28。Police，p。310。
　　29。Police，p。105。
　　30。Ibid。，p。13。
　　31。Ibid。，p。211。
　　32。Ibid。，p。136。
　　33。Police，p。523。
　　34。Ibid。，p。397。
　　35。Police，p。60。
　　36。Ibid。，p。481。
　　37。Ibid。，p。7。
　　38。Ibid。，p。298。
　　39。Police，p。99。
　　40。Bentham’sWorks，x，329seq。
　　41。Ibid。，v。335。
　　42。Bentham’sWorks，iv，3，121。
　　43。Cobbet’sStateTrials，xvii，297-626。
　　44。Police，p。340。
　　45。Wilberforcestartedonthisplana’societyforenforcingtheking’sproclamation’in1786，whichwassupplementedbythesocietyfor’theSuppresionofVice’in1802。Idon’tsupposethatvicewasmuchsuppressed。SydneySmithridiculeditsperformanceintheEdinburghfor1809。Thearticleisinhisworks。Amoreinterestingsocietywasthatfor’betteringtheconditionofthepoor，’startedbySirThomasBernardandWilberforcein1796。
　　46。BiographiaLiteraria1847，ii。327。
　　47。HistoryoftheRise，ProgressandAccomplishmentoftheAbolitionoftheSlave-tradebytheBritishParliament1808。Secondenlargededition1839。ThechartwasonecauseoftheoffencetakenbyWilberforce’ssons。
　　48。Cf。SirJ。Stephen’sEcclesiasticalBiographyTheEvanglicalSuccession。
　　49。SeepassagescollectedinBirkbeckHill’sBoswell，ii，478-80，andcf。iii，200-204。BoswellwasattractedbyClarkson，butfinallymadeuphismindthattheabolitionoftheslave-tradewould’shutthegatesofmercyonmankind。’
　　50。SeetheaccountofG。SharpinSirJ。Stephen’sEcclesiasticalBiographyChaphamSect。
　　51。Cobbett’sStateTrials，xx，1-82。
　　52。TheSocietydeterminedin1760’todisown’anyFriendconcernedintheslave-trade。
　　53。MrConway，inhisLifeofPaine，attributes，Ithink，alittlemoretohisherothanisconsistentwithdueregardtohispredecessors；but，inanycase，hetookanearlypartinthemovement。
　　54。SeeuponthissubjectMrJephson’sinterestingbookonThePlatform。
　　55。France，p。20620thJuly1789。
　　56。SeetheLifeofHorneTooke，byAlexanderStephens2vols。8vo。1813。
　　JohnHorneaddedthenameTookein1782。
　　57。Parl。Hist。xxi。751
　　58。Thehistoryofthesesocietiesmaybefoundinthetrialsreportedinthetwenty-third，twenty-fourth，andtwenty-fifthvolumesofCobbett’sStateTrials，andinthereportsofthesecretcommitteesinthethirty-firstandthirty-fourthvolumesoftheParl。History。TherearematerialsinPlace’spapersintheBritishMuseumwhichhavebeenusedinE。Smith’sEnglishJacobins。
　　59。Parl。Hist。xxix，130001341。
　　60。Parl。Hist。xxiv，574-655。
　　61。MrWallas’sLifeofPlace，p。25n。
　　62。StateTrials，xxiv，575。
　　63。Ibid。xxv。330。
　　64。Ibid。xxv。390。
　　65。Paul’sGodwin，i，147。
　　66。Stephen，li，48，477。
　　67。Ibid。ii，34-41，323，478-481。
　　68。Ibid。ii。483。
　　69。Bentham’sWorks，x，404。
　　70。HewasmemberforOldSarum，180102；buthiscareerendedbyadeclaratoryactdisqualifyingforaseatmenwhohadreceivedholyorders。
　　71。Bentham’sWorks，x。404；LiveofMackintosh，i，52；Paul’sGodwin，i，71；Coleridge’sTableTalk，8thMay1830and16thAugust1833。
　　72。Stephens，ii，316，334，438。
　　CHAPTERIV
　　PHILOSOPHY
　　I。JohnHorneTookeIhavesofardweltuponthesocialandpoliticalenvironmentoftheearlyUtilitarianmovement；andhavetriedalsotopointoutsomeofthespeculativetendenciesfosteredbytheposition。Ifitbeaskedwhatphilosophicaldoctrineswereexplicitlytaught，theanswermustbeaveryshortone。Englishphilosophybarelyexisted。Parrwassupposedtoknowsomethingaboutmetaphysics——
　　apparentlybecausehecouldwritegoodLatin。Buttheinferencewashasty。
　　Ofonebook，however，whichhadarealinfluence，Imustsaysomething，forthoughitcontainedlittledefinitephilosophy，itshowedwhatkindofphilosophywascongenialtothecommon-senseofthetime。Thesturdyradical，HorneTooke，hadbeenledtothestudyofphilologybyacharacteristicincident。
　　Thelegalquestionhadarisenwhetherthewords，’She，knowingthatCrookehadbeenindictedforforgery，’didsoandso，containedanavermentthatCrookehadbeenindicted。TookearguedinalettertoDunning1*thattheydid；becausetheywereequivalenttothephrase，’Crookehadbeenindictedforforgery：she，knowingthat，’didsoandso。Thisraisesthequestion。
　　Whatisthemeaningof’that’?Tooketookupthestudy，thinking，ashesays，thatitwouldthrowlightuponsomephilosophicalquestions。HelearnedsomeAnglo-SaxonandGothictotesthistheoryand，ofcourse，confirmedit。2*
　　Thebookshowsingenuity，shrewdness，andindustry，andTookedeservescreditforseeingthenecessityofapplyingareallyhistoricalmethodtohisproblem，thoughhisresultswerenecessarilycrudeintheprescientificstageofphilology。
　　Thebookismainlyalongstringofetymologies，whichreadersofdifferenttasteshavefoundintolerablydulloranamusingcollectionofcuriosities。
　　Tookeheld，andsurelywithreason，thataninvestigationoflanguage，thegreatinstrumentofthought，mayhelptothrowlightupontheprocessofthinking。HeprofessestobeadiscipleofLockeinphilosophyasinpolitics。
　　Locke，hesaid，3*madealuckymistakeincallinghisbookanessayuponhumanunderstanding；forhethusattractedmanywhowouldhavebeenrepelledhadhecalleditwhatitreallywas，’atreatiseuponwordsandlanguage。’
　　AccordingtoTooke，infact，4*whatwecall’operationsofmind’areonly’operationsoflanguage。’Themindcontemplatesnothingbut’impressions，’
　　thatis，’sensationsorfeelings，’whichLockecalled’ideas。’Lockemistookcompositionoftermsforcompositionofideas。Tocompoundideasisimpossible。
　　Wecanonlyuseonetermasasignofmanyideas。Locke，again，supposedthataffirminganddenyingwereoperationsofthemind，whereastheyareonlyartificesoflanguage。5*
　　Themind，then，canonlycontemplate，separatelyortogether，aggregatesof’ideas，’ultimateatoms，incapableofbeingpartedordissolved。Thereare，therefore，onlytwoclassesofwords，nounsandverbs；allothers，prepositions，conjunctions，andsoforth，beingabbreviations，akindofmentalshorthandtosavethetroubleofenumeratingtheseparateitems。Tooke，inshort，isathorough-goingnominalist。Therealities，accordingtohim，aresticks，stones，andmaterialobjects，orthe’ideas’which’represent’them。Theycanbestucktogetherortakenapart，butallthewordswhichexpressrelations，categories，andthelike，areinthemselvesmeaningless。Thespecialobjectsofhisscornare’Hermes’Harris，andMonboddo，whohadtriedtodefendAristotleagainstLocke。Monboddohadassertedthat’everykindofrelation’isapure’ideaoftheintellect’nottobeapprehendedbysense。6*Ifso，accordingtoTooke，itwouldbeanonentity。
　　Thisdoctrinegivesashortcuttotheabolitionofmetaphysics。Theword’metaphysics，’saysTooke，7*isnonsense。Allmetaphysicalcontroversiesare’foundedonthegrossestignoranceofwordsandthenatureofspeech。’
　　Thegreatestpartofhissecondvolumeisconcernedwithetymologiesintendedtoprovethatan’abstractidea’isamereword。Abstractwords，hesays，8*
　　aregenerally’participleswithoutasubstantiveandthereforeinconstructionusedassubstantives。’Fromamisunderstandingofthishasarisen’metaphysicaljargon’and’falsemorality。’Inillustrationhegivesasingularlistofwords，including’fate，chance，heaven，hell，providence，prudence，innocence，substance，fiend，angel，apostle，spirit，true，false，desert，merit，faith，etc。，allofwhicharemereparticiplespoeticallyembodiedandsubstantiatedbythosewhousethem。’Acoupleofspecificapplications，oftenquotedbylaterwriters，willsufficientlyindicatehisdrift。
　　Suchwords，heremarks，9*as’right’and’just’meansimplythatwhichisorderedorcommanded。Thechapterisheaded’rightsofman，’andTooke’sinterlocutornaturallyobservesthatthisisasingularresultforademocrat。
　　Man，itwouldseem，hasnorightsexcepttherightscreatedbythelaw。Tookeadmitstheinferencetobecorrect，butrepliesthatthedemocratindisobeyinghumanlawmaybeobeyingthelawofGod，andisobeyingthelawofGodwhenheobeysthelawofnature。TheinterlocutordoesnotinquirewhatTookecouldmeanbythe’lawofnature。’WecanguesswhatTookewouldhavesaidtoPaineintheWimbledongarden。Infact，however，Tookeishere，aselsewhere，followingHobbes，though，itseems，unconsciously。Anotherfamousetymologyisthatof’truth’from’troweth。’10*Truthiswhateachmanthinks。Thereisnosuchthing，therefore，as’eternal，immutable，everlastingtruth，unlessmankind，suchastheyareatpresent，beeternal，immutable，everlasting。’
　　Twopersonsmaycontradicteachotherandyeteachmaybespeakingwhatistrueforhim。Truthmaybeaviceaswellasavirtue；foronmanyoccasionsitiswrongtospeakthetruth。