Ihavementionedthefactthat，about40or50yearsago，anycultivatedforeignersettlinginEnglandwasstruckbywhathewasthenboundtoconsiderthereligiousbigotryandstupidityoftheEnglishrespectablemiddle—class。
　　IamnowgoingtoprovethattherespectableEnglishmiddle—classofthattimewasnotquiteasstupidasitlookedtotheintelligentforeigner。
　　Itsreligiousleaningscanbeexplained。
　　Notes（1VorwartsexistedinLeipzigfrom1876—78，aftertheGothaUnificationCongress。
　　[2]"Qual"isaphilosophicalplayuponwords。Qualliterallymeanstorture，apainwhichdrivestoactionofsomekind；atthesametime，themysticBohmeputsintotheGermanwordsomethingofthemeaningoftheLatinqualitas；
　　his"qual"wastheactivatingprinciplearisingfrom，andpromotinginitsturn，thespontaneousdevelopmentofthething，relation，orpersonsubjecttoit，incontradistinctiontoapaininflictedfromwithout。[NotebyEngelstotheEnglishEdition]
　　Socialism：UtopianandScientific（Chpt。1）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientificI
　　[TheDevelopmentofUtopianSocialism]
　　ModernSocialismis，initsessence，thedirectproductoftherecognition，ontheonehand，oftheclassantagonismsexistinginthesocietyoftodaybetweenproprietorsandnon—proprietors，betweencapitalistsandwage—workers；
　　ontheotherhand，oftheanarchyexistinginproduction。But，initstheoreticalform，modernSocialismoriginallyappearsostensiblyasamorelogicalextensionoftheprincipleslaiddownbythegreatFrenchphilosophersofthe18thcentury。Likeeverynewtheory，modernSocialismhad，atfirst，toconnectitselfwiththeintellectualstock—in—tradereadytoitshand，howeverdeeplyitsrootslayinmaterialeconomicfacts。
　　Thegreatmen，whoinFrancepreparedmen’smindsforthecomingrevolution，werethemselvesextremerevolutionists。Theyrecognizednoexternalauthorityofanykindwhatever。Religion，naturalscience，society，politicalinstitutions？everythingwassubjectedtothemostunsparingcriticism：everythingmustjustifyitsexistencebeforethejudgment—seatofreasonorgiveupexistence。Reasonbecamethesolemeasureofeverything。Itwasthetimewhen，asHegelsays，theworldstooduponitshea；[1]；
　　firstinthesensethatthehumanhead，andtheprinciplesarrivedatbyitsthought，claimedtobethebasisofallhumanactionandassociation；
　　butbyandby，also，inthewidersensethattherealitywhichwasincontradictiontotheseprincipleshad，infact，tobeturnedupsidedown。Everyformofsocietyandgovernmentthenexisting，everyoldtraditionalnotion，wasflungintothelumber—roomasirrational；theworldhadhithertoalloweditselftobeledsolelybyprejudices；everythinginthepastdeservedonlypityandcontempt。Now，forthefirsttime，appearedthelightofday，thekingdomofreason；henceforthsuperstition，injustice，privilege，oppression，weretobesupersededbyeternaltruth，eternalRight，equalitybasedonNatureandtheinalienablerightsofman。
　　Weknowtodaythatthiskingdomofreasonwasnothingmorethantheidealizedkingdomofthebourgeoisie；thatthiseternalRightfounditsrealizationinbourgeoisjustice；thatthisequalityreduceditselftobourgeoisequalitybeforethelaw；thatbourgeoispropertywasproclaimedasoneoftheessentialrightsofman；andthatthegovernmentofreason，theContratSocialofRousseau，cameintobeing，andonlycouldcomeintobeing，asademocraticbourgeoisrepublic。Thegreatthinkersofthe18thcenturycould，nomorethantheirpredecessors，gobeyondthelimitsimposeduponthembytheirepoch。
　　But，sidebysidewiththeantagonismsofthefeudalnobilityandtheburghers，whoclaimedtorepresentalltherestofsociety，wasthegeneralantagonismofexploitersandexploited，ofrichidlersandpoorworkers。
　　Itwasthisverycircumstancethatmadeitpossiblefortherepresentativesofthebourgeoisietoputthemselvesforwardasrepresentingnotonespecialclass，butthewholeofsufferinghumanity。Stillfurther。Fromitsoriginthebourgeoisiewassaddledwithitsantithesis：capitalistscannotexistwithoutwage—workers，and，inthesameproportionasthemediaevalburgheroftheguilddevelopedintothemodernbourgeois，theguildjourneymanandtheday—laborer，outsidetheguilds，developedintotheproletarian。
　　Andalthough，uponthewhole，thebourgeoisie，intheirstrugglewiththenobility，couldclaimtorepresentatthesametimetheinterestsofthedifferentworking—classesofthatperiod，yetineverygreatbourgeoismovementtherewereindependentoutburstsofthatclasswhichwastheforerunner，moreorlessdeveloped，ofthemodernproletariat。Forexample，atthetimeoftheGermanReformationandthePeasants’War，theAnabaptistsandThomasMunzer；inthegreatEnglishRevolution，theLevellers；inthegreatFrenchRevolution，Babeuf。
　　Theseweretheoreticalenunciations，correspondingwiththeserevolutionaryuprisingsofaclassnotyetdeveloped；inthe16thand17thcenturies，Utopianpicturesofidealsocialconditions2）；
　　inthe18thcentury，actualcommunistictheories（MorellyandMably）。Thedemandforequalitywasnolongerlimitedtopoliticalrights；itwasextendedalsotothesocialconditionsofindividuals。Itwasnotsimplyclassprivilegesthatweretobeabolished，butclassdistinctionsthemselves。ACommunism，ascetic，denouncingallthepleasuresoflife，Spartan，wasthefirstformofthenewteaching。ThencamethethreegreatUtopians：Saint—Simon，towhomthemiddle—classmovement，sidebysidewiththeproletarian，stillhadacertainsignificance；FourierandOwen，whointhecountrywherecapitalistproductionwasmostdeveloped，andundertheinfluenceoftheantagonismsbegottenofthis，workedouthisproposalsfortheremovalofclassdistinctionsystematicallyandindirectrelationtoFrenchmaterialism。
　　Onethingiscommontoallthree。Notoneofthemappearsasarepresentativeoftheinterestsofthatproletariatwhichhistoricaldevelopmenthad，inthemeantime，produced。LiketheFrenchphilosophers，theydonotclaimtoemancipateaparticularclasstobeginwith，butallhumanityatonce。
　　Likethem，theywishtobringinthekingdomofreasonandeternaljustice，butthiskingdom，astheyseeit，isasfarasHeavenfromEarth，fromthatoftheFrenchphilosophers。
　　For，toourthreesocialreformers，thebourgeoisworld，basedupontheprinciplesofthesephilosophers，isquiteasirrationalandunjust，and，therefore，findsitswaytothedust—holequiteasreadilyasfeudalismandalltheearlierstagesofsociety。Ifpurereasonandjusticehavenot，hitherto，ruledtheworld，thishasbeenthecaseonlybecausemenhavenotrightlyunderstoodthem。Whatwaswantedwastheindividualmanofgenius，whohasnowarisenandwhounderstandsthetruth。Thathehasnowarisen，thatthetruthhasnowbeenclearlyunderstood，isnotaninevitableevent，followingofnecessityinthechainsofhistoricaldevelopment，butamerehappyaccident。Hemightjustaswellhavebeenborn500yearsearlier，andmightthenhavesparedhumanity500yearsoferror，strife，andsuffering。
　　WesawhowtheFrenchphilosophersofthe18thcentury，theforerunnersoftheRevolution，appealedtoreasonasthesolejudgeofallthatis。
　　Arationalgovernment，rationalsociety，weretobefounded；everythingthatrancountertoeternalreasonswastoberemorselesslydoneawaywith。
　　Wesawalsothatthiseternalreasonwasinrealitynothingbuttheidealizedunderstandofthe18thcenturycitizen，justthenevolvingintothebourgeois。
　　TheFrenchRevolutionhadrealizedthisrationalsocietyandgovernment。
　　Buttheneworderofthings，rationalenoughascomparedwithearlierconditions，turnedouttobebynomeansabsolutelyrational。Thestatebaseduponreasoncompletelycollapsed。Rousseau’sContratSocialhadfounditsrealizationintheReignofTerror，fromwhichthebourgeoisie，whohadlostconfidenceintheirownpoliticalcapacity，hadtakenrefugefirstinthecorruptionoftheDirectorate，and，finally，underthewingoftheNapoleonicdespotism。Thepromisedeternalpeacewasturnedintoanendlesswarofconquest。Thesocietybaseduponreasonhadfarednobetter。Theantagonismbetweenrichandpoor，insteadofdissolvingintogeneralprosperity，hadbecomeintensifiedbytheremovaloftheguildandotherprivileges，whichhadtosomeextentbridgeditover，andbytheremovalofthecharitableinstitutionsoftheChurch。The"freedomofproperty"fromfeudalfetters，nowveritablyaccomplished，turnedouttobe，forthesmallcapitalistsandsmallproprietors，thefreedomtoselltheirsmallproperty，crushedundertheovermasteringcompetitionofthelargecapitalistsandlandlords，tothesegreatlords，andthus，asfarasthesmallcapitalistsandpeasantproprietorswereconcerned，became"freedomfromproperty"。Thedevelopmentofindustryuponacapitalisticbasismadepovertyandmiseryoftheworkingmassesconditionsofexistenceofsociety。Cashpaymentbecamemoreandmore，inCarlyle’sphrase，thesolenexusbetweenmanandman。Thenumberofcrimesincreasedfromyeartoyear。Formerly，thefeudalviceshadopenlystalkedaboutinbroaddaylight；thoughnoteradicated，theywerenowatanyratethrustintothebackground。Intheirstead，thebourgeoisvices，hithertopracticedinsecret，begantoblossomallthemoreluxuriantly。Tradebecametoagreaterandgreaterextentcheating。The"fraternity"oftherevolutionarymottowasrealizedinthechicaneryandrivalriesofthebattleofcompetition。
　　Oppressionbyforcewasreplacedbycorruption；thesword，asthefirstsociallever，bygold。Therightofthefirstnightwastransferredfromthefeudallordstothebourgeoismanufacturers。Prostitutionincreasedtoanextentneverheadof。Marriageitselfremained，asbefore，thelegallyrecognizedform，theofficialcloakofprostitution，and，moreover，wassupplementedbyrichcropsofadultery。
　　Inaword，comparedwiththesplendidpromisesofthephilosophers，thesocialandpoliticalinstitutionsbornofthe"triumphofreason"werebitterlydisappointingcaricatures。Allthatwaswantingwasthementoformulatethisdisappointment，andtheycamewiththeturnofthecentury。
　　In1802，Saint—Simon’sGenevalettersappeared；in1808appearedFourier’sfirstwork，althoughthegroundworkofhistheorydatedfrom1799；onJanuary1，1800，RobertOwenundertookthedirectionofNewLanark。
　　Atthistime，however，thecapitalistmodeofproduction，andwithittheantagonismbetweenthebourgeoisieandtheproletariat，wasstillveryincompletelydeveloped。ModernIndustry，whichhadjustariseninEngland，wasstillunknowninFrance。ButModernIndustrydevelops，ontheonehand，theconflictswhichmakeabsolutelynecessaryarevolutioninthemodeofproduction，andthedoingawaywithitscapitalisticcharacter？conflictsnotonlybetweentheclassesbegottenofit，butalsobetweentheveryproductiveforcesandtheformsofexchangecreatedbyit。And，ontheotherhand，itdevelops，intheseverygiganticproductiveforces，themeansofendingtheseconflicts。If，therefore，abouttheyear1800，theconflictsarisingfromthenewsocialorderwereonlyjustbeginningtotakeshape，thisholdsstillmorefullyastothemeansofendingthem。
　　The"have—nothing"massesofParis，duringtheReignofTerror，wereableforamomenttogainthemastery，andthustoleadthebourgeoisrevolutiontovictoryinspiteofthebourgeoisiethemselves。But，indoingso，theyonlyprovedhowimpossibleitwasfortheirdominationtolastundertheconditionsthenobtaining。Theproletariat，whichthenforthefirsttimeevolveditselffromthese"have—nothing"massesasthenucleusofanewclass，asyetquiteincapableofindependentpoliticalaction，appearedasanoppressed，sufferingorder，towhom，initsincapacitytohelpitself，helpcould，atbest，bebroughtinfromwithoutordownfromabove。
　　ThishistoricalsituationalsodominatedthefoundersofSocialism。
　　Tothecrudeconditionsofcapitalisticproductionandthecrudeclassconditionscorrespondcrudetheories。Thesolutionofthesocialproblems，whichasyetlayhiddeninundevelopedeconomicconditions，theUtopiansattemptedtoevolveoutofthehumanbrain。Societypresentednothingbutwrongs；toremovethesewasthetaskofreason。Itwasnecessary，then，todiscoveranewandmoreperfectsystemofsocialorderandtoimposethisuponsocietyfromwithoutbypropaganda，and，whereveritwaspossible，bytheexampleofmodelexperiments。ThesenewsocialsystemswereforedoomedasUtopian；themorecompletelytheywereworkedoutindetail，themoretheycouldnotavoiddriftingoffintopurephantasies。
　　Thesefactsonceestablished，weneednotdwellamomentlongeruponthissideofthequestion，nowwhollybelongingtothepast。Wecanleaveittotheliterarysmallfrytosolemnlyquibbleoverthesephantasies，whichtodayonlymakeussmile，andtocrowoverthesuperiorityoftheirownbaldreasoning，ascomparedwithsuch"insanity"。Forourselves，wedelightinthestupendouslygrandthoughtsandgermsofthoughtthateverywherebreakoutthroughtheirphantasticcovering，andtowhichthesePhilistinesareblind。
　　Saint—SimonwasasonofthegreatFrenchRevolution，attheoutbreakofwhichhewasnotyet30。TheRevolutionwasthevictoryofthe3rdestate？i。e。，ofthegreatmassesofthenation，workinginproductionandintrade，overtheprivilegedidleclasses，thenoblesandthepriests。Butthevictoryofthe3rdestatesoonrevealeditselfasexclusivelythevictoryofasmallerpartofthis"estate"，astheconquestofpoliticalpowerbythesociallyprivilegedsectionofit？i。e。，thepropertiedbourgeoisie。
　　AndthebourgeoisiehadcertainlydevelopedrapidlyduringtheRevolution，partlybyspeculationinthelandsofthenobilityandoftheChurch，confiscatedandafterwardsputupforsale，andpartlybyfraudsuponthenationbymeansofarmycontracts。Itwasthedominationoftheseswindlersthat，undertheDirectorate，broughtFrancetothevergeofruin，andthusgaveNapoleonthepretextforhiscoupd’etat。
　　Hence，toSaint—Simontheantagonismbetweenthe3rdEstateandtheprivilegedclassestooktheformofanantagonismbetween"workers"and"idlers"。Theidlerswerenotmerelytheoldprivilegedclasses，butalsoallwho，withouttakinganypartinproductionordistribution，livedontheirincomes。Andtheworkerswerenotonlythewage—workers，butalsothemanufacturers，themerchants，thebankers。Thattheidlershadlostthecapacityforintellectualleadershipandpoliticalsupremacyhadbeenproved，andwasbytheRevolutionfinallysettled。Thatthenon—possessingclasseshadnotthiscapacityseemedtoSaint—SimonprovedbytheexperiencesoftheReignofTerror。Then，whowastoleadandcommand？AccordingtoSaint—Simon，scienceandindustry，bothunitedbyanewreligiousbond，destinedtorestorethatunityofreligiousideaswhichhadbeenlostsincethetimeoftheReformation？anecessarilymysticandrigidlyhierarchic"newChristianity"。Butscience，thatwasthescholars；andindustry，thatwas，inthefirstplace，theworkingbourgeois，manufacturers，merchants，bankers。Thesebourgeoiswere，certainly，intendedbySaint—Simontotransformthemselvesintoakindofpublicofficials，ofsocialtrustees；buttheywerestilltohold，vis—a—visoftheworkers，acommandingandeconomicallyprivilegedposition。Thebankersespeciallyweretobecalledupontodirectthewholeofsocialproductionbytheregulationofcredit。ThisconceptionwasinexactkeepingwithatimeinwhichModernIndustryinFranceand，withit，thechasmbetweenbourgeoisieandproletariatwasonlyjustcomingintoexistence。ButwhatSaint—Simonespeciallylaysstressuponisthis：
　　whatinterestshimfirst，andaboveallotherthings，isthelotoftheclassthatisthemostnumerousandthemostpoor（"laclasselaplusnombreuseetlapluspauvre"）。
　　AlreadyinhisGenevaletters，Saint—Simonlaysdownthepropositionthat"allmenoughttowork"。InthesameworkherecognizesalsothattheReignofTerrorwasthereignofthenon—possessingmasses。
　　"See，"sayshetothem，"whathappenedinFranceatthetimewhenyourcomradesheldswaythere；theybroughtaboutafamine。"
　　ButtorecognizetheFrenchRevolutionasaclasswar，andnotsimplyonebetweennobilityandbourgeoisie，butbetweennobility，bourgeoisie，andthenon—possessors，was，intheyear1802，amostpregnantdiscovery。
　　In1816，hedeclaresthatpoliticsisthescienceofproduction，andforetellsthecompleteabsorptionofpoliticsbyeconomics。Theknowledgethateconomicconditionsarethebasisofpoliticalinstitutionsappearshereonlyinembryo。Yetwhatisherealreadyveryplainlyexpressedistheideaofthefutureconversionofpoliticalruleovermenintoanadministrationofthingsandadirectionofprocessesofproduction？thatistosay，the"abolitionofthestate"，aboutwhichrecentlytherehasbeensomuchnoise。
　　Saint—Simonshowsthesamesuperiorityoverhiscontemporaries，whenin1814，immediatelyaftertheentryofthealliesintoParis，andagainin1815，duringtheHundredDays’War，heproclaimstheallianceofFranceandEngland，andthenofbothofthesecountries，withGermany，astheonlyguaranteefortheprosperousdevelopmentandpeaceofEurope。TopreachtotheFrenchin1815analliancewiththevictorsofWaterloorequiredasmuchcourageashistoricalforesight。
　　IfinSaint—Simonwefindacomprehensivebreadthofview，byvirtueofwhichalmostalltheideasoflaterSocialiststhatarenotstrictlyeconomicarefoundinhiminembryo，wefindinFourieracriticismoftheexistingconditionsofsociety，genuinelyFrenchandwitty，butnotuponthataccountanythelessthorough。Fouriertakesthebourgeoisie，theirinspiredprophetsbeforetheRevolution，andtheirinterestedeulogistsafterit，attheirownword。Helaysbareremorselesslythematerialandmoralmiseryofthebourgeoisworld。Heconfrontsitwiththeearlierphilosophers’
　　dazzlingpromisesofasocietyinwhichreasonaloneshouldreign，ofacivilizationinwhichhappinessshouldbeuniversal，ofanillimitablehumanperfectibility，andwiththerose—coloredphraseologyofthebourgeoisideologistsofhistime。Hepointsouthoweverywherethemostpitifulrealitycorrespondswiththemosthigh—soundingphrases，andheoverwhelmsthishopelessfiascoofphraseswithhismordantsarcasm。
　　Fourierisnotonlyacritic，hisimperturbablyserenenaturemakeshimasatirist，andassuredlyoneofthegreatestsatiristsofalltime。
　　Hedepicts，withequalpowerandcharm，theswindlingspeculationsthatblossomedoutuponthedownfalloftheRevolution，andtheshopkeepingspiritprevalentin，andcharacteristicof，Frenchcommerceatthattime。
　　Stillmoremasterlyishiscriticismofthebourgeoisformoftherelationsbetweensexes，andthepositionofwomaninbourgeoissociety。Hewasthefirsttodeclarethatinanygivensocietythedegreeofwoman’semancipationisthenaturalmeasureofthegeneralemancipation。
　　ButFourierisathisgreatestinhisconceptionofthehistoryofsociety。
　　Hedividesitswholecourse，thusfar，intofourstagesofevolution？
　　savagery，barbarism，thepatriarchate，civilization。Thislastisidenticalwiththeso—calledcivil，orbourgeois，societyoftoday？i。e。，withthesocialorderthatcameinwiththe16thcentury。Heproves"thatthecivilizedstageraiseseveryvicepracticedbybarbarisminasimplefashionintoaformofexistence，complex，ambiguous，equivocal，hypocritical"？thatcivilizationmoves"inaviciouscircle"，incontradictionswhichitconstantlyreproduceswithoutbeingabletosolvethem；henceitconstantlyarrivesattheveryoppositetothatwhichitwantstoattain，orpretendstowanttoattain，sothat，e。g。，"undercivilizationpovertyisbornofsuperabundanceitself"。
　　Fourier，aswesee，usesthedialecticmethodinthesamemasterlywayashiscontemporary，Hegel。Usingthesesamedialectics，hearguesagainsttalkaboutillimitablehumanperfectibility，thateveryhistoricalphasehasitsperiodofascentandalsoitsperiodofdescent，andheappliesthisobservationtothefutureofthewholehumanrace。AsKantintroducedintonaturalsciencetheideaoftheultimatedestructionoftheEarth，Fourierintroducedintohistoricalsciencethatoftheultimatedestructionofthehumanrace。
　　WhilstinFrancethehurricaneoftheRevolutionsweptovertheland，inEnglandaquieter，butnotonthataccountlesstremendous，revolutionwasgoingon。Steamandthenewtool—makingmachineryweretransformingmanufactureintomodernindustry，andthusrevolutionizingthewholefoundationofbourgeoissociety。Thesluggishmarchofdevelopmentofthemanufacturingperiodchangedintoaveritablestormandstressperiodofproduction。
　　Withconstantlyincreasingswiftnessthesplitting—upintolargecapitalistsandnon—possessingproletarianswenton。Betweenthese，insteadoftheformerstablemiddle—class，anunstablemassofartisansandsmallshopkeepers，themostfluctuatingportionofthepopulation，nowledaprecariousexistence。
　　Thenewmodeofproductionwas，asyet，onlyatthebeginningofitsperiodofascent；asyetitwasthenormal，regularmethodofproduction？theonlyonepossibleunderexistingconditions。Nevertheless，eventhenitwasproducingcryingsocialabuses？theherdingtogetherofahomelesspopulationintheworstquartersofthelargetowns；thelooseningofalltraditionalmoralbonds，ofpatriarchalsubordination，offamilyrelations；
　　overwork，especiallyofwomenandchildren，toafrightfulextent；completedemoralizationoftheworking—class，suddenlyflungintoaltogethernewconditions，fromthecountryintothetown，fromagricultureintomodernindustry，fromstableconditionsofexistenceintoinsecureonesthatchangefromdaytoday。
　　Atthisjuncture，therecameforwardasareformeramanufacturer29—years—old？amanofalmostsublime，childlikesimplicityofcharacter，andatthesametimeoneofthefewbornleadersofmen。RobertOwenhadadoptedtheteachingofthematerialisticphilosophers：thatman’scharacteristheproduct，ontheonehand，ofheredity；ontheother，oftheenvironmentoftheindividualduringhislifetime，andespeciallyduringhisperiodofdevelopment。Intheindustrialrevolutionmostofhisclasssawonlychaosandconfusion，andtheopportunityoffishinginthesetroubledwatersandmakinglargefortunesquickly。Hesawinittheopportunityofputtingintopracticehisfavoritetheory，andsoofbringingorderoutofchaos。
　　Hehadalreadytrieditwithsuccess，assuperintendentofmorethan500
　　meninaManchesterfactory。From1800to1829，hedirectedthegreatcottonmillatNewLanark，inScotland，asmanagingpartner，alongthesamelines，butwithgreaterfreedomofactionandwithasuccessthatmadehimaEuropeanreputation。Apopulation，originallyconsistingofthemostdiverseand，forthemostpart，verydemoralizedelements，apopulationthatgraduallygrewto2，500，heturnedintoamodelcolony，inwhichdrunkenness，police，magistrates，lawsuits，poorlaws，charity，wereunknown。Andallthissimplybyplacingthepeopleinconditionsworthyofhumanbeings，andespeciallybycarefullybringinguptherisinggeneration。Hewasthefounderofinfantschools，andintroducedthemfirstatNewLanark。Attheageoftwo，thechildrencametoschool，wheretheyenjoyedthemselvessomuchthattheycouldscarelybegothomeagain。Whilsthiscompetitorsworkedtheirpeople13or14hoursaday，inNewLanarktheworking—daywasonly10andahalfhours。Whenacrisisincottonstoppedworkforfourmonths，hisworkersreceivedtheirfullwagesallthetime。Andwithallthisthebusinessmorethandoubledinvalue，andtothelastyieldedlargeprofitstoitsproprietors。
　　Inspiteofallthis，Owenwasnotcontent。Theexistencewhichhesecuredforhisworkerswas，inhiseyes，stillfarfrombeingworthyofhumanbeings。"Thepeoplewereslavesatmymercy。"Therelativelyfavorableconditionsinwhichhehadplacedthemwerestillfarfromallowingarationaldevelopmentofthecharacterandoftheintellectinalldirections，muchlessofthefreeexerciseofalltheirfaculties。
　　"Andyet，theworkingpartofthispopulationof2，500
　　personswasdailyproducingasmuchrealwealthforsocietyas，lessthanhalfacenturybefore，itwouldhaverequiredtheworkingpartofapopulationof600，000tocreate。Iaskedmyself，whatbecameofthedifferencebetweenthewealthconsumedby2，500personsandthatwhichwouldhavebeenconsumedby600，000？"[3]
　　Theanswerwasclear。Ithadbeenusedtopaytheproprietorsoftheestablishment5percentonthecapitaltheyhadlaidout，inadditiontoover300，000poundsclearprofit。AndthatwhichheldforNewLanarkheldtoastillgreaterextentforallthefactoriesinEngland。
　　"Ifthisnewwealthhadnotbeencreatedbymachinery，imperfectlyasithasbeenapplied，thewarsofEurope，inoppositiontoNapoleon，andtosupportthearistocraticprinciplesofsociety，couldnothavebeenmaintained。Andyetthisnewpowerwasthecreationoftheworking—classes。"
　　Note，l。c。，p。22。
　　Tothem，therefore，thefruitsofthisnewpowerbelonged。Thenewly—createdgiganticproductiveforces，hithertousedonlytoenrichindividualsandtoenslavethemasses，offeredtoOwenthefoundationsforareconstructionofsociety；theyweredestined，asthecommonpropertyofall，tobeworkedforthecommongoodofall。
　　Owen’scommunismwasbaseduponthispurelybusinessfoundation，theoutcome，sotosay，ofcommercialcalculation。Throughout，itmaintainedthispracticalcharacter。Thus，in1823，OwenproposedthereliefofthedistressinIrelandbyCommunistcolonies，anddrewupcompleteestimatesofcostsoffoundingthem，yearlyexpenditure，andprobablyrevenue。Andinhisdefiniteplanforthefuture，thetechnicalworkingoutofdetailsismanagedwithsuchpracticalknowledge？groundplan，frontandsideandbird’s—eyeviewsallincluded？thattheOwenmethodofsocialreformonceaccepted，thereisfromthepracticalpointofviewlittletobesaidagainsttheactualarrangementofdetails。
　　HisadvanceinthedirectionofCommunismwastheturning—pointinOwen’slife。Aslongashewassimplyaphilanthropist，hewasrewardedwithnothingbutwealth，applause，honor，andglory。HewasthemostpopularmaninEurope。Notonlymenofhisownclass，butstatesmenandprincelistenedtohimapprovingly。ButwhenhecameoutwithhisCommunisttheoriesthatwasquiteanotherthing。Threegreatobstaclesseemedtohimespeciallytoblockthepathtosocialreform：privateproperty，religion，thepresentformofmarriage。
　　Heknewwhatconfrontedhimifheattackedthese？outlawry，excommunicationfromofficialsociety，thelossofhiswholesocialposition。Butnothingofthispreventedhimfromattackingthemwithoutfearofconsequences，andwhathehadforeseenhappened。Banishedfromofficialsociety，withaconspiracyofsilenceagainsthiminthepress，ruinedbyhisunsuccessfulCommunistexperimentsinAmerica，inwhichhesacrificedallhisfortune，heturneddirectlytotheworking—classandcontinuedworkingintheirmidstfor30years。Everysocialmovement，everyrealadvanceinEnglandonbehalfoftheworkerslinksitselfontothenameofRobertOwen。Heforcedthroughin1819，afterfiveyears’fighting，thefirstlawlimitingthehoursoflaborofwomenandchildreninfactories。HewaspresidentofthefirstCongressatwhichalltheTradeUnionsofEnglandunitedinasinglegreattradeassociation。Heintroducedastransitionmeasurestothecompletecommunisticorganizationofsociety，ontheonehand，cooperativesocietiesforretailtradeandproduction。Thesehavesincethattime，atleast，givenpracticalproofthatthemerchantandthemanufactureraresociallyquiteunnecessary。Ontheotherhand，heintroducedlaborbazaarsfortheexchangeoftheproductsoflaborthroughthemediumoflabor—notes，whoseunitwasasinglehourofwork；institutionsnecessarilydoomedtofailure，butcompletelyanticipatingProudhon’sbankofexchangeofamuchlaterperiod，anddifferingentirelyfromthisinthatitdidnotclaimtobethepanaceaforallsocialills，butonlyafirststeptowardsamuchmoreradicalrevolutionofsociety。
　　TheUtopians’modeofthoughthasforalongtimegovernedtheSocialistideasofthe19thcentury，andstillgovernssomeofthem。Untilveryrecently，allFrenchandEnglishSocialistsdidhomagetoit。TheearlierGermanCommunism，includingthatofWeitling，wasofthesameschool。Toallthese，Socialismistheexpressionofabsolutetruth，reasonandjustice，andhasonlytobediscoveredtoconqueralltheworldbyvirtueofitsownpower。Andasanabsolutetruthisindependentoftime，space，andofthehistoricaldevelopmentofman，itisamereaccidentwhenandwhereitisdiscovered。Withallthis，absolutetruth，reason，andjusticearedifferentwiththefounderofeachdifferentschool。Andaseachone’sspecialkindofabsolutetruth，reason，andjusticeisagainconditionedbyhissubjectiveunderstanding，hisconditionsofexistence，themeasureofhisknowledgeandhisintellectualtraining，thereisnootherendingpossibleinthisconflictofabsolutetruthsthanthattheyshallbemutuallyexclusiveofoneanother。Hence，fromthisnothingcouldcomebutakindofeclectic，averageSocialism，which，asamatteroffact，hasuptothepresenttimedominatedthemindsofmostofthesocialistworkersinFranceandEngland。
　　Hence，amish—mashallowingofthemostmanifoldshadesofopinion：amish—mashofsuchcriticalstatements，economictheories，picturesoffuturesocietybythefoundersofdifferentsects，asexciteaminimumofopposition；
　　amish—mashwhichisthemoreeasilybrewedthemoredefinitesharpedgesoftheindividualconstituentsarerubbeddowninthestreamofdebate，likeroundedpebblesinabrook。
　　TomakeascienceofSocialism，ithadfirsttobeplaceduponarealbasis。
　　Notes[1]ThisisthepassageoftheFrenchRevolution：
　　"Thought，theconceptoflaw，allatoncemadeitselffelt，andagainstthistheoldscaffoldingofwrongcouldmakenostand。
　　Inthisconceptionoflaw，therefore，aconstitutionhasnowbeenestablished，andhencefortheverythingmustbecaseduponthis。SincetheSunhadbeeninthefirmament，andtheplanetscircledaroundhim，thesighthadneverbeenseenofmanstandinguponhishead？i。e。，ontheIdea？andbuildingrealityafterthisimage。AnaxagorasfirstsaidthattheNous，reason，rulestheworld；butnow，forthefirsttime，hadmencometorecognizethattheIdeamustrulethementalreality。Andthiswasamagnificentsunrise。AllthinkingBeingshaveparticipatedincelebratingthisholyday。Asublimeemotionswayedmenatthattime，anenthusiasmofreasonpervadedtheworld，asifnowhadcomethereconciliationoftheDivinePrinciplewiththeworld。"
　　[Hegel："ThePhilosophyofhistory"，1840，p。535]
　　Isitnothightimetosettheanti—Socialistlawinactionagainstsuchteachings，subversiveandtothecommondanger，bythelateProfessorHegel？
　　（2EngelsrefersheretotheworksoftheutopianSocialistsThomasMore（16thcentury）andTommasoCampanella（17thcentury）。
　　[3]FromTheRevolutioninMindandPractice，p。21，amemorialaddressedtoallthe"redRepublicans，CommunistsandSocialistsofEurope"，andsenttotheprovisionalgovernmentofFrance，1848，andalso"toQueenVictoriaandherresponsibleadvisers。"
　　Socialism：UtopianandScientific（Chpt。2）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientificII
　　[TheScienceofDialectics]
　　Inthemeantime，alongwithandaftertheFrenchphilosophyofthe18thcentury，hadarisenthenewGermanphilosophy，culminatinginHegel。
　　Itsgreatestmeritwasthetakingupagainofdialecticsasthehighestformofreasoning。TheoldGreekphilosopherswereallbornnaturaldialecticians，andAristotle，themostencyclopaedicofthem，hadalreadyanalyzedthemostessentialformsofdialecticthought。Thenewerphilosophy，ontheotherhand，althoughinitalsodialecticshadbrilliantexponents（e。g。
　　DescartesandSpinoza），had，especiallythroughEnglishinfluence，becomemoreandmorerigidlyfixedintheso—calledmetaphysicalmodeofreasoning，bywhichalsotheFrenchofthe18thcenturywerealmostwhollydominated，atalleventsintheirspecialphilosophicalwork。Outsidephilosophyintherestrictedsense，theFrenchneverthelessproducedmasterpiecesofdialectic。WeneedonlycalltomindDiderot’sLeNeveudeRameau，andRousseau’sDiscourssurl’origineetlesfondementsdel’inegaliteparmilesshommes。Wegivehere，inbrief，theessentialcharacterofthesetwomodesofthought。
　　WhenweconsiderandreflectuponNatureatlarge，orthehistoryofmankind，orourownintellectualactivity，atfirstweseethepictureofanendlessentanglementofrelationsandreactions，permutationsandcombinations，inwhichnothingremainswhat，whereandasitwas，buteverythingmoves，changes，comesintobeingandpassesaway。Wesee，therefore，atfirstthepictureasawhole，withitsindividualpartsstillmoreorlesskeptinthebackground；weobservethemovements，transitions，connections，ratherthanthethingsthatmove，combine，andareconnected。Thisprimitive，naivebutintrinsicallycorrectconceptionoftheworldisthatofancientGreekphilosophy，andwasfirstclearlyformulatedbyHeraclitus：everythingisandisnot，foreverythingisfluid，isconstantlychanging，constantlycomingintobeingandpassingaway。
　　Butthisconception，correctlyasitexpressesthegeneralcharacterofthepictureofappearancesasawhole，doesnotsufficetoexplainthedetailsofwhichthispictureismadeup，andsolongaswedonotunderstandthese，wehavenotaclearideaofthewholepicture。Inordertounderstandthesedetails，wemustdetachthemfromtheirnatural，specialcauses，effects，etc。Thisis，primarily，thetaskofnaturalscienceandhistoricalresearch：branchesofsciencewhichtheGreekofclassicaltimes，onverygoodgrounds，relegatedtoasubordinateposition，becausetheyhadfirstofalltocollectmaterialsforthesesciencestoworkupon。Acertainamountofnaturalandhistoricalmaterialmustbecollectedbeforetherecanbeanycriticalanalysis，comparison，andarrangementinclasses，orders，andspecies。Thefoundationsoftheexactnaturalscienceswere，therefore，firstworkedoutbytheGreeksoftheAlexandrianperiod1），andlateron，intheMiddleAges，bytheArabs。Realnaturalsciencedatesfromthesecondhalfofthe15thcentury，andthenceonwardithadadvancedwithconstantlyincreasingrapidity。TheanalysisofNatureintoitsindividualparts，thegroupingofthedifferentnaturalprocessesandobjectsindefiniteclasses，thestudyoftheinternalanatomyoforganizedbodiesintheirmanifoldforms？thesewerethefundamentalconditionsofthegiganticstridesinourknowledgeofNaturethathavebeenmadeduringthelast400years。Butthismethodofworkhasalsoleftusaslegacythehabitofobservingnaturalobjectsandprocessesinisolation，apartfromtheirconnectionwiththevastwhole；ofobservingtheminrepose，notinmotion；
　　asconstraints，notasessentiallyvariables；intheirdeath，notintheirlife。AndwhenthiswayoflookingatthingswastransferredbyBaconandLockefromnaturalsciencetophilosophy，itbegotthenarrow，metaphysicalmodeofthoughtpeculiartothelastcentury。
　　Tothemetaphysician，thingsandtheirmentalreflexes，ideas，areisolated，aretobebeconsideredoneaftertheotherandapartfromeachother，areobjectsofinvestigationfixed，rigid，givenonceforall。Hethinksinabsolutelyirreconcilableantitheses。Hiscommunicationis’yea，yea；
　　nay，nay’；forwhatsoeverismorethanthesecomethofevil。"Forhim，athingeitherexistsordoesnotexist；athingcannotatthesametimebeitselfandsomethingelse。Positiveandnegativeabsolutelyexcludeonanother；causeandeffectstandinarigidantithesis，onetotheother。
　　Atfirstsight，thismodeofthinkingseemstousveryluminous，becauseitisthatofso—calledsoundcommonsense。Onlysoundcommonsense，respectablefellowthatheis，inthehomelyrealmofhisownfourwalls，hasverywonderfuladventuresdirectlyheventuresoutintothewideworldofresearch。
　　Andthemetaphysicalmodeofthought，justifiableandnecessaryasitisinanumberofdomainswhoseextentvariesaccordingtothenatureoftheparticularobjectofinvestigation，soonerorlaterreachesalimit，beyondwhichitbecomesone—sided，restricted，abstract，lostininsolublecontradictions。
　　Inthecontemplationofindividualthings，itforgetstheconnectionbetweenthem；inthecontemplationoftheirexistence，itforgetsthebeginningandendofthatexistence；oftheirrepose，ifforgetstheirmotion。Itcannotseethewoodsforthetrees。
　　Foreverydaypurposes，weknowandcansay，e。g。，whetherananimalisaliveornot。But，uponcloserinquiry，wefindthathisis，inmanycases，averycomplexquestion，asthejuristsknowverywell。Theyhavecudgelledtheirbrainsinvaintodiscoverarationallimitbeyondwhichthekillingofthechildinitsmother’swombismurder。Itisjustasimpossibletodetermineabsolutelythemomentofdeath，forphysiologyprovesthatdeathisnotaninstantaneous，momentaryphenomenon，butaveryprotractedprocess。
　　Inlikemanner，everyorganizedbeingiseverymomentthesameandnotthesame；everymoment，itassimilatesmattersuppliedfromwithout，andgetsridofothermatter；everymoment，somecellsofitsbodydieandothersbuildthemselvesanew；inalongerorshortertime，thematterofitsbodyiscompletelyrenewed，andisreplacedbyothermoleculesofmatter，sothateveryorganizedbeingisalwaysitself，andyetsomethingotherthanitself。
　　Further，wefinduponcloserinvestigationthatthetwopolesofanantithesis，positiveandnegative，e。g。，areasinseparableastheyareopposed，andthatdespitealltheiropposition，theymutuallyinterpenetrate。
　　Andwefind，inlikemanner，thatcauseandeffectareconceptionswhichonlyholdgoodintheirapplicationtoindividualcases；butassoonasweconsidertheindividualcasesintheirgeneralconnectionwiththeuniverseasawhole，theyrunintoeachother，andtheybecomeconfoundedwhenwecontemplatethatuniversalactionandreactioninwhichcausesandeffectsareeternallychangingplaces，sothatwhatiseffecthereandnowwillbecausethereandthen，andviceversa。
　　Noneoftheseprocessesandmodesofthoughtentersintotheframeworkofmetaphysicalreasoning。Dialectics，ontheotherhand，comprehendsthingsandtheirrepresentations，ideas，intheiressentialconnection，concatenation，motion，originandending。Suchprocessesasthosementionedaboveare，therefore，somanycorroborationsofitsownmethodofprocedure。
　　Natureistheproofofdialectics，anditmustbesaidformodernsciencethatithasfurnishedthisproofwithveryrichmaterialsincreasinglydaily，andthushasshownthat，inthelastresort，Natureworksdialecticallyandnotmetaphysically；thatshedoesnotmoveintheeternalonenessofaperpetuallyrecurringcircle，butgoesthrougharealhistoricalevolution。
　　Inthisconnection，Darwinmustbenamedbeforeallothers。HedealtthemetaphysicalconceptionofNaturetheheaviestblowbyhisproofthatallorganicbeings，plants，animals，andmanhimself，aretheproductsofaprocessofevolutiongoingonthroughmillionsofyears。But，thenaturalists，whohavelearnedtothinkdialectically，arefewandfarbetween，andthisconflictoftheresultsofdiscoverywithpreconceivedmodesofthinking，explainstheendlessconfusionnowreigningintheoreticalnaturalscience，thedespairofteachersaswellaslearners，ofauthorsandreadersalike。
　　Anexactrepresentationoftheuniverse，ofitsevolution，ofthedevelopmentofmankind，andofthereflectionofthisevolutioninthemindsofmen，canthereforeonlybeobtainedbythemethodsofdialecticswithitsconstantregardtotheinnumerableactionsandreactionsoflifeanddeath，ofprogressiveorretrogressivechanges。Andinthisspirit，thenewGermanphilosophyhasworked。KantbeganhiscareerbyresolvingthestableSolarsystemofNewtonanditseternalduration，afterthefamousinitialimpulsehadoncebeengiven，intotheresultofahistoricalprocess，theformationoftheSunandalltheplanetsoutofarotating，nebulousmass。Fromthis，heatthesametimedrewtheconclusionthat，giventhisoriginoftheSolarsystem，itsfuturedeathfollowedofnecessity。Histheory，halfacenturylater，wasestablishedmathematicallybyLaplace，andhalfacenturyafterthat，thespectroscopeprovedtheexistenceinspaceofsuchincandescentmassesofgasinvariousstagesofcondensation。
　　ThisnewGermanphilosophyculminatedintheHegeliansystem。
　　Inthissystem？andhereinisitsgreatmerit？forthefirsttimethewholeworld，natural，historical，intellectual，isrepresentedasaprocess？i。e。，asinconstantmotion，change，transformation，development；andtheattemptismadetotraceouttheinternalconnectionthatmakesacontinuouswholeofallthismovementanddevelopment。Fromthispointofview，thehistoryofmankindnolongerappearedasawildwhirlofsenselessdeedsofviolence，allequallycondemnableatthejudgmentseatofmaturephilosophicreasonandwhicharebestforgottenasquicklyaspossible，butastheprocessofevolutionofmanhimself。Itwasnowthetaskoftheintellecttofollowthegradualmarchofthisprocessthroughallitsdeviousways，andtotraceouttheinnerlawrunningthroughallitsapparentlyaccidentalphenomena。
　　ThattheHegeliansystemdidnotsolvetheproblemitpropoundedishereimmaterial。Itsepoch—makingmeritwasthatitpropoundedtheproblem。
　　Thisproblemisonethatnosingleindividualwilleverbeabletosolve。
　　AlthoughHegelwas？withSaint—Simon？themostencyclopaedicmindofhistime，yethewaslimited，first，bythenecessarylimitedextentofhisownknowledgeand，second，bythelimitedextentanddepthoftheknowledgeandconceptionsofhisage。totheselimits，athirdmustbeadded。Hegelwasanidealist。Tohim，thethoughtswithinhisbrainwerenotthemoreorlessabstractpicturesofactualthingsandprocesses，but，conversely，thingsandtheirevolutionwereonlytherealizedpicturesofthe"Idea"，existingsomewherefrometernitybeforetheworldwas。Thiswayofthinkingturnedeverythingupsidedown，andcompletelyreversedtheactualconnectionofthingsintheworld。CorrectlyandingeniouslyasmanygroupsoffactsweregraspedbyHegel，yet，forthereasonsjustgiven，thereismuchthatisbotched，artificial，labored，inaword，wronginpointofdetail。TheHegeliansystem，initself，wasacolossalmiscarriage？butitwasalsothelastofitskind。
　　Itwassuffering，infact，fromaninternalandincurablecontradiction。
　　Upontheonehand，itsessentialpropositionwastheconceptionthathumanhistoryisaprocessofevolution，which，byitsverynature，cannotfinditsintellectualfinalterminthediscoveryofanyso—calledabsolutetruth。But，ontheotherhand，itlaidclaimtobeingtheveryessenceofthisabsolutetruth。Asystemofnaturalandhistoricalknowledge，embracingeverything，andfinalforalltime，isacontradictiontothefundamentallawofdialecticreasoning。
　　Thislaw，indeed，bynomeansexcludes，but，onthecontrary，includestheideathatthesystematicknowledgeoftheexternaluniversecanmakegiantstridesfromagetoage。
　　TheperceptionofthethefundamentalcontradictioninGermanidealismlednecessarilybacktomaterialism，but？notabene？nottothesimplymetaphysical，exclusivelymechanicalmaterialismofthe18thcentury。
　　Oldmaterialismlookeduponallprevioushistoryasacrudeheapofirrationalityandviolence；modernmaterialismseesinittheprocessofevolutionofhumanity，andaimsatdiscoveringthelawsthereof。WiththeFrenchofthe18thcentury，andevenwithHegel，theconceptionobtainedofNatureasawhole？movinginnarrowcircles，andforeverimmutable，withitseternalcelestialbodies，asNewton，andunalterableorganicspecies，asLinnaeus，taught。Modernmaterialismembracesthemorerecentdiscoveriesofnaturalscience，accordingtowhichNaturealsohasitshistoryintime，thecelestialbodies，liketheorganicspeciesthat，underfavorableconditions，peoplethem，beingbornandperishing。AndevenifNature，asawhole，muststillbesaidtomoveinrecurrentcycles，thesecyclesassumeinfinitelylargerdimensions。Inbothaspects，modernmaterialismisessentiallydialectic，andnolongerrequirestheassistanceofthatsortofphilosophywhich，queen—like，pretendedtoruletheremainingmobofsciences。Assoonaseachspecialscienceisboundtomakeclearitspositioninthegreattotalityofthingsandofourknowledgeofthings，aspecialsciencedealingwiththistotalityissuperfluousorunnecessary。Thatwhichstillsurvivesofallearlierphilosophyisthescienceofthoughtanditslaw？formallogicanddialectics。EverythingelseissubsumedinthepositivescienceofNatureandhistory。
　　Whilst，however，therevolutionintheconceptionofNaturecouldonlybemadeinproportiontothecorrespondingpositivematerialsfurnishedbyresearch，alreadymuchearliercertainhistoricalfactshadoccurredwhichledtoadecisivechangeintheconceptionofhistory。In1831，thefirstworking—classrisingtookplaceinLyons；between1838and1842，thefirstnationalworking—classmovement，thatoftheEnglishChartists，reacheditsheight。TheclassstrugglebetweenproletariatandbourgeoisiecametothefrontinthehistoryofthemostadvancedcountriesinEurope，inproportiontothedevelopment，upontheonehand，ofmodernindustry，upontheother，ofthenewly—acquiredpoliticalsupremacyofthebourgeoisie。
　　factsmoreandmorestrenuouslygavethelietotheteachingsofbourgeoiseconomyastotheidentityoftheinterestsofcapitalandlabor，astotheuniversalharmonyanduniversalprosperitythatwouldbetheconsequenceofunbridledcompetition。Allthesethingscouldnolongerbeignored，anymorethantheFrenchandEnglishSocialism，whichwastheirtheoretical，thoughveryimperfect，expression。Buttheoldidealistconceptionofhistory，whichwasnotyetdislodged，knewnothingofclassstrugglesbaseduponeconomicinterests，knewnothingofeconomicinterests；productionandalleconomicrelationsappearedinitonlyasincidental，subordinateelementsinthe"historyofcivilization"。
　　Thenewfactsmadeimperativeanewexaminationofallpasthistory。
　　Thenitwasseenthatallpasthistory，withtheexceptionofitsprimitivestages，wasthehistoryofclassstruggles；thatthesewarringclassesofsocietyarealwaystheproductsofthemodesofproductionandofexchange？inaword，oftheeconomicconditionsoftheirtime；
　　thattheeconomicstructureofsocietyalwaysfurnishestherealbasis，startingfromwhichwecanaloneworkouttheultimateexplanationofthewholesuperstructureofjuridicalandpoliticalinstitutionsaswellasofthereligious，philosophical，andotherideasofagivenhistoricalperiod。Hegelhasfreedhistoryfrommetaphysics？hemadeitdialectic；
　　buthisconceptionofhistorywasessentiallyidealistic。Butnowidealismwasdrivenfromitslastrefuge，thephilosophyofhistory；nowamaterialistictreatmentofhistorywaspropounded，andamethodfoundofexplainingman’s"knowing"byhis"being"，insteadof，asheretofore，his"being"byhis"knowing"。
　　Fromthattimeforward，Socialismwasnolongeranaccidentaldiscoveryofthisorthatingeniousbrain，butthenecessaryoutcomeofthestrugglebetweentwohistoricallydevelopedclasses？theproletariatandthebourgeoisie。
　　Itstaskwasnolongertomanufactureasystemofsocietyasperfectaspossible，buttoexaminethehistorico—economicsuccessionofeventsfromwhichtheseclassesandtheirantagonismhadofnecessitysprung，andtodiscoverintheeconomicconditionsthuscreatedthemeansofendingtheconflict。ButtheSocialismofearlierdayswasasincompatiblewiththismaterialistconceptionastheconceptionofNatureoftheFrenchmaterialistswaswithdialecticsandmodernnaturalscience。TheSocialismofearlierdayscertainlycriticizedtheexistingcapitalisticmodeofproductionanditsconsequences。Butitcouldnotexplainthem，and，therefore，couldnotgetthemasteryofthem。Itcouldonlysimplyrejectthemasbad。ThemorestronglythisearlierSocialismdenouncedtheexploitationsoftheworking—class，inevitableunderCapitalism，thelessablewasitclearlytoshowinwhatthisexploitationconsistedandhowitarose。butforthisitwasnecessary？
　　topresentthecapitalisticmodeofproductioninitshistoricalconnectionanditsinevitablenessduringaparticularhistoricalperiod，andtherefore，also，topresentitsinevitabledownfall；andtolaybareitsessentialcharacter，whichwasstillasecret。Thiswasdonebythediscoveryofsurplus—value。
　　Itwasshownthattheappropriationofunpaidlaboristhebasisofthecapitalistmodeofproductionandoftheexploitationoftheworkerthatoccursunderit；thatevenifthecapitalistbuysthelaborpowerofhislaboreratitsfullvalueasacommodityonthemarket，heyetextractsmorevaluefromitthanhepaidfor；andthatintheultimateanalysis，thissurplus—valueformsthosesumsofvaluefromwhichareheapedupconstantlyincreasingmassesofcapitalinthehandsofthepossessingclasses。Thegenesisofcapitalistproductionandtheproductionofcapitalwerebothexplained。
　　Thesetwogreatdiscoveries，thematerialisticconceptionofhistoryandtherevelationofthesecretofcapitalisticproductionthroughsurplus—value，weowetoMarx。Withthesediscoveries，Socialismbecameascience。Thenextthingwastoworkoutallitsdetailsandrelations。
　　Notes（1TheAlexandrianperiodofthedevelopmentofsciencecomprisestheperiodextendingfromthe3rdcenturyB。C。tothe17thcenturyA。D。ItderivesitsnamefromthetownofAlexandriainEgypt，whichwasoneofthemostimportantcentresofinternationaleconomicintercoursesatthattime。
　　IntheAlexandrianperiod，mathematics（EuclidandArchimedes），geography，astronomy，anatomy，physiology，etc。，attainedconsiderabledevelopment。
　　Socialism：UtopianandScientific（Chpt。3）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientificIII
　　[HistoricalMaterialism]
　　Thematerialistconceptionofhistorystartsfromthepropositionthattheproductionofthemeanstosupporthumanlifeand，nexttoproduction，theexchangeofthingsproduced，isthebasisofallsocialstructure；
　　thatineverysocietythathasappearedinhistory，themannerinwhichwealthisdistributedandsocietydividedintoclassesorordersisdependentuponwhatisproduced，howitisproduced，andhowtheproductsareexchanged。