgreatadistanceastheDutchcandowiththeirtelescopes;orthatthesavagesofAmericashouldtracetheSpaniards，bytheirsmell，aswellasthebestdogscouldhavedone;orthatthesebarbarouspeoplesfeelnopainingoingnaked，orthattheyuselargequantitiesofpiementowiththeirfood，anddrinkthestrongestEuropeanliquorslikewater。
　　HithertoIhaveconsideredmerelythephysicalman;letusnowtakeaviewofhimonhismetaphysicalandmoralside。
　　Iseenothinginanyanimalbutaningeniousmachine，towhichnaturehathgivensensestowinditselfup，andtoguarditself，toacertaindegree，againstanythingthatmighttendtodisorderordestroyit。Iperceiveexactlythesamethingsinthehumanmachine，withthisdifference，thatintheoperationsofthebrute，natureisthesoleagent，whereasmanhassomeshareinhisownoperations，inhischaracterasafreeagent。Theonechoosesandrefusesbyinstinct，theotherfromanactoffree-will：
　　hencethebrutecannotdeviatefromtheruleprescribedtoit，evenwhenitwouldbeadvantageousforittodoso;and，onthecontrary，manfrequentlydeviatesfromsuchrulestohisownprejudice。Thusapigeonwouldbestarvedtodeathbythesideofadishofthechoicestmeats，andacatonaheapoffruitorgrain;thoughitiscertainthateithermightfindnourishmentinthefoodswhichitthusrejectswithdisdain，diditthinkoftryingthem。Henceitisthatdissolutemenrunintoexcesseswhichbringonfeversanddeath;becausetheminddepravesthesenses，andthewillcontinuestospeakwhennatureissilent。
　　Everyanimalhasideas，sinceithassenses;itevencombinesthoseideasinacertaindegree;anditisonlyindegreethatmandiffers，inthisrespect，fromthebrute。Somephilosophershaveevenmaintainedthatthereisagreaterdifferencebetweenonemanandanotherthanbetweensomemenandsomebeasts。Itisnot，therefore，somuchtheunderstandingthatconstitutesthespecificdifferencebetweenthemanandthebrute，asthehumanqualityoffree-agency。Naturelayshercommandsoneveryanimal，andthebruteobeyshervoice。Manreceivesthesameimpulsion，butatthesametimeknowshimselfatlibertytoacquiesceorresist：anditisparticularlyinhisconsciousnessofthislibertythatthespiritualityofhissoulisdisplayed。Forphysicsmayexplain，insomemeasure，themechanismofthesensesandtheformationofideas;butinthepowerofwillingorratherofchoosing，andinthefeelingofthispower，nothingistobefoundbutactswhicharepurelyspiritualandwhollyinexplicablebythelawsofmechanism。
　　However，evenifthedifficultiesattendingallthesequestionsshouldstillleaveroomfordifferenceinthisrespectbetweenmenandbrutes，thereisanotherveryspecificqualitywhichdistinguishesthem，andwhichwilladmitofnodispute。Thisisthefacultyofself-improvement，which，bythehelpofcircumstances，graduallydevelopsalltherestofourfaculties，andisinherentinthespeciesasintheindividual：whereasabruteis，attheendofafewmonths，allhewilleverbeduringhiswholelife，andhisspecies，attheendofathousandyears，exactlywhatitwasthefirstyearofthatthousand。Whyismanaloneliabletogrowintoadotard？Isitnotbecausehereturns，inthis，tohisprimitivestate;andthat，whilethebrute，whichhasacquirednothingandhasthereforenothingtolose，stillretainstheforceofinstinct，man，wholoses，byageoraccident，allthathisperfectibilityhadenabledhimtogain，fallsbythismeanslowerthanthebrutesthemselves？Itwouldbemelancholy，wereweforcedtoadmitthatthisdistinctiveandalmostunlimitedfacultyisthesourceofallhumanmisfortunes;thatitisthiswhich，intime，drawsmanoutofhisoriginalstate，inwhichhewouldhavespenthisdaysinsensiblyinpeaceandinnocence;thatitisthisfaculty，which，successivelyproducingindifferentageshisdiscoveriesandhiserrors，hisvicesandhisvirtues，makeshimatlengthatyrantbothoverhimselfandovernature。1ItwouldbeshockingtobeobligedtoregardasabenefactorthemanwhofirstsuggestedtotheOroonokoIndianstheuseoftheboardstheyapplytothetemplesoftheirchildren，whichsecuretothemsomepartatleastoftheirimbecilityandoriginalhappiness。
　　Savageman，leftbynaturesolelytothedirectionofinstinct，orratherindemnifiedforwhathemaylackbyfacultiescapableatfirstofsupplyingitsplace，andafterwardsofraisinghimmuchaboveit，mustaccordinglybeginwithpurelyanimalfunctions：thusseeingandfeelingmustbehisfirstcondition，whichwouldbecommontohimandallotheranimals。Towill，andnottowill，todesireandtofear，mustbethefirst，andalmosttheonlyoperationsofhissoul，tillnewcircumstancesoccasionnewdevelopmentsofhisfaculties。
　　Whatevermoralistsmayhold，thehumanunderstandingisgreatlyindebtedtothepassions，which，itisuniversallyallowed，arealsomuchindebtedtotheunderstanding。Itisbytheactivityofthepassionsthatourreasonisimproved;forwedesireknowledgeonlybecausewewishtoenjoy;anditisimpossibletoconceiveanyreasonwhyapersonwhohasneitherfearsnordesiresshouldgivehimselfthetroubleofreasoning。Thepassions，again，originateinourwants，andtheirprogressdependsonthatofourknowledge;forwecannotdesireorfearanything，exceptfromtheideawehaveofit，orfromthesimpleimpulseofnature。Nowsavageman，beingdestituteofeveryspeciesofintelligence，canhavenopassionssavethoseofthelatterkind：hisdesiresnevergobeyondhisphysicalwants。Theonlygoodsherecognisesintheuniversearefood，afemale，andsleep：
　　theonlyevilshefearsarepainandhunger。Isaypain，andnotdeath：
　　fornoanimalcanknowwhatitistodie;theknowledgeofdeathanditsterrorsbeingoneofthefirstacquisitionsmadebymanindepartingfromananimalstate。
　　Itwouldbeeasy，wereitnecessary，tosupportthisopinionbyfacts，andtoshowthat，inallthenationsoftheworld，theprogressoftheunderstandinghasbeenexactlyproportionatetothewantswhichthepeopleshadreceivedfromnature，orbeensubjectedtobycircumstances，andinconsequencetothepassionsthatinducedthemtoprovideforthosenecessities。
　　Imightinstancethearts，risingupinEgyptandexpandingwiththeinundationoftheNile。ImightfollowtheirprogressintoGreece，wheretheytookrootafresh，grewupandloweredtotheskies，amongtherocksandsandsofAttica，withoutbeingabletogerminateonthefertilebanksoftheEurotas：Imightobservethatingeneral，thepeopleoftheNortharemoreindustriousthanthoseoftheSouth，becausetheycannotgetonsowellwithoutbeingso：asifnaturewantedtoequalisemattersbygivingtheirunderstandingsthefertilityshehadrefusedtotheirsoil。
　　Butwhodoesnotsee，withoutrecurringtotheuncertaintestimonyofhistory，thateverythingseemstoremovefromsavagemanboththetemptationandthemeansofchanginghiscondition？Hisimaginationpaintsnopictures;
　　hisheartmakesnodemandsonhim。Hisfewwantsaresoreadilysupplied，andheissofarfromhavingtheknowledgewhichisneedfultomakehimwantmore，thathecanhaveneitherforesightnorcuriosity。Thefaceofnaturebecomesindifferenttohimasitgrowsfamiliar。Heseesinitalwaysthesameorder，thesamesuccessions：hehasnotunderstandingenoughtowonderatthegreatestmiracles;norisitinhismindthatwecanexpecttofindthatphilosophymanneeds，ifheistoknowhowtonoticeforoncewhatheseeseveryday。Hissoul，whichnothingdisturbs，iswhollywrappedupinthefeelingofitspresentexistence，withoutanyideaofthefuture，howevernearathand;whilehisprojects，aslimitedashisviews，hardlyextendtothecloseofday。Such，evenatpresent，istheextentofthenativeCaribbean’sforesight：hewillimprovidentlysellyouhiscotton-bedinthemorning，andcomecryingintheeveningtobuyitagain，nothavingforeseenhewouldwantitagainthenextnight。
　　Themorewereflectonthissubject，thegreaterappearsthedistancebetweenpuresensationandthemostsimpleknowledge：itisimpossibleindeedtoconceivehowaman，byhisownpowersalone，withouttheaidofcommunicationandthespurofnecessity，couldhavebridgedsogreatagap。Howmanyagesmayhaveelapsedbeforemankindwereinapositiontobeholdanyotherfirethanthatoftheheavens。Whatamultiplicityofchancesmusthavehappenedtoteachthemthecommonestusesofthatelement！Howoftenmusttheyhaveletitoutbeforetheyacquiredtheartofreproducingit？andhowoftenmaynotsuchasecrethavediedwithhimwhohaddiscoveredit？Whatshallwesayofagriculture，anartwhichrequiressomuchlabourandforesight，whichissodependentonothersthatitisplainitcouldonlybepractisedinasocietywhichhadatleastbegun，andwhichdoesnotservesomuchtodrawthemeansofsubsistencefromtheearth？fortheseitwouldproduceofitself？buttocompelittoproducewhatismosttoourtaste？Butletussupposethatmenhadsomultipliedthatthenaturalproduceoftheearthwasnolongersufficientfortheirsupport;asupposition，bytheway，whichwouldprovesuchalifetobeveryadvantageousforthehumanrace;letussupposethat，withoutforgesorworkshops，theinstrumentsofhusbandryhaddroppedfromtheskyintothehandsofsavages;thattheyhadovercometheirnaturalaversiontocontinuallabour;thattheyhadlearntsomuchforesightfortheirneeds;
　　thattheyhaddivinedhowtocultivatetheearth，tosowgrainandplanttrees;thattheyhaddiscoveredtheartsofgrindingcorn，andofsettingthegrapetoferment？allbeingthingsthatmusthavebeentaughtthembythegods，sinceitisnottobeconceivedhowtheycoulddiscoverthemforthemselves？yetafterallthis，whatmanamongthemwouldbesoabsurdastotakethetroubleofcultivatingafield，whichmightbestrippedofitscropbythefirstcomer，manorbeast，thatmighttakealikingtoit;andhowshouldeachofthemresolvetopasshislifeinwearisomelabour，when，themorenecessarytohimtherewardofhislabourmightbe，thesurerhewouldbeofnotgettingit？Inaword，howcouldsuchasituationinducementocultivatetheearth，tillitwasregularlyparcelledoutamongthem;thatistosay，tillthestateofnaturehadbeenabolished？
　　Werewetosupposesavagemanastrainedintheartofthinkingasphilosophersmakehim;werewe，likethem，tosupposehimaveryphilosophercapableofinvestigatingthesublimesttruths，andofforming，byhighlyabstractchainsofreasoning，maximsofreasonandjustice，deducedfromtheloveoforderingeneral，ortheknownwillofhisCreator;inaword，werewetosupposehimasintelligentandenlightened，ashemusthavebeen，andisinfactfoundtohavebeen，dullandstupid，whatadvantagewouldaccruetothespecies，fromallsuchmetaphysics，whichcouldnotbecommunicatedbyonetoanother，butmustendwithhimwhomadethem？Whatprogresscouldbemadebymankind，whiledispersedinthewoodsamongotheranimals？andhowfarcouldmenimproveormutuallyenlightenoneanother，when，havingnofixedhabitation，andnoneedofoneanother’sassistance，thesamepersonshardlymettwiceintheirlives，andperhapsthen，withoutknowingoneanotherorspeakingtogether？
　　Letitbeconsideredhowmanyideasweowetotheuseofspeech;howfargrammarexercisestheunderstandingandfacilitatesitsoperations。
　　Letusreflectontheinconceivablepainsandtheinfinitespaceoftimethatthefirstinventionoflanguagesmusthavecost。Tothesereflectionsaddwhatpreceded，andthenjudgehowmanythousandagesmusthaveelapsedinthesuccessivedevelopmentinthehumanmindofthoseoperationsofwhichitiscapable。
　　Ishallheretakethelibertyforamoment，ofconsideringthedifficultiesoftheoriginoflanguages，onwhichsubjectImightcontentmyselfwithasimplerepetitionoftheAbbéCondillac’sinvestigations，astheyfullyconfirmmysystem，andperhapsevenfirstsuggestedit。Butitisplain，fromthemannerinwhichthisphilosophersolvesthedifficultieshehimselfraises，concerningtheoriginofarbitrarysigns，thatheassumeswhatIquestion，viz。，thatakindofsocietymustalreadyhaveexistedamongthefirstinventorsoflanguage。WhileIrefer，therefore，tohisobservationsonthishead，Ithinkitrighttogivemyown，inordertoexhibitthesamedifficultiesinalightadaptedtomysubject。Thefirstwhichpresentsitselfistoconceivehowlanguagecanhavebecomenecessary;
　　forastherewasnocommunicationamongmenandnoneedforany，wecanneitherconceivethenecessityofthisinvention，northepossibilityofit，ifitwasnotsomehowindispensable。Imightaffirm，withmanyothers，thatlanguagesaroseinthedomesticintercoursebetweenparentsandtheirchildren。Butthisexpedientwouldnotobviatethedifficulty，andwouldbesidesinvolvetheblundermadebythosewho，inreasoningonthestateofnature，alwaysimportintoitideasgatheredinastateofsociety。
　　Thustheyconstantlyconsiderfamiliesaslivingtogetherunderoneroof，andtheindividualsofeachasobservingamongthemselvesaunionasintimateandpermanentasthatwhichexistsamongus，wheresomanycommoninterestsunitethem：whereas，inthisprimitivestate，menhadneitherhouses，norhuts，noranykindofpropertywhatever;everyonelivedwherehecould，seldomformorethanasinglenight;thesexesunitedwithoutdesign，asaccident，opportunityorinclinationbroughtthemtogether，norhadtheyanygreatneedofwordstocommunicatetheirdesignstoeachother;andtheypartedwiththesameindifference。Themothergavesucktoherchildrenatfirstforherownsake;andafterwards，whenhabithadmadethemdear，fortheirs：butassoonastheywerestrongenoughtogoinsearchoftheirownfood，theyforsookheroftheirownaccord;and，astheyhadhardlyanyothermethodofnotlosingoneanotherthanthatofremainingcontinuallywithinsight，theysoonbecamequiteincapableofrecognisingoneanotherwhentheyhappenedtomeetagain。Itisfarthertobeobservedthatthechild，havingallhiswantstoexplain，andofcoursemoretosaytohismotherthanthemothercouldhavetosaytohim，musthavebornethebruntofthetaskofinvention，andthelanguageheusedwouldbeofhisowndevice，sothatthenumberoflanguageswouldbeequaltothatoftheindividualsspeakingthem，andthevarietywouldbeincreasedbythevagabondandrovinglifetheyled，whichwouldnotgivetimeforanyidiomtobecomeconstant。
　　Fortosaythatthemotherdictatedtoherchildthewordshewastouseinaskingherforonethingoranother，isanexplanationofhowlanguagesalreadyformedaretaught，butbynomeansexplainshowlanguageswereoriginallyformed。
　　Wewillsuppose，however，thatthisfirstdifficultyisobviated。Letusforamomentthentakeourselvesasbeingonthissideofthevastspacewhichmustliebetweenapurestateofnatureandthatinwhichlanguageshadbecomenecessary，and，admittingtheirnecessity，letusinquirehowtheycouldfirstbeestablished。Herewehaveanewandworsedifficultytograpplewith;forifmenneedspeechtolearntothink，theymusthavestoodinmuchgreaterneedoftheartofthinking，tobeabletoinventthatofspeaking。Andthoughwemightconceivehowthearticulatesoundsofthevoicecametobetakenastheconventionalinterpretersofourideas，itwouldstillremainforustoinquirewhatcouldhavebeentheinterpretersofthisconventionforthoseideas，which，answeringtonosensibleobjects，couldnotbeindicatedeitherbygestureorvoice;sothatwecanhardlyformanytolerableconjecturesabouttheoriginofthisartofcommunicatingourthoughtsandestablishingacorrespondencebetweenminds：anartsosublime，thatfardistantasitisfromitsorigin，philosophersstillbeholditatsuchanimmeasurabledistancefromperfection，thatthereisnonerashenoughtoaffirmitwilleverreachit，eventhoughtherevolutionstimenecessarilyproducesweresuspendedinitsfavour，thoughprejudiceshouldbebanishedfromouracademiesorcondemnedtosilence，andthoselearnedsocietiesshoulddevotethemselvesuninterruptedlyforwholeagestothisthornyquestion。
　　Thefirstlanguageofmankind，themostuniversalandvivid，inawordtheonlylanguagemanneeded，beforehehadoccasiontoexerthiseloquencetopersuadeassembledmultitudes，wasthesimplecryofnature。Butasthiswasexcitedonlybyasortofinstinctonurgentoccasions，toimploreassistanceincaseofdanger，orreliefincaseofsuffering，itcouldbeoflittleuseintheordinarycourseoflife，inwhichmoremoderatefeelingsprevail。Whentheideasofmenbegantoexpandandmultiply，andclosercommunicationtookplaceamongthem，theystrovetoinventmorenumeroussignsandamorecopiouslanguage。Theymultipliedtheinflectionsofthevoice，andaddedgestures，whichareintheirownnaturemoreexpressive，anddependlessfortheirmeaningonapriordetermination。Visibleandmovableobjectswerethereforeexpressedbygestures，andaudibleonesbyimitativesounds：but，ashardlyanythingcanbeindicatedbygestures，exceptobjectsactuallypresentoreasilydescribed，andvisibleactions;
　　astheyarenotuniversallyuseful？fordarknessortheinterpositionofamaterialobjectdestroystheirefficacy？andasbesidestheyratherrequestthansecureourattention;menatlengthbethoughtthemselvesofsubstitutingforthemthearticulatesoundsofthevoice，which，withoutbearingthesamerelationtoanyparticularideas，arebettercalculatedtoexpressthemall，asconventionalsigns。Suchaninstitutioncouldonlybemadebycommonconsent，andmusthavebeeneffectedinamannernotveryeasyformenwhosegrossorganshadnotbeenaccustomedtoanysuchexercise。Itisalsoinitselfstillmoredifficulttoconceive，sincesuchacommonagreementmusthavehadmotives，andspeechseemstohavebeenhighlynecessarytoestablishtheuseofit。
　　Itisreasonabletosupposethatthewordsfirstmadeuseofbymankindhadamuchmoreextensivesignificationthanthoseusedinlanguagesalreadyformed，andthatignorantastheywereofthedivisionofdiscourseintoitsconstituentparts，theyatfirstgaveeverysinglewordthesenseofawholeproposition。Whentheybegantodistinguishsubjectandattribute，andnounandverb，whichwasitselfnocommoneffortofgenius，substantiveswerefirstonlysomanypropernames;thepresentinfinitivewastheonlytenseofverbs;andtheveryideaofadjectivesmusthavebeendevelopedwithgreatdifficulty;foreveryadjectiveisanabstractidea，andabstractionsarepainfulandunnaturaloperations。
　　Everyobjectatfirstreceivedaparticularnamewithoutregardtogenusorspecies，whichtheseprimitiveoriginatorswerenotinapositiontodistinguish;everyindividualpresenteditselftotheirmindsinisolation，astheyareinthepictureofnature。IfoneoakwascalledA，anotherwascalledB;fortheprimitiveideaoftwothingsisthattheyarenotthesame，anditoftentakesalongtimeforwhattheyhaveincommontobeseen：sothat，thenarrowerthelimitsoftheirknowledgeofthings，themorecopioustheirdictionarymusthavebeen。Thedifficultyofusingsuchavocabularycouldnotbeeasilyremoved;for，toarrangebeingsundercommonandgenericdenominations，itbecamenecessarytoknowtheirdistinguishingproperties：theneedaroseforobservationanddefinition，thatistosay，fornaturalhistoryandmetaphysicsofafarmoredevelopedkindthanmencanatthattimehavepossessed。
　　Addtothis，thatgeneralideascannotbeintroducedintothemindwithouttheassistanceofwords，norcantheunderstandingseizethemexceptbymeansofpropositions。Thisisoneofthereasonswhyanimalscannotformsuchideas，oreveracquirethatcapacityforself-improvementwhichdependsonthem。Whenamonkeygoesfromonenuttoanother，arewetoconceivethatheentertainsanygeneralideaofthatkindoffruit，andcomparesitsarchetypewiththetwoindividualnuts？Assuredlyhedoesnot;butthesightofoneofthesenutsrecallstohismemorythesensationswhichhereceivedfromtheother，andhiseyes，beingmodifiedafteracertainmanner，giveinformationtothepalateofthemodificationitisabouttoreceive。Everygeneralideaispurelyintellectual;iftheimaginationmeddleswithiteversolittle，theideaimmediatelybecomesparticular。
　　Ifyouendeavourtotraceinyourmindtheimageofatreeingeneral，youneverattaintoyourend。Inspiteofallyoucando，youwillhavetoseeitasgreatorlittle，bareorleafy，lightordark，andwereyoucapableofseeingnothinginitbutwhatiscommontoalltrees，itwouldnolongerbelikeatreeatall。Purelyabstractbeingsareperceivableinthesamemanner，orareonlyconceivablebythehelpoflanguage。Thedefinitionofatrianglealonegivesyouatrueideaofit：themomentyouimagineatriangleinyourmind，itissomeparticulartriangleandnotanother，andyoucannotavoidgivingitsensiblelinesandacolouredarea。Wemustthenmakeuseofpropositionsandoflanguageinordertoformgeneralideas。Fornosoonerdoestheimaginationceasetooperatethantheunderstandingproceedsonlybythehelpofwords。Ifthenthefirstinventorsofspeechcouldgivenamesonlytoideastheyalreadyhad，itfollowsthatthefirstsubstantivescouldbenothingmorethanpropernames。
　　Butwhenournewgrammarians，bymeansofwhichIhavenoconception，begantoextendtheirideasandgeneralisetheirterms，theignoranceoftheinventorsmusthaveconfinedthismethodwithinverynarrowlimits;
　　and，astheyhadatfirstgonetoofarinmultiplyingthenamesofindividuals，fromignoranceoftheirgenusandspecies，theymadeafterwardstoofewofthese，fromnothavingconsideredbeingsinalltheirspecificdifferences。
　　Itwouldindeedhaveneededmoreknowledgeandexperiencethantheycouldhave，andmorepainsandinquirythantheywouldhavebestowed，tocarrythesedistinctionstotheirproperlength。If，evento-day，wearecontinuallydiscoveringnewspecies，whichhavehithertoescapedobservation，letusreflecthowmanyofthemmusthaveescapedmenwhojudgedthingsmerelyfromtheirfirstappearance！Itissuperfluoustoaddthattheprimitiveclassesandthemostgeneralnotionsmustnecessarilyhaveescapedtheirnoticealso。How，forinstance，couldtheyhaveunderstoodorthoughtofthewordsmatter，spirit，substance，mode，figure，motion，whenevenourphilosophers，whohavesolongbeenmakinguseofthem，havethemselvesthegreatestdifficultyinunderstandingthem;andwhen，theideasattachedtothembeingpurelymetaphysical，therearenomodelsofthemtobefoundinnature？
　　ButIstopatthispoint，andaskmyjudgestosuspendtheirreadingawhile，toconsider，aftertheinventionofphysicalsubstantives，whichistheeasiestpartoflanguagetoinvent，thatthereisstillagreatwaytogo，beforethethoughtsofmenwillhavefoundperfectexpressionandconstantform，suchaswouldanswerthepurposesofpublicspeaking，andproducetheireffectonsociety。Ibegofthemtoconsiderhowmuchtimemusthavebeenspent，andhowmuchknowledgeneeded，tofindoutnumbers，abstractterms，aoristsandallthetensesofverbs，particles，syntax，themethodofconnectingpropositions，theformsofreasoning，andallthelogicofspeech。Formyself，Iamsoaghastattheincreasingdifficultieswhichpresentthemselves，andsowellconvincedofthealmostdemonstrableimpossibilitythatlanguagesshouldowetheiroriginalinstitutiontomerelyhumanmeans，thatIleave，toanyonewhowillundertakeit，thediscussionofthedifficultproblem，whichwasmostnecessary，theexistenceofsocietytotheinventionoflanguage，ortheinventionoflanguagetotheestablishmentofsociety。Butbetheoriginoflanguageandsocietywhattheymay，itmaybeatleastinferred，fromthelittlecarewhichnaturehastakentounitemankindbymutualwants，andtofacilitatetheuseofspeech，thatshehascontributedlittletomakethemsociable，andhasputlittleofherownintoalltheyhavedonetocreatesuchbondsofunion。Itisinfactimpossibletoconceivewhy，inastateofnature，onemanshouldstandmoreinneedoftheassistanceofanother，thanamonkeyorawolfoftheassistanceofanotherofitskind：or，grantingthathedid，whatmotivescouldinducethatothertoassisthim;or，eventhen，bywhatmeanstheycouldagreeabouttheconditions。Iknowitisincessantlyrepeatedthatmanwouldinsuchastatehavebeenthemostmiserableofcreatures;andindeed，ifitbetrue，asIthinkIhaveproved，thathemusthavelivedmanyages，beforehecouldhaveeitherdesireoranopportunityofemergingfromit，thiswouldonlybeanaccusationagainstnature，andnotagainstthebeingwhichshehadthusunhappilyconstituted。ButasIunderstandthewordmiserable，iteitherhasnomeaningatall，orelsesignifiesonlyapainfulprivationofsomething，orastateofsufferingeitherinbodyorsoul。Ishouldbegladtohaveexplainedtome，whatkindofmiseryafreebeing，whoseheartisateaseandwhosebodyisinhealth，canpossiblysuffer。Iwouldaskalso，whetherasocialoranaturallifeismostlikelytobecomeinsupportabletothosewhoenjoyit。Weseearoundushardlyacreatureincivilsociety，whodoesnotlamenthisexistence：weevenseemanydeprivethemselvesofasmuchofitastheycan，andlawshumananddivinetogethercanhardlyputastoptothedisorder。Iask，ifitwaseverknownthatasavagetookitintohishead，whenatliberty，tocomplainoflifeortomakeawaywithhimself。Letusthereforejudge，withlessvanity，onwhichsidetherealmiseryisfound。Ontheotherhand，nothingcouldbemoreunhappythansavageman，dazzledbyscience，tormentedbyhispassions，andreasoningaboutastatedifferentfromhisown。ItappearsthatProvidencemostwiselydeterminedthatthefaculties，whichhepotentiallypossessed，shoulddevelopthemselvesonlyasoccasionofferedtoexercisethem，inorderthattheymightnotbesuperfluousorperplexingtohim，byappearingbeforetheirtime，norslowanduselesswhentheneedforthemarose。Ininstinctalone，hehadallherequiredforlivinginthestateofnature;andwithadevelopedunderstandinghehasonlyjustenoughtosupportlifeinsociety。
　　Itappears，atfirstview，thatmeninastateofnature，havingnomoralrelationsordeterminateobligationsonewithanother，couldnotbeeithergoodorbad，virtuousorvicious;unlesswetakethesetermsinaphysicalsense，andcall，inanindividual，thosequalitiesviceswhichmaybeinjurioustohispreservation，andthosevirtueswhichcontributetoit;inwhichcase，hewouldhavetobeaccountedmostvirtuous，whoputleastcheckonthepureimpulsesofnature。Butwithoutdeviatingfromtheordinarysenseofthewords，itwillbepropertosuspendthejudgmentwemightbeledtoformonsuchastate，andbeonourguardagainstourprejudices，tillwehaveweighedthematterinthescalesofimpartiality，andseenwhethervirtuesorvicespreponderateamongcivilisedmen;andwhethertheirvirtuesdothemmoregoodthantheirvicesdoharm;tillwehavediscovered，whethertheprogressofthesciencessufficientlyindemnifiesthemforthemischiefstheydooneanother，inproportionastheyarebetterinformedofthegoodtheyoughttodo;orwhethertheywouldnotbe，onthewhole，inamuchhappierconditioniftheyhadnothingtofearortohopefromanyone，thanastheyare，subjectedtouniversaldependence，andobligedtotakeeverythingfromthosewhoengagetogivethemnothinginreturn。
　　Aboveall，letusnotconclude，withHobbes，thatbecausemanhasnoideaofgoodness，hemustbenaturallywicked;thatheisviciousbecausehedoesnotknowvirtue;thathealwaysrefusestodohisfellow-creaturesserviceswhichhedoesnotthinktheyhavearighttodemand;orthatbyvirtueoftherighthetrulyclaimstoeverythingheneeds，hefoolishlyimagineshimselfthesoleproprietorofthewholeuniverse。Hobbeshadseenclearlythedefectsofallthemoderndefinitionsofnaturalright：
　　buttheconsequenceswhichhededucesfromhisownshowthatheunderstandsitinanequallyfalsesense。Inreasoningontheprincipleshelaysdown，heoughttohavesaidthatthestateofnature，beingthatinwhichthecareforourownpreservationistheleastprejudicialtothatofothers，wasconsequentlythebestcalculatedtopromotepeace，andthemostsuitableformankind。Hedoessaytheexactopposite，inconsequenceofhavingimproperlyadmitted，asapartofsavageman’scareforself-preservation，thegratificationofamultitudeofpassionswhicharetheworkofsociety，andhavemadelawsnecessary。Abadman，hesays，isarobustchild。Butitremainstobeprovedwhethermaninastateofnatureisthisrobustchild：and，shouldwegrantthatheis，whatwouldheinfer？Whytruly，thatifthisman，whenrobustandstrong，weredependentonothersasheiswhenfeeble，thereisnoextravagancehewouldnotbeguiltyof;thathewouldbeathismotherwhenshewastooslowingivinghimherbreast;thathewouldstrangleoneofhisyoungerbrothers，ifheshouldbetroublesometohim，orbitethearmofanother，ifheputhimtoanyinconvenience。Butthatmaninthestateofnatureisbothstronganddependentinvolvestwocontrarysuppositions。Manisweakwhenheisdependent，andishisownmasterbeforehecomestobestrong。Hobbesdidnotreflectthatthesamecause，whichpreventsasavagefrommakinguseofhisreason，asourjuristshold，preventshimalsofromabusinghisfaculties，asHobbeshimselfallows：sothatitmaybejustlysaidthatsavagesarenotbadmerelybecausetheydonotknowwhatitistobegood：foritisneitherthedevelopmentoftheunderstandingnortherestraintoflawthathindersthemfromdoingill;butthepeacefulnessoftheirpassions，andtheirignoranceofvice：tantoplusinillisproficitvitiorumignoratio，quaminhiscognitiovirtutis。2
　　ThereisanotherprinciplewhichhasescapedHobbes;which，havingbeenbestowedonmankind，tomoderate，oncertainoccasions，theimpetuosityofegoism，or，beforeitsbirth，thedesireofself-preservation，temperstheardourwithwhichhepursueshisownwelfare，byaninnaterepugnanceatseeingafellow-creaturesuffer。3IthinkIneednotfearcontradictioninholdingmantobepossessedoftheonlynaturalvirtue，whichcouldnotbedeniedhimbythemostviolentdetractorofhumanvirtue。Iamspeakingofcompassion，whichisadispositionsuitabletocreaturessoweakandsubjecttosomanyevilsaswecertainlyare：bysomuchthemoreuniversalandusefultomankind，asitcomesbeforeanykindofreflection;andatthesametimesonatural，thattheverybrutesthemselvessometimesgiveevidentproofsofit。Nottomentionthetendernessofmothersfortheiroffspringandtheperilstheyencountertosavethemfromdanger，itiswellknownthathorsesshowareluctancetotrampleonlivingbodies。Oneanimalneverpassesbythedeadbodyofanotherofitsspecies：thereareevensomewhichgivetheirfellowsasortofburial;whilethemournfullowingsofthecattlewhentheyentertheslaughter-houseshowtheimpressionsmadeonthembythehorriblespectaclewhichmeetsthem。Wefind，withpleasure，theauthoroftheFableoftheBeesobligedtoownthatmanisacompassionateandsensiblebeing，andlayingasidehiscoldsubtletyofstyle，intheexamplehegives，topresentuswiththepatheticdescriptionofamanwho，fromaplaceofconfinement，iscompelledtobeholdawildbeasttearachildfromthearmsofitsmother，grindingitstenderlimbswithitsmurderousteeth，andtearingitspalpitatingentrailswithitsclaws。Whathorridagitationmustnottheeyewitnessofsuchasceneexperience，althoughhewouldnotbepersonallyconcerned！
　　Whatanxietywouldhenotsufferatnotbeingabletogiveanyassistancetothefaintingmotherandthedyinginfant！
　　Suchisthepureemotionofnature，priortoallkindsofreflection！
　　Suchistheforceofnaturalcompassion，whichthegreatestdepravityofmoralshasasyethardlybeenabletodestroy！forwedailyfindatourtheatresmenaffected，naysheddingtearsatthesufferingsofawretchwho，wereheinthetyrant’splace，wouldprobablyevenaddtothetormentsofhisenemies;likethebloodthirstySulla，whowassosensitivetoillshehadnotcaused，orthatAlexanderofPheroswhodidnotdaretogoandseeanytragedyacted，forfearofbeingseenweepingwithAndromacheandPriam，thoughhecouldlistenwithoutemotiontothecriesofallthecitizenswhoweredailystrangledathiscommand。
　　MollissimacordaHumanogeneridaresenaturafatetur，Qu？lacrimasdedit。
　　Juvenal，Satires，xv。1514Mandevillewellknewthat，inspiteofalltheirmorality，menwouldhaveneverbeenbetterthanmonsters，hadnotnaturebestowedonthemasenseofcompassion，toaidtheirreason：buthedidnotseethatfromthisqualityaloneflowallthosesocialvirtues，ofwhichhedeniedmanthepossession。
　　Butwhatisgenerosity，clemencyorhumanitybutcompassionappliedtotheweak，totheguilty，ortomankindingeneral？Evenbenevolenceandfriendshipare，ifwejudgerightly，onlytheeffectsofcompassion，constantlysetuponaparticularobject：forhowisitdifferenttowishthatanotherpersonmaynotsufferpainanduneasinessandtowishhimhappy？Wereiteventruethatpityisnomorethanafeeling，whichputsusintheplaceofthesufferer，afeeling，obscureyetlivelyinasavage，developedyetfeebleincivilisedman;thistruthwouldhavenootherconsequencethantoconfirmmyargument。Compassionmust，infact，bethestronger，themoretheanimalbeholdinganykindofdistressidentifieshimselfwiththeanimalthatsuffers。Now，itisplainthatsuchidentificationmusthavebeenmuchmoreperfectinastateofnaturethanitisinastateofreason。Itisreasonthatengendersself-respect，andreflectionthatconfirmsit：itisreasonwhichturnsman’smindbackuponitself，anddivideshimfromeverythingthatcoulddisturborafflicthim。Itisphilosophythatisolateshim，andbidshimsay，atsightofthemisfortunesofothers：
　　"Perishifyouwill，Iamsecure。"Nothingbutsuchgeneralevilsasthreatenthewholecommunitycandisturbthetranquilsleepofthephilosopher，ortearhimfromhisbed。Amurdermaywithimpunitybecommittedunderhiswindow;hehasonlytoputhishandstohisearsandarguealittlewithhimself，topreventnature，whichisshockedwithinhim，fromidentifyingitselfwiththeunfortunatesufferer。Uncivilisedmanhasnotthisadmirabletalent;andforwantofreasonandwisdom，isalwaysfoolishlyreadytoobeythefirstpromptingsofhumanity。Itisthepopulacethatflockstogetheratriotsandstreet-brawls，whilethewisemanprudentlymakesoff。Itisthemobandthemarket-women，whopartthecombatants，andhindergentle-folksfromcuttingoneanother’sthroats。
　　Itisthencertainthatcompassionisanaturalfeeling，which，bymoderatingtheviolenceofloveofselfineachindividual，contributestothepreservationofthewholespecies。Itisthiscompassionthathurriesuswithoutreflectiontothereliefofthosewhoareindistress：itisthiswhichinastateofnaturesuppliestheplaceoflaws，moralsandvirtues，withtheadvantagethatnonearetemptedtodisobeyitsgentlevoice：itisthiswhichwillalwayspreventasturdysavagefromrobbingaweakchildorafeebleoldmanofthesustenancetheymayhavewithpainanddifficultyacquired，ifheseesapossibilityofprovidingforhimselfbyothermeans：itisthiswhich，insteadofinculcatingthatsublimemaximofrationaljustice。Dotoothersasyouwouldhavethemdountoyou，inspiresallmenwiththatothermaximofnaturalgoodness，muchlessperfectindeed，butperhapsmoreuseful;Dogoodtoyourselfwithaslittleevilaspossibletoothers。Inaword，itisratherinthisnaturalfeelingthaninanysubtleargumentsthatwemustlookforthecauseofthatrepugnance，whicheverymanwouldexperienceindoingevil，evenindependentlyofthemaximsofeducation。AlthoughitmightbelongtoSocratesandothermindsofthelikecrafttoacquirevirtuebyreason，thehumanracewouldlongsincehaveceasedtobe，haditspreservationdependedonlyonthereasoningsoftheindividualscomposingit。
　　Withpassionssolittleactive，andsogoodacurb，men，beingratherwildthanwicked，andmoreintenttoguardthemselvesagainstthemischiefthatmightbedonethem，thantodomischieftoothers，werebynomeanssubjecttoveryperilousdissensions。Theymaintainednokindofintercoursewithoneanother，andwereconsequentlystrangerstovanity，deference，esteemandcontempt;theyhadnottheleastideaofmeumandtuum，andnotrueconceptionofjustice;theylookeduponeveryviolencetowhichtheyweresubjected，ratherasaninjurythatmighteasilyberepairedthanasacrimethatoughttobepunished;andtheyneverthoughtoftakingrevenge，unlessperhapsmechanicallyandonthespot，asadogwillsometimesbitethestonewhichisthrownathim。Theirquarrelsthereforewouldseldomhaveverybloodyconsequences;forthesubjectofthemwouldbemerelythequestionofsubsistence。ButIamawareofonegreaterdanger，whichremainstobenoticed。
　　Ofthepassionsthatstirtheheartofman，thereisonewhichmakesthesexesnecessarytoeachother，andisextremelyardentandimpetuous;
　　aterriblepassionthatbravesdanger，surmountsallobstacles，andinitstransportsseemscalculatedtobringdestructiononthehumanracewhichitisreallydestinedtopreserve。Whatmustbecomeofmenwhoarelefttothisbrutalandboundlessrage，withoutmodesty，withoutshame，anddailyupholdingtheiramoursatthepriceoftheirblood？
　　Itmust，inthefirstplace，beallowedthat，themoreviolentthepassionsare，themorearelawsnecessarytokeepthemunderrestraint。But，settingasidetheinadequacyoflawstoeffectthispurpose，whichisevidentfromthecrimesanddisorderstowhichthesepassionsdailygiveriseamongus，weshoulddowelltoinquireiftheseevilsdidnotspringupwiththelawsthemselves;forinthiscase，evenifthelawswerecapableofrepressingsuchevils，itistheleastthatcouldbeexpectedfromthem，thattheyshouldcheckamischiefwhichwouldnothavearisenwithoutthem。
　　Letusbeginbydistinguishingbetweenthephysicalandmoralingredientsinthefeelingoflove。Thephysicalpartofloveisthatgeneraldesirewhichurgesthesexestounionwitheachother。Themoralpartisthatwhichdeterminesandfixesthisdesireexclusivelyupononeparticularobject;oratleastgivesitagreaterdegreeofenergytowardtheobjectthuspreferred。Itiseasytoseethatthemoralpartofloveisafactitiousfeeling，bornofsocialusage，andenhancedbythewomenwithmuchcareandcleverness，toestablishtheirempire，andputinpowerthesexwhichoughttoobey。Thisfeeling，beingfoundedoncertainideasofbeautyandmeritwhichasavageisnotinapositiontoacquire，andoncomparisonswhichheisincapableofmaking，mustbeforhimalmostnon-existent;for，ashismindcannotformabstractideasofproportionandregularity，sohisheartisnotsusceptibleofthefeelingsofloveandadmiration，whichareeveninsensiblyproducedbytheapplicationoftheseideas。Hefollowssolelythecharacternaturehasimplantedinhim，andnottasteswhichhecouldneverhaveacquired;sothateverywomanequallyanswershispurpose。
　　Meninastateofnaturebeingconfinedmerelytowhatisphysicalinlove，andfortunateenoughtobeignorantofthoseexcellences，whichwhettheappetitewhiletheyincreasethedifficultyofgratifyingit，mustbesubjecttofewerandlessviolentfitsofpassion，andconsequentlyfallintofewerandlessviolentdisputes。Theimagination，whichcausessuchravagesamongus，neverspeakstotheheartofsavages，whoquietlyawaittheimpulsesofnature，yieldtotheminvoluntarily，withmorepleasurethanardour，and，theirwantsoncesatisfied，losethedesire。Itisthereforeincontestablethatlove，aswellasallotherpassions，musthaveacquiredinsocietythatglowingimpetuosity，whichmakesitsooftenfataltomankind。
　　Anditisthemoreabsurdtorepresentsavagesascontinuallycuttingoneanother’sthroatstoindulgetheirbrutality，becausethisopinionisdirectlycontrarytoexperience;theCaribbeans，whohaveasyetleastofalldeviatedfromthestateofnature，beinginfactthemostpeaceableofpeopleintheiramours，andtheleastsubjecttojealousy，thoughtheyliveinahotclimatewhichseemsalwaystoinflamethepassions。