Sothatexaminingintimetherelationofcommandstoevents，wefindthatthecommandcanneverinanycasebethecauseoftheevent，butthatacertaindefinitedependenceexistsbetweenthem。Tounderstandofwhatthisdependenceconsists，itisessentialtorestoretheothercircumstancelostsightof，aconditionaccompanyinganycommandissuingnotfromtheDeity，butfromman。Thatcircumstanceisthatthemangivingthecommandishimselftakingpartintheevent。
　　Thatrelationofthecommandingpersontothosehecommandsisindeedpreciselywhatiscalledpower。Thatrelationmaybeanalysedasfollows。
　　Forcommonaction，menalwaysuniteincertaincombinations，inwhich，inspiteofthedifferenceoftheobjectsaimedatbycommonaction，therelationbetweenthementakingapartintheactionalwaysremainsthesame。
　　Unitinginthesecombinations，menalwaysstandinsucharelationtooneanotherthatthelargestnumberofmentakeagreaterdirectshare，andasmallernumberofmenalessdirectshareinthecombinedactionforwhichtheyareunited。Ofallsuchcombinationsinwhichmenareorganisedfortheperformanceofcommonaction，oneofthemoststrikinganddefiniteexamplesisthearmy。
　　Everyarmyiscomposedofmembersoflowermilitarystanding—theprivatesoldiers，whoarealwaysthelargestproportionofthewhole，ofmembersofaslightlyhighermilitarystanding—corporalsandnon-commissionedofficers，whoarefewerinnumberthantheprivates;ofstillhigherofficers，whosenumbersareevenless;andsoon，uptothechiefmilitarycommandofall，whichisconcentratedinoneperson。
　　Themilitaryorganisationmaybewithperfectaccuracycomparedtothefigureofacone，thebaseofwhich，withthelargestdiameter，consistsofprivates;thenexthigherandsmallerplane，ofthelowerofficers;andsoonuptotheapexofthecone，whichwillbethecommander-in-chief。
　　Thesoldiers，whoarethelargestnumber，formthelowestplaneandthebaseofthecone。Thesoldierhimselfdoesthestabbingandhacking，andburningandpillaging，andalwaysreceivescommandstoperformtheseactsfromthepersonsintheplanenextabove。Hehimselfnevergivesacommand。Thenon-commissionedofficer（thesearefewerinnumber）morerarelyperformstheimmediateactthanthesoldier;buthegivescommands。Theofficernextabovehimstillmorerarelyactsdirectlyhimself，andstillmorefrequentlycommands。Thegeneraldoesnothingbutcommandthearmy，andhardlyevermakesuseofaweapon。Thecommander-in-chiefnevertakesdirectpartintheactionitself，andsimplymakesgeneralarrangementsastothemovementsofthemasses。Asimilarrelationexistsineverycombinationofpersonsforcommonaction—inagriculture，commerce，andineverydepartmentofactivity。
　　Andsowithoutartificiallyanalysingalltheconvergingplanesoftheconeandranksofthearmyorclassesorranksofanydepartmentwhatever，orpublicundertaking，fromlowertohigher，alawcomesintoexistence，bywhichmenalwayscombinetogetherfortheperformanceofcommonactioninsuchrelationthatthemoredirectlytheytakepartintheaction，thelesstheycommand，andthegreatertheirnumbers;andthelessdirecttheparttheytakeinthecommonaction，themoretheycommand，andthefewertheyareinnumber;passinginthatwayfromthelowerstratauptoasinglemanatthetop，whotakesleastdirectshareintheaction，anddevoteshisenergymorethanalltheresttogivingcommands。
　　Thisistherelationofpersonsincommandtothosewhomtheycommand，anditconstitutestheessenceoftheconceptionofwhatiscalledpower。
　　Restoringtheconditionsoftimeunderwhichalleventstakeplace，wefoundthatacommandiscarriedoutonlywhenitrelatestoacorrespondingcourseofevents。Restoringtheessentialconditionofconnectionbetweenthepersonscommandingandfulfillingthecommands，wehavefoundthatbytheirverynaturethepersonscommandingtakethesmallestpartintheactionitself，andtheirenergyisexclusivelydirectedtocommanding。
　　Chapter7
　　WHENSOMEEVENTtakesplace，menexpresstheiropinionsanddesiresinregardtotheevent，andastheeventproceedsfromthecombinedactionofmanymen，someoneoftheopinionsordesiresexpressediscertaintobeatleastapproximatelyfulfilled。Whenoneoftheopinionsexpressedisfulfilled，thatopinionisconnectedwiththeeventasthecommandprecedingit。
　　Menaredraggingalog。Everymanexpresseshisopinionastohowandwheretodragit。Themendragthelogoff;anditturnsoutthatithasbeendonejustasoneofthemadvised。Hegavethecommandthen。Thisiscommandingandpowerinitsprimitiveaspect。
　　Themanwhodidmostworkwithhisarmscouldthinkleastwhathewasdoing，reflectleastwhatmightcomeofthecommonaction，andsocommandleast。Themanwhocommandedmostcouldobviously，fromhisgreaterverbalactivity，actlessvigorouslywithhisarms。Inalargerassemblyofmen，combiningtheirenergiestooneend，theclassofthosepersonswhotakethelessdirectshareinthecommonworkthemoretheirenergyisturnedtocommand，isstillmoresharplydefined。
　　Whenamanactsalone，healwayscarrieswithinhimacertainseriesofconsiderations，thathave，ashesupposes，directedhispastconduct，andthatservetojustifytohimhispresentaction，andtoleadhimtomakeprojectsforhisfutureactivity。
　　Assembliesofmenactinthesameway，onlyleavingtothosewhodonottakedirectpartintheactiontoinventconsiderations，justifications，andprojectsconcerningtheircombinedactivity。
　　Forcauses，knownorunknowntous，theFrenchbegintochopandhackateachother。Andtomatchtheevent，itisaccompaniedbyitsjustificationintheexpressedwillsofcertainmen，whodeclareitessentialforthegoodofFrance，forthecauseoffreedom，ofequality。Menceaseslaughteringoneanother，andthateventisaccompaniedbythejustificationofthenecessityofcentralisationofpower，ofresistancetoEurope，andsoon。Menmarchfromwesttoeast，killingtheirfellow-creatures，andthiseventisaccompaniedbyphrasesaboutthegloryofFrance，thebasenessofEngland，andsoon。Historyteachesusthatthosejustificationsfortheeventaredevoidofallcommon-sense，thattheyareinconsistentwithoneanother，as，forinstance，themurderofamanasaresultofthedeclarationofhisrights，andthemurderofmillionsinRussiafortheabasementofEngland。Butthosejustificationshaveanincontestablevalueintheirownday。
　　Theyremovemoralresponsibilityfromthosemenwhoproducetheevents。Atthetimetheydotheworkofbrooms，thatgoinfronttocleartherailsforthetrain：theyclearthepathofmen’smoralresponsibility。Apartfromthosejustifications，nosolutioncouldbefoundforthemostobviousquestionthatoccurstooneatonceonexamininganyhistoricalevent;thatis，Howdidmillionsofmencometocombinetocommitcrimes，murders，wars，andsoon？
　　UndertheexistingcomplexformsofpoliticalsociallifeinEurope，cananyeventbeimaginedwhichwouldnothavebeenprescribed，decreed，commandedbysomesovereigns，ministers，parliaments，ornewspapers？Isthereanysortofcombinedactionwhichcouldnotfindjustificationinpoliticalunity，orinpatriotism，orinthebalanceofpower，orincivilisation？Sothateveryeventthatoccursinevitablycoincideswithsomeexpresseddesire，andreceivingjustification，isregardedastheresultofthewillofoneormorepersons。
　　Whicheverwaytheshipsteersitscourse，therewillalwaysbeseenaheadofittheflowofthewavesitcleaves。Tothemenintheshipthemovementofthosewaveswillbetheonlymotionperceptible。
　　Itisonlybywatchingclosely，momentbymoment，themovementofthatflow，andcomparingitwiththemovementoftheship，thatweareconvincedthateverymomentthatflowingbyofthewavesisduetotheforwardmovementoftheship，andthatwehavebeenledintoerrorbythefactthatweareourselvesmovingtoo。
　　Weseethesamething，watchingmomentbymomentthemovementofhistoricalpersonages（thatis，restoringtheinevitableconditionunderwhichallactiontakesplace—theconditionofthecontinuityofmotionintime），andnotlosingsightofthenecessaryconnectionofhistoricalfigureswiththemasses。
　　Whateverhappens，italwaysappearsthatthatwasforeseenanddecreed。Whicheverwaytheshipturns，thewavesgurgleinfrontofit，andneitherguidingnoracceleratingitsmovement，willseemtousatadistancetobemovingarbitrarilyandguidingthecourseoftheship。
　　Examiningonlythoseexpressionsofthewillofhistoricalcharacterswhichrelatedtoeventsascommands，historianshaveassumedthattheeventsweredependentonthecommands。Examiningtheeventsthemselves，andthatconnectioninwhichthehistoricalcharactersstandwiththemasses，wehavefoundthathistoricalcharactersandtheircommandsaredependentontheevents。Anincontestableproofofthisdeductionistobefoundinthefactthat，howevermanycommandsmaybegiven，theeventdoesnottakeplaceifthereisnoothercausetoproduceit。Butassoonasaneventdoestakeplace—whateveritmaybe—outofthenumberofalltheexpressionsofthewillofdifferentpersons，therearealwayssomewhich，fromtheirmeaningandtimeofutterance，arerelatedtotheeventsascommands。
　　Havingreachedthisconclusion，wecandirectlyandpositivelyanswerthesetwoessentialquestionsofhistory：—
　　1。Whatispower？
　　2。Whatforceproducesthemovementsofpeoples？
　　1。Powerisarelationofacertainpersontootherpersons，inwhichthatpersontakesthelessdirectshareinanact，themoreheexpressesopinions，theories，andjustificationsofthecombinedaction。
　　2。Themovementofpeoplesisnotproducedbytheexerciseofpower;norbyintellectualactivity，norevenbyacombinationofthetwo，ashistorianshavesupposed;butbytheactivityofallthementakingpartintheevent，whoarealwayscombinedinsuchawaythatthosewhotakemostdirectpartintheactiontakethesmallestshareinresponsibilityforit，andviceversa。
　　Initsmoralaspectthecauseoftheeventisconceivedofaspower;initsphysicalaspectasthosewhoweresubjecttothatpower。Butsincemoralactivityisinconceivableapartfromphysical，thecauseoftheeventisfoundinneithertheonenortheother，butintheconjunctionofthetwo。
　　Or，inotherwords，theconceptionofcauseisnotapplicabletothephenomenonweareexamining。
　　Inourfinalanalysiswearebroughttothecircleofinfinity，tothatutmostlimit，towhichthehumanintellectisbroughtineverydepartmentofthought，ifitisnotmerelyplayingwithitssubject。Electricityproducesheat;heatproduceselectricity。Atomsareattracted;atomsarerepelled。
　　Speakingofthemutualrelationsofheatandofelectricityandofatoms，wecannotsaywhyitisso，andwesayitissobecauseitisunthinkableotherwise;becauseitmustbeso;becauseitisalaw。Thesamethingappliesalsotohistoricalphenomena。Whydoesawarorarevolutioncometopass？Wedonotknow。Weonlyknowthattobringeitherresulttopass，menformthemselvesintoacertaincombinationinwhichalltakepart;andwesaythatthisissobecauseitisunthinkableotherwise;becauseitisalaw。
　　Chapter8
　　IFHISTORYhadtodealwithexternalphenomena，theestablishmentofthissimpleandobviouslawwouldbesufficient，andourargumentwouldbeatanend。Butthelawofhistoryrelatestoman。Aparticleofmattercannottellusthatitdoesnotfeeltheinevitabilityofattractionandrepulsion，andthatthelawisnottrue。Man，whoisthesubjectofhistory，bluntlysays：Iamfree，andsoIamnotsubjecttolaw。
　　Thepresenceofthequestionofthefreedomofthewill，ifnotopenlyexpressed，isfeltateverystepinhistory。
　　Allseriouslythinkinghistoriansareinvoluntarilyledtothisquestion。Alltheinconsistencies，andtheobscurityofhistory，andthefalsepaththatsciencehasfollowed，isduetothatunsolvedquestion。
　　Ifthewillofeverymanwerefree，thatis，ifeverymancouldactashechose，thewholeofhistorywouldbeatissueofdisconnectedaccidents。
　　Ifonemanonlyoutofmillionsonceinathousandyearshadthepowerofactingfreely，thatis，ashechose，itisobviousthatasinglefreeactofthatmaninoppositiontothelawsgoverninghumanactionwoulddestroythepossibilityofanylawswhatevergoverningallhumanity。
　　Ifthereisbutonelawcontrollingtheactionsofmen，therecanbenofreewill，sincemen’swillmustbesubjecttothatlaw。
　　Inthiscontradictionliesthequestionofthefreedomofthewill，whichfromthemostancienttimeshasoccupiedthebestintellectsofmankind，andhasfromthemostancienttimesbeenregardedasofimmenseimportance。
　　Lookingatmanasasubjectofobservationfromanypointofview—theological，historical，ethical，philosophical—wefindagenerallawofnecessitytowhichheissubjectlikeeverythingexisting。Lookingathimfromwithinourselves，aswhatweareconsciousof，wefeelourselvesfree。
　　Thisconsciousnessisasourceofself-knowledgeutterlyapartandindependentofreason。Throughreasonmanobserveshimself;butheknowshimselfonlythroughconsciousness。
　　Apartfromconsciousnessofself，anyobservationandapplicationofreasonisinconceivable。
　　Tounderstand，toobserve，todrawconclusions，amanmustfirstofallbeconsciousofhimselfasliving。Amanknowshimselfasliving，nototherwisethanaswilling，thatis，heisconsciousofhisfreewill。Manisconsciousofhiswillasconstitutingtheessenceofhislife，andhecannotbeconsciousofitexceptasfree。
　　Ifsubjectinghimselftohisownobservation，amanperceivesthathiswillisalwayscontrolledbythesamelaw（whetherheobservesthenecessityoftakingfood，orofexercisinghisbrain，oranythingelse），hecannotregardthisnever-varyingdirectionofhiswillotherwisethanasalimitationofit。Ifitwerenotfree，itcouldnotbelimited。Aman’swillseemstohimtobelimitedjustbecauseheisnotconsciousofitexceptasfree。Yousay：Iamnotfree。ButIhaveliftedanddroppedmyhand。Everybodyunderstandsthatthisillogicalreplyisanirrefutableproofoffreedom。
　　Thisreplyisanexpressionofaconsciousnessnotsubjecttoreason。
　　Iftheconsciousnessoffreedomwerenotaseparatesourceofself-knowledgeapartfromreason，itwouldbecontrolledbyreasoningandexperience。Butinrealitysuchcontrolneverexists，andisinconceivable。
　　Aseriesofexperimentsandargumentsprovetoeverymanthathe，asanobjectofobservation，issubjecttocertainlaws，andthemansubmitstothem，andnever，aftertheyhaveoncebeenpointedouttohim，controvertsthelawofgravityorofimpenetrability。Butthesameseriesofexperimentsandargumentsprovestohimthatthecompletefreedomofwhichheisconsciousinhimselfisimpossible;thateveryactionofhisdependsonhisorganisation，onhischaracter，andthemotivesactingonhim。Butmanneversubmitstothedeductionsoftheseexperimentsandarguments。
　　Learningfromexperienceandfromreasoningthatastonefallstotheground，amanunhesitatinglybelievesthis;andinallcasesexpectsthelawhehaslearnttobecarriedout。
　　Butlearningjustasincontestablythathiswillissubjecttolaws，hedoesnot，andcannot，believeit。
　　Howeveroftenexperienceandreasoningshowamanthatinthesamecircumstances，withthesamecharacter，hedoesthesamethingasbefore，yetonbeingledthethousandthtimeinthesamecircumstances，withthesamecharacter，toanactionthatalwaysendsinthesameway，hefeelsjustasunhesitatinglyconvincedthathecanactashechooses，asever。Everyman，savageandsagealike，howeverincontestablyreasonandexperiencemayprovetohimthatitisimpossibletoimaginetwodifferentcoursesofactionunderpreciselythesamecircumstances，yetfeelsthatwithoutthismeaninglessconception（whichconstitutestheessenceoffreedom）hecannotconceiveoflife。Hefeelsthathoweverimpossibleitmaybe，itisso;seeingthat，withoutthatconceptionoffreedom，hewouldbenotonlyunabletounderstandlife，butcouldnotliveforasingleinstant。
　　Hecouldnotlivebecauseallmen’sinstincts，alltheirimpulsesinlife，areonlyeffortstoincreasetheirfreedom。Wealthandpoverty，healthanddisease，cultureandignorance，labourandleisure，repletionandhunger，virtueandvice，areallonlytermsforgreaterorlessdegreesoffreedom。
　　Toconceiveamanhavingnofreedomisimpossibleexceptasamandeprivedoflife。
　　Iftheideaoffreedomappearstothereasonameaninglesscontradiction，likethepossibilityofdoingtwoactionsatasinglemomentoftime，orthepossibilityofaneffectwithoutacause，thatonlyprovesthatconsciousnessisnotsubjecttoreason。
　　Thatunwavering，irrefutableconsciousnessoffreedom，notinfluencedbyexperienceandargument，recognisedbyallthinkers，andfeltbyallmenwithoutexception，thatconsciousnesswithoutwhichnoconceptionofmanisreliable，constitutestheothersideofthequestion。
　　ManisthecreationofanAlmighty，All-good，andAll-wiseGod。Whatissin，theconceptionofwhichfollowsfromman’sconsciousnessoffreedom？Thatisthequestionoftheology。
　　Men’sactionsaresubjecttogeneralandinvariablelaws，expressedinstatistics。Whatisman’sresponsibilitytosociety，theconceptionofwhichfollowsfromhisconsciousnessoffreedom？Thatisthequestionofjurisprudence。
　　Aman’sactionsfollowfromhisinnatecharacterandthemotivesactingonhim。Whatisconscienceandthesenseofrightandwronginactionthatfollowsfromtheconsciousnessoffreedom？Thatisthequestionofethics。
　　Maninconnectionwiththegenerallifeofhumanityisconceivedasgovernedbythelawsthatdeterminethatlife。Butthesameman，apartfromthatconnection，isconceivedofasfree。Howisthepastlifeofnationsandofhumanitytoberegarded—astheproductofthefreeornotfreeactionofmen？Thatisthequestionofhistory。
　　Onlyinourconceitedageofthepopularisationofknowledge，thankstothemostpowerfulweaponofignorance—thediffusionofprintedmatter—thequestionofthefreedomofthewillhasbeenputonalevel，onwhichitcannolongerbethesamequestion。Inourdaythemajorityofso-calledadvancedpeople—thatis，amobofignoramuses—haveacceptedtheresultoftheresearchesofnaturalscience，whichisoccupiedwithonesideonlyofthequestion，forthesolutionofthewholequestion。
　　Thereisnosoulandnofreewill，becausethelifeofmanisexpressedinmuscularmovements，andmuscularmovementsareconditionedbynervousactivity。Thereisnosoulandnofreewill，becauseatsomeunknownperiodoftimewecamefromapes，theysay，andwrite，andprint。Notatallsuspectingthatthousandsofyearsagoallreligionsandallthinkershaveadmitted—havenever，infact，denied—thatsamelawofnecessity，whichtheyarenowsostrenuouslytryingtoprovebyphysiologyandcomparativezoology。Theydonotseethatnaturalsciencecandonomoreinthisquestionthanservetoillumineonesideofit。Thefactthat，fromthepointofviewofobservation，thereasonandthewillarebutsecretionsofthebrain，andthatman，followingthegenerallawofdevelopment，mayhavedevelopedfromloweranimalsatsomeunknownperiodoftime，onlyillustratesinanewaspectthetruth，recognisedthousandsofyearsagobyallreligiousandphilosophictheories，thatmanissubjecttothelawsofnecessity。Itdoesnotadvanceonehair’s-breadththesolutionofthequestion，whichhasanotheroppositeside，foundedontheconsciousnessoffreedom。
　　Ifmenhavedescendedfromapesatanunknownperiodoftime，thatisascomprehensibleasthattheywerefabricatedoutofaclodofearthataknownperiodoftime（intheonecasethedateistheunknownquantity，intheotherthemethodoffabrication）;andthequestionhowtoreconcileman’sconsciousnessoffreewillwiththelawofnecessitytowhichheissubjectcannotbesolvedbyphysiologyandzoology，seeingthatinthefrog，therabbit，andthemonkeywecanobserveonlymuscularandnervousactivity，whileinmanwefindmuscularandnervousactivityplusconsciousness。
　　Thescientificmenandtheirdiscipleswhosupposetheyaresolvingthisquestionarelikeplastererssettoplasteronesideofachurchwall，who，intheabsenceofthechiefsuperintendentoftheirwork，shouldintheexcessoftheirzealplasteroverthewindows，andtheholyimages，andthewoodwork，andthescaffolding，andrejoicethatfromtheplasterers’pointofvieweverythingwasnowsosmoothandeven。
　　Chapter9
　　THEQUESTIONoffreewillandnecessityholdsapositioninhistorydifferentfromitsplaceinotherbranchesofknowledge，becauseinhistory，thequestionrelates，nottotheessentialnatureofthewillofman，buttotherepresentationofthemanifestationsofthatwillinthepastandundercertainconditions。
　　History，inregardtothesolutionofthisquestion，standstotheothersciencesinthepositionofanexperimentalsciencetospeculativesciences。
　　Thesubjectofhistoryisnotthewillofman，butourrepresentationofitsaction。
　　Andsotheinsolublemysteryoftheunionofthetwoantinomiesoffreedomandnecessitydoesnotexistforhistoryasitdoesfortheology，ethics，andphilosophy。Historydealswiththerepresentationofthelifeofman，inwhichtheunionofthosetwoantinomiesisaccomplished。
　　Inactuallifeeveryhistoricalevent，everyhumanaction，isquiteclearlyanddefinitelyunderstood，withoutasenseoftheslightestcontradictioninit，althougheveryeventisconceivedofpartlyasfree，andpartlyasnecessary。
　　Tosolvetheproblemofcombiningfreedomandnecessityandthequestionwhatconstitutestheessenceofthosetwoconceptions，thephilosophyofhistorycanandoughttogotoworkinadirectionoppositetothattakenbytheothersciences。Insteadoffirstdefiningtheideasoffreedomandnecessityinthemselves，andthenrangingthephenomenaoflifeunderthosedefinitions，historymustformthedefinitionoftheideasoffreewillandnecessityfromtheimmensemultitudeofphenomenainherdomainthatarealwaysdependentonthosetwoelements。
　　Whateverpresentationoftheactivityofonemanorofseveralpersonsweexamine，wealwaysregarditastheproductpartlyofthatmanormen’sfreewill，partlyofthelawsofnecessity。
　　Whetherwearediscussingthemigrationsofpeoplesandtheinroadsofbarbarians，orthegovernmentofNapoleonIII。，ortheactionofsomemananhouragoinselectingonedirectionforhiswalkoutofseveral，weseenothingcontradictoryinit。Theproportionoffreedomandnecessityguidingtheactionsofthosemenisclearlydefinedforus。
　　Veryoftenourconceptionofagreaterorlessdegreeoffreedomdiffersaccordingtothedifferentpointsofviewfromwhichweregardthephenomenon。
　　Buteveryhumanactionisalwaysalikeconceivedbyusasacertaincombinationoffreewillandnecessity。
　　Ineveryactionweinvestigate，weseeacertainproportionoffreedomandacertainproportionofnecessity。Andwhateveractionweinvestigate，themorenecessitywesee，thelessfreedom，andthemorefreedom，thelessnecessity。
　　Theproportionoffreedomtonecessityisdecreasedorincreased，accordingtothepointofviewfromwhichtheactisregarded;buttherealwaysremainsaninverseratiobetweenthem。
　　Adrowningmanclutchingatanotheranddrowninghim，orahungrymotherstarvedbysucklingherbabyandstealingfood，oramantrainedtodisciplinewhoatthewordofcommandkillsadefencelessman，allseemlessguilty—thatis，lessfreeandmoresubjecttothelawofnecessitytoonewhoknowsthecircumstancesinwhichtheyareplaced，andmorefreetoonewhodidnotknowthatthemanwashimselfdrowning，thatthemotherwasstarving，thatthesoldierwasonduty，andsoon。Inthesamewayamanwhohastwentyyearsagocommittedamurderandafterwardshasgoneonlivingcalmlyandinnocentlyinsocietyseemslessguilty，andhisactsseemmoresubjecttothelawofnecessity，toonewholooksathisactafterthelapseoftwentyyearsthantoonelookingatthesameactthedayafteritwasperpetrated。Andjustinthesamewaytheactofamadman，adrunkard，oramanlabouringunderviolentexcitementseemslessfreeandmoreinevitabletoonewhoknowsthementalconditionofthemanwhoperformedtheaction，andmorefreeandlessinevitabletoonewhodoesnotknowit。Inallsuchcasestheconceptionoffreedomisincreasedordiminished，andthatofnecessitycorrespondinglydiminishedorincreased，accordingtothepointofviewfromwhichtheactionisregarded。Sothatthemorenecessityisseeninitthelessfreedom。Andviceversa。
　　Religion，thecommon-senseofhumanity，thescienceoflaw，andhistoryitselfunderstandthisrelationbetweennecessityandfreewill。
　　Allcases，withoutexception，inwhichourconceptionoffreewillandnecessityvariesdependonthreeconsiderations：
　　1。Therelationofthemancommittingtheacttotheexternalworld。
　　2。Hisrelationtotime。
　　3。Hisrelationtothecausesleadingtotheact。
　　Inthefirstcasethevariationdependsonthedegreetowhichweseetheman’srelationtotheexternalworld，onthemoreorlessclearideaweformofthedefinitepositionoccupiedbythemaninrelationtoeverythingco-existingwithhim。Itisthisclassofconsiderationsthatmakesitobvioustousthatthedrowningmanislessfreeandmoresubjecttonecessitythanamanstandingondryground;andthatmakestheactionsofamanlivingincloseconnectionwithotherpeopleinathicklypopulateddistrict，boundbytiesoffamily，officialduties，orbusinessundertaking，seemundoubtedlylessfreethanthoseofamanlivinginsolitudeandseclusion。
　　Ifweexamineamanalone，apartfromhisrelationstoeverythingaroundhim，everyactionofhisseemsfreetous。Butifweseeanyrelationofhistoanythingsurrounding，ifweperceiveanyconnectionbetweenhimandanythingelse，amanspeakingtohim，abookreadbyhim，theworkheisemployedin，eventheairhebreathes，orthelightthatfallsontheobjectsaroundhim，weperceivethateveryoneofthosecircumstanceshasitsinfluenceonhim，andcontrolsatleastonesideofhisactivity。Andthemoreweperceiveofthoseinfluences，thesmallertheideaweformofhisfreedom，andthegreaterourconceptionofthenecessitytowhichheissubject。
　　2。Thesecondcauseofvariationisduetothedegreeofdistinctnesswithwhichtheman’spositionintimeisperceived，theclearnessofthenotionformedbyusoftheplacetheman’sactionfillsintime。Itisowingtothisclassofconsiderationsthatthefallofthefirstman，leadingtotheoriginofthehumanrace，seemstousobviouslylessfreethanthemarriageofanyoneofourcontemporaries。Itisowingtothisclassofconsiderationsthatthelifeandactsofmenwholivedyearsagocannotseemtomeasfreeasthelifeofmycontemporaries，theconsequencesofwhoseactsarestillunknowntome。
　　Thevariationinourconceptionoffreewillinthisconnectiondependsontheintervaloftimethathaselapsedbetweentheactionandourcriticismofit。
　　IfIexamineanactIhavecommittedamomentagoinapproximatelythesamecircumstancesasIamplacedinnow，myactappearstomeindubitablyfree。ButifIexamineanactIhavecommittedamonthago，thenbeingplacedinothercircumstances，Icannothelprecognisingthathadnotthatactbeencommitted，muchthatisgoodandagreeable，andeveninevitable，resultingfromthatact，couldnothavetakenplace。IfIreflectonastillmoreremoteaction，performedtenyearsormoreago，theconsequencesofmyactareevenplainertome，anditwillbedifficultformetoconceivewhatwouldhavehappenedifthatactionhadnottakenplace。ThefurtherbackIgoinmyreminiscences，orwhatisthesamething，thefurtherforwardinmycriticismofthem，themoredoubtfulbecomesmyviewofthefreedomofmyaction。
　　Wefindpreciselythesameratioofvariationinourviewsoftheelementoffreewillinthegeneralaffairsofmeninhistory。Acontemporaryeventweconceiveofasundoubtedlythedoingofallthemenweknowofconcernedinit。Butwithamoreremoteevent，weseeitsinevitableconsequences，whichpreventourconceivingofanythingelseaspossible。Andthefurtherbackwegointheexaminationofevents，thelessarbitrarytheyseemtous。
　　TheAustro-PrussianwarappearstoustobeundoubtedlytheresultofthecraftyactsofBismarckandsoon。
　　TheNapoleonicwars，thoughmoredoubtful，appeartoustheeffectofthefreewilloftheleadingheroesofthosewars。ButintheCrusadesweseeanevent，fillingitsdefiniteplaceinhistory，withoutwhichthemodernhistoryofEuropeisinconceivable，althoughtothechroniclersoftheCrusades，thoseeventsappearedsimplyduetothewillofafewpersons。InthemigrationsofpeoplesitneveroccurstoanyonenowthattherenewaloftheEuropeanworlddependedonacapriceofAttila’s。Themoreremoteinhistorythesubjectofourobservations，themoredoubtfulwefeelofthefreewillofthepersonsconcernedintheevent，andthemoreobviousisthelawofnecessityinit。
　　3。Thethirdelementinfluencingourjudgmentisthedegreetowhichwecanapprehendthatendlesschainofcausationdemandedbythereason，inwhicheveryphenomenoncomprehended，andsoeveryactofman，musthaveitsdefiniteplace，asaresultofpastandacauseoffutureacts。
　　Thisistheelementthatcausesouractsandthoseofotherstoappeartousononesidemorefreethelessweknowofthephysiological，psychological，andhistoricallawsdeducedfromobservation，andthelessthoroughlythephysiological，psychological，orhistoricalcauseoftheacthasbeeninvestigatedbyus，andontheotherhandthelesssimpletheactobservedandthelesscomplexthecharacterandmindofthemanwhoseactionweareexamining。
　　Whenwehaveabsolutelynounderstandingofthecausesofanaction—whetherviciousorvirtuousorsimplynon-moral—weascribeagreaterelementoffreewilltoit。Inthecaseofacrime，wearemoreurgentindemandingpunishmentfortheact;inthecaseofavirtuousact，wearewarmerinourappreciationofitsmerits。Incasesofnomoralbearing，werecognisemoreindividuality，originality，andindependenceinit。Butifonlyoneoftheinnumerablecausesoftheactisknowntous，werecogniseacertainelementofnecessity，andarelessreadytoexactpunishmentforthecrime，toacknowledgemeritinthevirtuousact，orfreedomintheapparentoriginality。Thefactthatthecriminalwasrearedinvicioussurroundingssoftenshisfaultinoureyes。Theself-sacrificeofafather，ofamother，orself-sacrificewiththepossibilityofrewardismorecomprehensiblethangratuitousself-sacrifice，andsoisregardedbyusaslessdeservingofsympathyandlesstheworkoffreewill。Thefounderofasect，ofaparty，ortheinventorimpressesuslesswhenweunderstandhowandbywhatthewaywaspavedforhisactivity。Ifwehavealargerangeofexperiments，ifourobservationiscontinuallydirectedtoseekingcorrelationsinmen’sactionsbetweencausesandeffects，theiractionswillseemtousmorenecessaryandlessfree，themoreaccuratelyweconnectcausesandeffects。Iftheactionsinvestigatedaresimple，andwehavehadavastnumberofsuchactionsunderobservation，ourconceptionoftheirinevitabilitywillbeevenmorecomplete。Thedishonestconductofthesonofadishonestfather，themisbehaviourofwomen，whohavebeenledintocertainsurroundings，therelapseofthereformeddrunkardintodrunkenness，andsoon，areinstancesofconductwhichseemtoustobelessfreethebetterweunderstandtheircause。Ifthemanhimselfwhoseconductweareexaminingisontheloweststageofmentaldevelopment，likeachild，amad-man，orasimpleton，thenwhenweknowthecausesoftheactandthesimplicityofthecharacterandintelligence，weseesogreatanelementofnecessity，andsolittlefreewill，thatwecanforetelltheactthatwillfollow，assoonasweknowthecauseboundtobringitforth。
　　Inalllegislativecodestheexonerationofcrimeoradmissionofmitigatingcircumstancesrestsonlyonthosethreeclassesofconsideration。Theguiltisconceivedasgreaterorlessaccordingtothegreaterorlesserknowledgeoftheconditionsinwhichthemanjudgedisplaced，thegreaterorlessintervaloftimebetweentheperpetrationofthecrimeandthejudgmentofit，andthegreaterorlesscomprehensionofthecausesthatledtotheact。
　　Chapter10
　　ANDTHUSourconceptionoffreewillandnecessityisgraduallydiminishedorincreasedaccordingtothedegreeofconnectionwiththeexternalworld，thedegreeofremotenessintime，andthedegreeofdependenceoncauseswhichweseeinthephenomenonofman’slifethatweexamine。Sothatifweexaminethecaseofamaninwhichtheconnectionwiththeexternalworldisbetterknown，theintervaloftimebetweentheexaminationandtheactgreater，andthecausesoftheactioneasiertocomprehend，weformaconceptionofagreaterelementofnecessityandlessfreewill。Ifweexamineamaninalessclosedependenceonexternalconditions，ifhisactioniscommittedatamomentnearerthepresent，andthecausesleadinghimtoitarebeyondourken，weformaconceptionofalesselementofnecessityandagreaterelementoffreewillinhisaction。
　　Butinneithercase，howeverweshiftourpointofview，howeverclearwemaketoourselvestheconnectioninwhichthemanisplacedwiththeexternalworld，orhoweverfullycomprehensibleitmayappeartous，howeverlongorshortaperiodoftimeweselect，howeverexplicableorunfathomablethecausesoftheactmaybetous，wecanneverconceiveofcompletefreewill，norofcompletenecessityinanyaction。
　　1。Howevercarefullyweimagineamanexcludedfromtheinfluenceoftheexternalworld，wecanneverformaconceptionoffreedominspace。Everyactofman’sisinevitablylimitedbywhatsurroundshimandbyhisownbody。Iraisemyarmandletitfall。Myactionseemstomefree;butaskingmyselfcouldIraisemyarminanydirection，IseethatImoveditinthedirectioninwhichtherewasleasthindrancetotheactionarisingfrombodiesaroundmeorfromtheconstructionofmyownbody。Ichoseoneoutofallthepossibledirections，becauseinthatdirectionImetwithleasthindrance。Formyactiontobeentirelyfree，itwouldhavetomeetwithnohindranceinanydirection。Toconceiveamanquitefree，wehavetoconceivehimoutsideofspace，whichisobviouslyimpossible。
　　2。Howevernearwebringthetimeofcriticismtothetimeofaction，wecanneverformaconceptionoffreedomintime。ForifIexamineanactcommittedasecondago，Imuststillrecognisethatitisnotfree，sincetheactisirrevocablylinkedtothemomentatwhichitwascommitted。CanIliftmyarm？Iliftit;butIaskmyself：CouldInothaveliftedmyarminthatmomentoftimethathasjustpassed？Toconvincemyselfofthat，Idonotliftmyarmthenextmoment。ButIamnotabstainingfromliftingitthatfirstmomentofwhichIaskedmyselfthequestion。Thetimehasgonebyandtodetainitwasnotinmypower，andthehandwhichIthenraisedandtheairinwhichIraiseditarenotthesameasthehandIdonotraisenowortheairinwhichIdonotnowraiseit。Themomentinwhichthefirstmovementtookplaceisirrevocable，andinthatmomentIcouldonlyperformoneaction，andwhatevermovementIhadmade，thatmovementcouldhavebeentheonlyone。ThefactthatthefollowingmomentIabstainedfromliftingmyarmdidnotprovethatIcouldhaveabstainedfromliftingit。Andsincemymovementcouldonlybeoneinonemomentoftime，itcouldhavebeennoother。Toconceiveittooneselfasfree，onemustconceiveitinthepresentontheboundarybetweenthepastandthefuture，thatis，outsidetime，whichisimpossible。
　　3。Howeverweincreasethedegreeofdifficultyofcomprehendingthecausesoftheact，weneverreachaconceptionofcompletefreewill，thatis，absoluteabsenceofcause。Thoughthecauseoftheexpressionofwillinanyactofourownoranother’smaybebeyondourken，itisthefirstimpulseoftheintellecttopresupposeandseekacause，withoutwhichnophenomenonisconceivable。Iraisemyarminordertoperformanactindependentofanycause，butthefactthatIwanttoperformanactindependentofanycauseisthecauseofmyaction。
　　Butevenifbyconceivingamanentirelyexcludedfromexternalinfluence，andexercisingonlyamomentaryactinthepresent，notcalledforthbyanycause，weweretoreducetheelementofnecessitytoaninfinitesimalminimumequivalenttonil，weshouldeventhennothavereachedaconceptionofcompletefreewillinaman;foracreature，uninfluencedbytheexternalworld，outsideoftime，andindependentofcause，isnolongeraman。
　　Inthesamewaywecanneverconceiveahumanactionsubjectonlytonecessitywithoutanyelementoffreewill。
　　1。Howeverweincreaseourknowledgeoftheconditionsofspaceinwhichamanisplaced，thatknowledgecanneverbecompletesincethenumberoftheseconditionsisinfinitelygreat，seeingthatspaceisinfinite。Andsolongasnotalltheconditionsthatmayinfluenceamanaredefined，thecircleofnecessityisnotcomplete，andthereisstillaloopholeforfreewill。
　　2。Thoughwemaymaketheperiodoftimeinterveningbetweenanactandourcriticismofitaslongaswechoose，thatperiodwillbefinite，andtimeisinfinite，andsointhisrespecttoothecircleofnecessityisnotcomplete。
　　3。Howevereasythechainofcausationofanyactmaybetograsp，weshallneverknowthewholechain，sinceitisendless，andsoagainwecannotattainabsolutenecessity。
　　Butapartfromthat，evenif，reducingtheminimumoffreewilltillitisequivalenttonil，weweretoadmitinsomecase—as，forinstance，thatofadyingman，anunbornbabe，anidiot—acompleteabsenceoffreewill，weshouldinsodoinghavedestroyedtheveryconceptionofman，inthecaseweareexamining;sinceassoonasthereisnofreewill，thereisnoman。Andthereforetheconceptionoftheactionofamansubjectonlytothelawofnecessity，withoutthesmallestelementoffreewill，isasimpossibleastheconceptionofacompletelyfreehumanaction。
　　Thustoconceiveahumanactionsubjectonlytothelawofnecessitywithoutfreewill，wemustassumeaknowledgeofaninfinitenumberofconditionsinspace，aninfinitelylongperiodoftime，andaninfinitechainofcausation。
　　Toconceiveamanperfectlyfree，notsubjecttothelawofnecessity，wemustconceiveamanoutsideofspace，outsideoftime，andfreefromalldependenceoncause。
　　Inthefirstcase，ifnecessitywerepossiblewithoutfreewill，weshouldbebroughttoadefinitionofthelawsofnecessityinthetermsofthesamenecessity，thatis，tomereformwithoutcontent。
　　Inthesecondcase，iffreewillwerepossiblewithoutnecessity，weshouldcometounconditionedfreewilloutsideofspace，andtimeandcause，whichbythefactofitsbeingunconditionedandunlimitedwouldbenothingelsethancontentwithoutform。
　　Weshouldbebroughtinfacttothesetwofundamentalelements，ofwhichman’swholecosmicconceptionismadeup—theincomprehensibleessenceoflifeandthelawsthatgiveformtothatessence。
　　Reasonsays：1。spacewithalltheformsgivenitbyitsvisibility—matter—isinfinite，andisnotthinkableotherwise。
　　2。Timeisinfinitemovementwithoutonemomentofrest，anditisnototherwisethinkable。
　　3。Theconnectionofcauseandeffecthasnobeginning，andcanhavenoend。
　　Consciousnesssays：1。Ialoneam，andallthatexistsisonlyI;consequentlyIincludespace。
　　2。Imeasuremovingtimebytheunchangingmomentofthepresent，inwhichaloneIamconsciousofmyselfliving;consequentlyIamoutsideoftime，and
　　3。Iamoutsideofcause，sinceIfeelmyselfthecauseofeveryphenomenonofmylife。
　　Reasongivesexpressiontothelawsofnecessity。Consciousnessgivesexpressiontotherealityoffreewill。
　　Freedomunlimitedbyanythingistheessenceoflifeinman’sconsciousness。Necessitywithoutcontentisman’sreasonwithitsthreeformsofthought。
　　Freewilliswhatisexamined：Necessityiswhatexamines。Freewilliscontent：Necessityisform。
　　Itisonlybytheanalysisofthetwosourcesofknowledge，standingtooneanotherintherelationofformandcontent，thatthemutuallyexclusive，andseparatelyinconceivableideasoffreewillandnecessityareformed。
　　Onlybytheirsynthesisisaclearconceptionofthelifeofmangained。
　　Outsidethesetwoideas—intheirsynthesismutuallydefinitiveasformandcontent—noconceptionoflifeispossible。
　　Allthatweknowofmen’slifeisonlyacertainrelationoffreewilltonecessity，thatis，ofconsciousnesstothelawsofreason。
　　Allthatweknowoftheexternalworldofnatureisonlyacertainrelationoftheforcesofnaturetonecessity，oroftheessenceoflifetothelawsofreason。
　　Theforcesofthelifeofnaturelieoutsideus，andnotsubjecttoourconsciousness;andwecalltheseforcesgravity，inertia，electricity，vitalforce，andsoon。Buttheforceofthelifeofmanisthesubjectofourconsciousness，andwecallitfreewill。
　　Butjustastheforceofgravitation—initselfincomprehensible，thoughfeltbyeveryman—isonlysofarunderstoodbyusasweknowthelawsofnecessitytowhichitissubject（fromthefirstknowledgethatallbodiesareheavydowntoNewton’slaw），sotootheforceoffreewill，unthinkableinitself，butrecognisedbytheconsciousnessofeveryman，isonlysofarunderstoodasweknowthelawsofnecessitytowhichitissubject（fromthefactthateverymandiesuptotheknowledgeofthemostcomplexeconomicorhistoriclaws）。
　　Allknowledgeissimplybringingtheessenceoflifeunderthelawsofreason。
　　Man’sfreewillisdistinguishedfromeveryotherforcebythefactthatitisthesubjectofman’sconsciousness。Butintheeyesofreasonitisnotdistinguishedfromanyotherforce。
　　Theforcesofgravitation，ofelectricity，orofchemicalaffinity，areonlydistinguishedfromoneanotherbybeingdifferentlydefinedbyreason。Inthesamewaytheforceofman’sfreewillisonlydistinguishedbyreasonfromtheotherforcesofnaturebythedefinitiongivenitbyreason。Freewillapartfromnecessity，thatis，apartfromthelawsofreasondefiningit，isinnowaydifferentfromgravitation，orheat，ortheforceofvegetation;forreason，itisonlyamomentary，indefinitesensationoflife。
　　Andastheundefinedessenceoftheforcemovingtheheavenlybodies，theundefinedessenceoftheforceofheat，ofelectricity，orofchemicalaffinity，orofvitalforce，formsthesubjectofastronomy，physics，chemistry，botany，zoology，andsoon，sotheessenceoftheforceoffreewillformsthesubjectmatterofhistory。Butevenasthesubjectofeveryscienceisthemanifestationofthatunknownessenceoflife，yetthatessenceitselfcanonlybethesubjectofmetaphysics，sotoothemanifestationoftheforceoffreewillinspace，andtime，anddependenceoncause，formsthesubjectofhistory，butfreewillitselfisthesubjectofmetaphysics。
　　Intheexperimentalsciences，whatisknowntouswecallthelawsofnecessity;whatisunknowntouswecallvitalforce。Vitalforceissimplyanexpressionforwhatremainsunexplainedbywhatweknowoftheessenceoflife。Soinhistorywhatisknowntouswecallthelawsofnecessity;whatisunknown，wecallfreewill。Freewillisforhistorysimplyanexpressionforwhatremainsunexplainedbythelawsofmen’slifethatweknow。
　　Chapter11
　　HISTORYexaminesthemanifestationsofman’sfreewillinconnectionwiththeexternalworldintimeandindependenceoncause，thatis，definesthatfreedombythelawsofreason;andsohistoryisonlyascienceinsofarasthatfreedomisdefinedbythoselaws。
　　Tohistorytherecognitionofthefreewillsofmenasforcesabletoinfluencehistoricalevents，thatis，notsubjecttolaws，isthesameaswouldbetoastronomytherecognitionoffreewillinthemovementsoftheheavenlybodies。
　　Thisrecognitiondestroysthepossibilityoftheexistenceoflaws，thatis，ofanysciencewhatever。Ifthereissomuchasonebodymovingatitsfreewill，thelawsofKeplerandofNewtonareannulled，andeveryconceptionofthemovementoftheheavenlybodiesisdestroyed。Ifthereisasinglehumanactionduetofreewill，nohistoricallawexists，andnoconceptionofhistoricaleventscanbeformed。
　　Forhistorythereexistlinesofmovementofhumanwills，oneextremityofwhichvanishesintheunknowable，andattheotherextremityofwhichinspace，intime，andindependenceoncause，theremovesmen’sconsciousnessoffreewillinthepresent。
　　Themorethiscurveofmovementisanalysedbeforeoureyes，theclearerarethelawsofitsmovement。Todiscoveranddefinethoselawsistheproblemofhistory。
　　Fromthepointofviewfromwhichthescienceofhistorynowapproachesitssubject，bythemethoditnowfollows，seekingthecausesofphenomenainthefreewillofmen，theexpressionoflawsbyscienceisimpossible;sincehoweverwelimitthefreewillofmen，solongaswerecogniseitasaforcenotsubjecttolaw，theexistenceoflawbecomesimpossible。
　　Onlylimitingthiselementoffreewilltoinfinity，thatis，regardingitasaninfinitesimalminimum，weareconvincedofthecompleteunattainabilityofcauses，andthen，insteadofseekingcauses，historyseesbeforeitselfthetaskofseekinglaws。
　　Theseekingofthoselawshasbeenbegunlongago，andthenewlinesofthoughtwhichhistorymustadoptarebeingworkedoutsimultaneouslywiththeself-destructiontowardswhichtheold-fashionedhistoryisgoing，foreverdissectinganddissectingthecausesofphenomena。
　　Allhumanscienceshavefollowedthesamecourse。Reachinginfinitesimals，mathematics，themostexactofthesciences，leavestheprocessofanalysisandentersonanewprocessofapproximatingtosumminguptheunknowninfinitesimals。Forsakingtheconceptionofcause，mathematicsseekslaw，thatis，propertiescommontoallunknown，infinitesimalquantities。
　　Theothersciences，too，havefollowedthesamecourse，thoughunderanotherform。WhenNewtonformulatedthelawofgravity，hedidnotsaythatthesunortheearthhasthepropertyofattraction。Hesaidthatallbodies—fromthegreatesttothesmallest—havethepropertyofattractingoneanother;thatis，leavingononesidethequestionofthecauseofthemovementsofbodies，heexpressedthepropertycommontoallbodies，fromtheinfinitelygreattotheinfinitelysmall。Thenaturalsciencesdothesamething;leavingononesidethequestionofcause，theyseekforlaws。History，too，isenteredonthesamecourse。Andifthesubjectofhistoryistobethestudyofthemovementsofpeoplesandofhumanity，andnotepisodesfromthelivesofindividualmen，ittooisboundtolayasidetheideaofcause，andtoseekthelawscommontoalltheequalandinseparablyinterconnected，infinitesimalelementsoffreewill。
　　Chapter12
　　EVERSINCEthelawofCopernicuswasdiscoveredandproved，themererecognitionthatnotthesun，buttheearthmoves，hasdestroyedthewholecosmographyoftheancients。Bydisprovingthelaw，itmighthavebeenpossibletoretaintheoldconceptionofthemovementsoftheheavenlybodies;butwithoutdisprovingit，itwouldseemtobeimpossibletocontinuestudyingthePtolemaicworlds。ButasafactevenafterthediscoveryofthelawofCopernicus，thePtolemaicworldslongcontinuedtobeasubjectofstudy。
　　Eversincethefirstpersonsaidandprovedthatthenumberofbirthsorcrimesissubjecttomathematicallaws，thatcertaingeographicalandpolitico-economicallawsdeterminethisorthatformofgovernment，thatcertainrelationsofthepopulationtothesoilleadtomigrationsofpeoples—fromthatmomentthefoundationsonwhichhistorywasbuiltweredestroyedintheiressence。
　　Bydisprovingthosenewlaws，theoldviewofhistorymighthavebeenretained。Butwithoutdisprovingthem，itwouldseemimpossibletocontinuestudyinghistoricalevents，merelyasthearbitraryproductofthefreewillofindividualmen。Forifacertaintypeofgovernmentisestablished，oracertainmovementofpeoplestakesplaceinconsequenceofcertaingeographical，ethnographical，oreconomicconditions，thefreewillofthosepersonswhoaredescribedtousassettingupthattypeofgovernmentorleadingthatmovementcannotberegardedasthecause。
　　Andyethistorygoesonbeingstudiedasofold，sidebysidewithlawsofstatistics，ofgeography，ofpoliticaleconomy，ofcomparativephilologyandgeology，thatflatlycontradictitsassumptions。
　　Thestrugglebetweenthenewviewsandtheoldwaslongandstubborninphysicalphilosophy。Theologystoodonguardovertheoldview，andaccusedthenewviewofviolatingrevelation。Butwhentruthgainedtheday，theologyestablisheditselfasfirmlyaseveronanewbasis。
　　Aslongandasobstinateistheconflictto-daybetweentheoldandthenewviewofhistory;andinthesamewaytheologystandsonguardovertheoldview，andaccusesthenewofattackingrevelation。
　　Inbothcasesonbothsides，thestrugglerousesevilpassionsandstiflestruth。Ononesidethereisdreadandregretatdemolishingtheedificethathasbeenraisedbytheages;ontheother，thepassionfordestruction。
　　Tothemenwhofoughtagainstthenewtruthsofphysicalphilosophy，itseemedthatiftheyweretoadmitthattruth，itwouldshatterfaithinGod，inthecreationofthefirmament，inthemiracleofJoshua，thesonofNun。TothechampionsofthelawsofCopernicusandNewton，toVoltaire，forinstance，itseemedthatthelawsofastronomyweredestructiveofreligion，andthelattermadeuseofthelawofgravityasaweaponagainstreligion。
　　Sonowitseemsthatwehavebuttoadmitthelawofnecessitytoshattertheconceptionofthesoul，ofgood，ofevil，andofthepoliticalandecclesiasticaledificesrearedonthebasisofthoseconceptions。
　　Sotoo，likeVoltaireinhisday，thechampionsofthelawofnecessityusethelawasaweaponagainstreligion，though，likethelawofCopernicusinastronomy，thelawofnecessityinhistory，farfromdestroyingevenstrengthensthefoundationonwhichpoliticalandecclesiasticaledificesarereared。
　　Justastheninthequestionofastronomy，nowinthequestionofhistory，thewholedifferenceofviewrestedontherecognitionornon-recognitionofanabsoluteunitasameasureofvisiblephenomena。Forastronomy，thiswastheimmobilityoftheearth;inhistory，theindependenceofpersonality—freewill。
　　Justasinastronomythedifficultyofadmittingthemotionoftheearthlayintheimmediatesensationoftheearth’sstationarinessandoftheplanets’motion，soinhistorythedifficultyofrecognisingthesubjectionofthepersonalitytothelawsofspaceandtimeandcausationliesinthedifficultyofsurmountingthedirectsensationoftheindependenceofone’spersonality。Butjustasinastronomy，thenewviewsaid，‘‘Itistrue，wedonotfeelthemovementoftheearth，but，ifweadmititsimmobility，wearereducedtoabsurdity，whileadmittingitsmovement，weareledtolaws’’;soinhistory，thenewviewsays，‘‘Itistrue，wedonotfeelourdependence，butadmittingourfreewill，weareledtoabsurdity;admittingourdependenceontheexternalworld，time，andcause，weareledtolaws。’’
　　Inthefirstcase，wehadtosurmountthesensationofanunrealimmobilityinspace，andtoadmitamotionwecouldnotperceiveofbysense。Inthepresentcase，itisasessentialtosurmountaconsciousnessofanunrealfreedomandtorecogniseadependencenotperceivedbyoursenses。