Hewas，thatis，totransplantafragmentofready-madeWesterncivilisationintoRussia。Benthamresolvedtopayavisittohisbrother，towhomheWasstronglyattached。HeleftEnglandinAugust1785，andstayedsometimeatConstantinople，wherehemetMariaJames1770-1836，thewifesuccessivelyofW。ReveleyandofJohnGisborne，andthefriendofShelley。ThencehetravelledbylandtoKritchev，andsettledwithhisbrotherattheneighbouringestateofZadobras。Benthamherepassedasecludedlife，interestedinhisbrother’soccupationsandmechanicalinventions，andatthesametimekeepinguphisownintellectuallabours。ThemostremarkableresultwastheDefenceofUsury，writteninthebeginningof1787。BenthamappendstoitarespectfullettertoAdamSmith，whohadsupportedthelawsagainstusuryinconsistentlywithhisowngeneralprinciples。Thedisciplewassimplycarryingoutthoseprinciplestothelogicalapplicationfromwhichthemasterhadshrunk。ThemanuscriptwassenttoWilson，whowishedtosuppressit。52*TheelderBenthamobtainedit，andsentittothepress。ThebookmetBenthamwasreturning。
　　ItwashighlypraisedbyThomasReid，53*andbytheMonthlyReview；itwastranslatedintovariouslanguages，andbecameoneofthesacredbooksoftheEconomists。Wilsonisdescribedas’coldandcautious，’andhesuppressedanotherpamphletuponprisondiscipline。54*InalettertoBentham，dated26thFebruary1787，however，Wilsondisavowsanyresponsibilityforthedelayinthepublicationofthegreatbook。’Thecause，’hesays，’liesinyourconstitution。Withone-tenthpartofyourgenius，andacommondegreeofsteadiness，bothSamandyouwouldlongsincehaverisentogreateminence。
　　Butyourhistory，sinceIhaveknownyou，hasbeentobealwaysrunningfromagoodschemetoabetter。Inthemeantimelifepassesawayandnothingiscompleted。’HeentreatedBenthamtoreturn，andhisentreatiesweresecondedbyTrail，whopointedoutvariousschemesofreform，especiallyofthepoor-laws，inwhichBenthammightbeuseful。Wilsonhadmentionedalreadyanotherinducementtopublication。’Thereis，’hesays，on24thSeptember1786，’aMrPaley，aparsonandarchdeaconofCarlisle，whohaswrittenabookcalledPrinciplesofMoralandPoliticalPhilosophy，inquarto，andithasgonethroughtwoeditionswithprodigiousapplause。’HefearsthatBenthamwillbechargedwithstealingfromPaley，andexhortshimtocomehomeand’establishagreatliteraryreputationinyourownlanguage，andinthiscountrywhichyoudespise。’55*
　　Benthamatlaststartedhomewards。HetravelledthroughPoland，Germany，andHolland，andreachedLondonatthebeginningofFebruary1788。HesettledatalittlefarmhouseatHendon，boughta’superbharpsichord，’resumedhisoccupations，andsawasmallcircleoffriends。WilsonurgedhimtopublishhisIntroductionwithoutwaitingtocompletethevastschemetowhichitwastobeaprologue。Copiesoftheprintedbookwerealreadyabroad，andtherewasadangerofplagiarism。Thusurged，Benthamatlastyielded，andtheIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationappearedin1789。Theprefaceapologisedforimperfectionsduetotheplanofhiswork。
　　Thebook，heexplained，laiddowntheprinciplesofallhisfuturelabours，andwastostandtohimintherelationofatreatiseuponpuremathematicstoatreatiseupontheappliedsciences。Heindicatedtenseparatedepartmentsoflegislation，eachofwhichwouldrequireatreatiseinordertothecompleteexecutionofhisscheme。
　　ThebookgivestheessenceofBentham’stheories，andistheonelargetreatisepublishedbyhimself。Theotherworkswereonlybroughttobirthbythehelpofdisciples。Dumont，inthediscourseprefixedtotheTraité；s，explainsthereason。Bentham，hesays，wouldsuspendawholeworkandbeginanewonebecauseasinglepropositionstruckhimasdoubtful。AproblemoffinancewouldsendhimtoastudyofPoliticalEconomyingeneral。Aquestionofprocedurewouldmakehimpauseuntilhehadinvestigatedthewholesubjectofjudicialorganisation。Whileatwork，hefeltonlythepleasureofcomposition。
　　Whenhismaterialsrequiredformandfinish，hefeltonlythefatigue。Disgustsucceededtocharm；andhecouldscarcelybeinducedtointerrupthislaboursuponfreshmatterinordertogivetohisinterpretertheexplanationsnecessaryfortheelucidationofhispreviouswritings。Hewaswithouttheliteraryvanityorthedesireforcompletionwhichmayprompttoprematurepublication，butmayatleastpreventtheabsolutewasteofwhathasbeenalreadyachieved。
　　Hismethodofwritingwascharacteristic。Hebeganbyformingacompletelogicalschemeforthetreatmentofanysubject，dividingandsubdividingsoastosecureanexhaustiveclassificationofthewholematterofdiscussion。
　　Thentakingupanysubdivision，hewrotehisremarksuponsheets，whichwereputasideafterbeingmarkedwithreferencesindicatingtheirplaceinthefinaltreatise。Heneverturnedtotheseagain。Intimehewouldexhaustthewholesubject，anditwouldthenbethedutyofhisdisciplessimplytoputtogetherthebricksaccordingtotheindicationsplaceduponeachinordertoconstructthewholeedifice。56*As，however，theplanwouldfrequentlyundergoachange，andaseachfragmenthadbeenwrittenwithoutreferencetotheothers，thetaskofultimatecombinationandadaptationoftheultimateatomswasoftenveryperplexing。Bentham，asweshallsee，formeddisciplesardentenoughtoputtogetherthesescattereddocumentsasthedisciplesofMahometputtogethertheKoran。Bentham’srevelationwaspossiblylessinfluentialthanMahomet’s；butthelogicalframeworkwasfarmorecoherent。
　　Bentham’smindwasforthepresentdistracted。HehadnaturallyreturnedfullofinformationaboutRussia。TheEnglishministrywereinvolvedinvariousnegotiationswithRussia，Sweden，andDenmark，thepurposeofwhichwastothwartthedesignsofRussiaintheEast。BenthamwrotethreeletterstothePublicAdvertiser，signedAnti-Machiavel，57*protestingagainstthewarlikepolicy。Benthamhimselfbelievedthattheeffectwasdecisive，andthatthe’warwasgivenup’inconsequenceofhisarguments。Historians58*
　　scarcelysanctionthisbelief，whichisonlyworthnoticebecauseitledtoanotherbelief，oddlycharacteristicofBentham。Alettersigned’Partizan’
　　inthePublicAdvertiserrepliedtohisfirsttwoletters。Whowas’Partizan’?
　　LordLansdowneamusedhimselfbyinformingBenthamthathewasnolessapersonagethanGeorgeIII。Bentham，withevenmorethanhisusualsimplicity，acceptedthishoaxasaseriousstatement。Hederivednolittlecomfortfromthethought；fortotheantipathythusengenderedinthe’bestofkings’
　　heattributedthesubsequentfailureofhisPanopticonscheme。59*
　　III。THEPANOPTICON。
　　ThecrashoftheFrenchrevolutionwasnowtochangethewholecourseofEuropeanpolitics，andtobringphilosophicaljuristsfacetofacewithalongseriesofprofoundlyimportantproblems。Bentham’sattitudeduringtheearlystagesoftherevolutionandthefirstwarperiodissignificant，andmayhelptoelucidatesomecharacteristicsoftheUtilitarianmovement。
　　Revolutionsaretheworkofpassion：theproductofasocialandpoliticalconditioninwhichthemassesarepermeatedwithdiscontent，becausethesocialorganshaveceasedtodischargetheirfunctions。Theyarenotascribabletothepurelyintellectualmovementalone，thoughitisnodoubtanessentialfactor。Therevolutioncameinanycasebecausethesocialorderwasoutofjoint，notsimplybecauseVoltaireorRousseauorDiderothadpreacheddestructivedoctrines。Thedoctrinesofthe’rightsofman’areobviousenoughtohavepresentedthemselvestomanymindsatmanyperiods。Thedoctrinesbecamedestructivebecausetheoldtraditionswereshaken，andthetraditionswereshakenbecausethestateofthingstowhichtheycorrespondedhadbecomeintolerable。TheFrenchevolutionmeantamongotherthingsthatinthemindoftheFrenchpeasanttherehadaccumulatedavastdepositofbitterenmityagainstthenoblewhohadbecomeamereparasiteuponthelabouringpopulation，retaining，asArthurYoungsaid，privilegesforhimself，andleavingpovertytothelowerclasses。ThepeasanthadnotreadRousseau；
　　hehadreadnothing。Butwhenhisdiscontentbegantoaffecttheeducatedclasses，menwhohadreadRousseaufoundinhisworksthedialectmostfittedtoexpressthegrowingindignation。Rousseau’sgeniushaddevisedtheappropriateformula；forRousseau’ssensibilityhadmadehimprescientoftherisingstorm。Whatmightbeamerecommonplaceforspeculativestudentssuddenlybecamethewarcryinasocialupheaval。InEngland，asIhavetriedtoshow，therewasnosuchpopularsentimentbehindthepoliticaltheories：andreformerswerecontentwithmeasureswhichrequirednoappealtoabsoluterightsandgeneralprinciples。BenthamwasnoRousseau；andthelastofmentoraiseawarcry。Passionandsentimentalismweretohimanuisance。Histheorieswereneithersuggestednormodifiedbytherevolution。Helookedonwithcuriouscalmness，asthoughtherevolutionarydisturbanceswereratheratransitoryinterruptiontotheprogressofreformthanindicativeofageneralconvulsion。Hisownpositionwasisolated。Hehadnostrongreformingpartybehindhim。TheWhigs，hismainfriends，werepowerless，discredited，andthemselvesreallyafraidtosupportanyvigorouspolicy。Theyhadinthemaintocontentthemselveswithcriticisingthewarlikepolicywhich，forthetime，representedthemaincurrentofnationalsentiment。Benthamsharedmanyoftheirsympathies。Hehatedtheabstract’rightsofman’theoryasheartilyasBurke。Itwastohima’hodge-podge’offallacies。Ontheotherhand，hewasabsolutelyindifferenttotheapotheosisoftheBritishConstitutionconstructedbyBurke’simagination。Hecarednothingforhistoryingeneral，orregardedit，fromaVoltaireanpointofview，asarecordofthefolliesandcrimesofmankind。Hewishedtodealwithpolitical，andespeciallywithlegal，questionsinascientificspirit——but’scientific’wouldmeannotpuremathematicsbutpureempiricism。HewasquiteasfarfromPaine’sabstractmethodsasfromBurke’sromanticmethods。Bothofthem，accordingtohim，weresophists：thoughonemightpreferlogicalandtheothersentimentalsophistries。Dumont，whenhepublished1802hisversionsofBentham，insisteduponthispoint，Nothing，hesays，wasmoreopposedtothetrenchantdogmatismoftheabstracttheoristsabout’rightsofman’and’equality’thanBentham’sthoroughlyscientificprocedureDiscoursPré；liminaire。Bentham’sintellectualpositioninthisrespectwillrequirefurtherconsiderationhereafter。Allhisprejudicesandsympathieswerethoseofthemiddleclassfromwhichhesprang。Hewasnodemocrat：hehadnoparticularobjectiontothenobility，thoughhepreferredShelburnetotheking’sfriendsortotheWhigaristocracy。Thereformswhichheadvocatedweresuchasmightbeadoptedbyanyenlightenedlegislator，notonlybyShelburnebutevenbyBlackstone。Hehadonly，hethought，toconvertafewmembersofparliamenttogaintheacceptanceforarationalcriminalcode。Ithadhardlyevenoccurredtohimthattherewasanythingwronginthegeneralpoliticalorder，thoughhewasbeginningtofindoutthatitwasnotsomodifiableashecouldhavewishedbythenewideaswhichhepropounded。
　　Bentham’sactivityduringthefirstrevolutionarywarcorrespondedtothisposition。Therevolution，whateverelseitmightdo，obviouslygaveachancetoamateurlegislators。Therewasanyamountofworktobedoneinthewayofcodifyingandreforminglegislativesystems。ThedeviserofUtopiashadsuchanopeningashadneveroccurredintheworld’shistory。
　　LordLansdowne，onthe3rdJanuary1789，expresseshispleasureathearingthatBenthamintendsto’takeupthecauseofthepeopleinFrance。’60*