AnObjectionagainsttheUtilityofHistoryRemoved。II。TheFalseandTrueAimsofThosewhoStudyit。III。OftheHistoryoftheFirstAges，WithReflectionsontheStateofAncientHistoryProfaneandSacred。
　　Weretheseletterstofallintothehandsofsomeingeniouspersonswhoadorntheagewelivein，yourlordship’scorrespondentwouldbejokeduponforhisprojectofimprovingmeninvirtueandwisdombythestudyofhistory。
　　Thegeneralcharactersofmen，itwouldbesaid，aredeterminedbytheirnaturalconstitutions，astheirparticularactionsarebyimmediateobjects。
　　Manyveryconversantinhistorywouldbecited，whohaveprovedillmen，orbadpoliticians；andalongrollwouldbeproducedofothers，whohavearrivedatagreatpitchofprivate，andpublicvirtue，withoutanyassistanceofthiskind。Somethinghasbeensaidalreadytoanticipatethisobjection；
　　but，sinceIhaveheardseveralpersonsaffirmsuchpropositionswithgreatconfidence，aloudlaugh，orasilentsneeratthepedantswhopresumedtothinkotherwise；Iwillspendafewparagraphs，withyourlordship’sleave，toshowthatsuchaffirmations，fortoaffirmamongstthesefinemenistoreason，eitherprovetoomuch，orprovenothing。
　　Ifourgeneralcharactersweredeterminedabsolutely，astheyarecertainlyinfluenced，byourconstitutions，andifourparticularactionsweresobyimmediateobjects；allinstructionbyprecept，aswellasexample，andallendeavorstoformthemoralcharacterbyeducation，wouldbeunnecessary。
　　Eventhelittlecarethatistaken，andsurelyitisimpossibletotakeless，inthetrainingupouryouth，wouldbetoomuch。Butthetruthiswidelydifferentfromthisrepresentationofit；for，whatisvice，andwhatisvirtue？Ispeakoftheminalargeandphilosophicalsense。Theformeris，Ithink，nomorethantheexcess，abuse，andmisapplicationofappetites，desires，andpassions，naturalandinnocent，nayusefulandnecessary。Thelatterconsistsinthemoderationandgovernment，intheuseandapplicationoftheseappetites，desires，andpassions，accordingtotherulesofreason，andthereforeofteninoppositiontotheirownblindimpulse。
　　Whatnowiseducation？thatpart，thatprincipleandmostneglectedpartofit，Imean，whichtendstoformthemoralcharacter？Itis，Ithink，aninstitutiondesignedtoleadmenfromtheirtenderyears，bypreceptandexample，byargumentandauthority，tothepractice，andtothehabitofpractisingtheserules。Thestrongerourappetites，desires，andpassionsare，theharderindeedisthetaskofeducation：butwhentheseeffortsofeducationareproportionedtothisstrength，althoughourkeenestappetitesanddesires，andourrulingpassionscannotbereducedtoaquietanduniformsubmission，yet，arenottheirexcessesassuaged？arenottheirabusesandmisapplications，insomedegree，divertedorchecked？Thoughthepilotcannotlaythestorm，cannothecarrytheship，byhisart，betterthroughit，andoftenpreventthewreckthatwouldalwayshappen，withouthim？IfAlexanderwholovedwine，andwasnaturallycholeric，hadbeenbredundertheseverityofRomandiscipline，itisprobablehewouldneitherhavemadeabonfireofPersepolisforhiswhore，norhavekilledhisfriend。IfScipio，whowasnaturallygiventowomen，forwhichanecdotewehave，ifImistakenot，theauthorityofPolybius，aswellassomeversesofNaeviuspreservedbyA。
　　Gellius，badbeeneducatedbyOlympiusatthecourtofPhilip，itisimprobablethathewouldhaverestoredthebeautifulSpaniard。Inshort，iftherenownedSocratesbadnotcorrectednaturebyart，thisfirstapostleoftheGentileshadbeenaveryprofligatefellow，byhisownconfession；forhewasinclinedtoallthevicesZopyrusimputedtohim，astheysay，ontheobservationofhisphysiognomy。
　　Withhim，therefore，whodeniestheeffectsofeducation，itwouldbeinvaintodispute；andwithhimwhoadmitsthem，therecanbedispute，concerningthatsharewhichIascribetothestudyofhistory，informingourmoralcharacters，andmakingusbettermen。Theverypersonswhopretendthatinclinationscannotberestrained，norhabitscorrected，againstournaturalbent，wouldbethefirstperhapstoprove，incertaincases，thecontrary。Afortuneatcourt，orthefavorsofalady，haveprevailedonmanytoconceal，andtheycouldnotconcealwithoutrestraining，whichisonesteptowardscorrecting，thevicestheywerebynatureaddictedtothemost。Shallweimaginenow，thatthebeautyofvirtueandthedeformityofvice，thecharmsofabrightandlastingreputation，theterrorofbeingdeliveredoverascriminalstoallposterity，therealbenefitarisingfromaconscientiousdischargeofthedutyweowetoothers，whichbenefitfortunecanneitherhindernortakeaway，andthereasonablenessofconformingourselvestothedesignsofGodmanifestedintheconstitutionofthehumannature；shallweimagine，Isay，thatillthesearenotabletoacquirethesamepoweroverthosewhoarecontinuallycalledupontoacontemplationofthem，andtheywhoapplythemselvestothestudyofhistoryaresocalledupon，asothermotives，meanandsordidincomparisonofthese，canusurponothermen？
　　2。Thatthestudyofhistory，farfrommakinguswiser，andmoreusefulcitizens，aswellasbettermen，maybeofnoadvantagewhatsoever；thatitmayservetorenderusmereantiquariesandscholars；orthatitmayhelptomakeusforwardcoxcombs，andpratingpedants，Ihavealreadyallowed。
　　Butthisisnotthefaultofhistory：andtoconvinceusthatitisnot，weneedonlycontrastthetrueuseofhistorywiththeusethatismadeofitbysuchmenasthese。Weoughtalwaystokeepinmind，thathistoryisphilosophyteachingbyexampleshowtoconductourselvesinallthesituationsofprivateandpubliclife；thatthereforewemustapplyourselvestoitinaphilosophicalspiritandmanner；thatwemustrisefromparticulartogeneralknowledge，andthatwemustfitourselvesforthesocietyandbusinessofmankindbyaccustomingourmindstoreflectandmeditateonthecharacterswefinddescribed，andthecourseofeventswefindrelatedthere。Particularexamplesmaybeofusesometimesinparticularcases；buttheapplicationofthemisdangerous。Itmustbedonewiththeutmostcircumspection，oritwillbeseldomdonewithsuccess。Andyetonewouldthinkthatthiswastheprincipaluseofthestudyofhistory，bywhathasbeenwrittenonthesubject。IknownotwhetherMachiavelhimselfisquitefreefromdefectonthisaccount：heseemstocarrytheuseandapplicationofparticularexamplessometimestoofar。MariusandCatuluspassedtheAlps，met，anddefeatedtheCimbribeyondthefrontiersofItaly。Isitsafetoconcludefromhence，thatwheneveronepeopleisinvadedbyanother，theinvadedoughttomeetandfighttheinvadersatadistancefromtheirfrontiers？Machiavel’scountryman，Guicciardin，wasawareofthedangerthatmightarisefromsuchanapplicationofexamples。PeterofMedicishadinvolvedhimselfingreatdifficulties，whenthosewarsandcalamitiesbeganwhichLewisSforzafirstdrewandentailedonItaly，byflatteringtheambitionofCharlestheEighthinordertogratifyhisown，andcallingtheFrenchintothatcountry。PeterowedhisdistresstohisfollyindepartingfromthegeneraltenorofconducthisfatherLaurencehadheld，andhopedtorelievehimselfbyimitatinghisfather’sexampleinoneparticularinstance。AtatimewhenthewarswiththepopeandkingofNapleshadreducedLaurencetocircumstancesofgreatdanger，hetooktheresolutionofgoingtoFerdinand，andoftreatinginpersonwiththatprince。Theresolutionappearsinhistoryimprudentandalmostdesperate：
　　wereweinformedofthesecretreasonsonwhichthisgreatmanacted，itwouldappearverypossibleawiseandsafemeasure。Itsucceeded，andLaurencebroughtbackwithhimpublicpeace，andprivatesecurity。AssoonastheFrenchtroopsenteredthedominionsofFlorence，Peterwasstruckwithapanicterror，wenttoCharlestheEighth，puttheportofLeghorn，thefortressesofPisa，andallthekeysofthecountry，intothisprince’shands；wherebyhedisarmedtheFlorentinecommonwealth，andruinedhimself。hewasdeprivedofhisauthority，anddrivenoutofthecity，bythejustindignationofthemagistrates，andpeople：andinthetreatywhichtheymadeafterwardswiththekingofFrance，itwasstipulated，thatPetershouldnotremainwithinanhundredmilesofthestate，norhisbrotherswithinthesamedistanceofthecityofFlorence。OnthisoccasionGuicciardinobserves，howdangerousitistogovernourselvesbyparticularexamples；sincetohavethesamesuccess，wemusthavethesameprudence，andthesamefortune；andsincetheexamplemustnotonlyanswerthecasebeforeusingeneral，butineveryminutecircumstance。Thisisthesenseofthatadmirablehistorian，andthesearehiswords——“é；senzadubiomoltapericolosoilgovernarsicongl’esempi，senonconcorrono，nonsoloingenerale，maintuttiiparticulari，lemedesimeragioni；selecosenonsonoregolateconlamedesimaprudenza，etseoltreatuttilialtrifondamenti，non，v’halapartesualamedesimafortuna。“AnobservationthatBoileaumakes，andarulehelaysdowninspeakingoftranslations，willproperlyfindtheirplacehere，andservetoexplainstillbetterwhatIwouldestablish。“Totranslateservilelyintomodernlanguageanancientauthorphrasebyphrase，andwordbyword，ispreposterous：nothingcanbemoreunliketheoriginalthansuchacopy。
　　Itisnottoshow，itistodisguisetheauthor：andhewhohasknownhimonlyinthisdress，wouldnotknowhiminhisown。Agoodwriter，insteadoftakingthisingloriousandunprofitabletaskuponhim，willjoustercontrel’original，ratherimitatethantranslate，andratheremulatethanimitate；
　　hewilltransfusethesenseandspiritoftheoriginalintohisownwork，andwillendeavortowriteastheancientauthorwouldhavewritten，hadhewritteninthesamelanguage。“Now，toimprovebyexamplesistoimprovebyimitation。Wemustcatchthespirit，ifwecan，andconformourselvestothereasonofthem；butwemustnotaffecttotranslateservilelyintoourconduct，ifyourlordshipwillallowmetheexpression，theparticularconductofthosegoodandgreatmen，whoseimageshistorysetsbeforeus。
　　CodrusandtheDeciidevotedthemselvestodeath：one，becauseanoraclehadforetoldthatthearmywhosegeneralwaskilledwouldbevictorious；
　　theothersincompliancewithasuperstitionthatboregreatanalogytoaceremonypractisedintheoldEgyptianchurch，andaddedafterwards，asmanyothersofthesameoriginwere，totheritualoftheIsraelites。Theseareexamplesofgreatmagnanimity，tobesure，andofmagnanimityemployedinthemostworthycause。IntheearlydaysoftheAthenianandRomangovernment，whenthecreditoforaclesandallkindsofsuperstitionprevailed，whenheavenwaspiouslythoughttodelightinblood，andevenhumanbloodwasshedunderwildnotionsofatonement，propitiation，purgation，expiation，andsatisfaction；theywhosetsuchexamplesasthese，actedanheroicalandarationalparttoo。Butifageneralshouldactthesamepartnow，and，inordertosecurehisvictory，getkilledasfastashecould，hemightpassforahero，but，Iamsure，hewouldpassforamadman。Eventheseexamples，however，areofuse：theyexciteusatleasttoventureourlivesfreelyintheserviceofourcountry，byproposingtoourimitationmenwhodevotedthemselvestocertaindeathintheserviceoftheirs。Theyshowuswhataturnofimaginationcanoperate，andhowthegreatesttrifle，naythegreatestabsurdity，dressedupinthesolemnairsofreligion，cancarryardorandconfidence，orthecontrarysentiments，intothebreastsofthousands。
　　Thesearecertaingeneralprinciples，andrulesoflifeandconduct，whichalwaysmustbetrue，becausetheyareconformabletotheinvariablenatureofthings。Hewhostudieshistoryashewouldstudyphilosophy，willsoondistinguishandcollectthem，andbydoingsowillsoonformtohimselfageneralsystemofethicsandpoliticsonthesurestfoundations，onthetrialoftheseprinciplesandrulesinallages，andontheconfirmationofthembyuniversalexperience。Isaidhewilldistinguishthem；foroncemoreI
　　mustsay，thatastoparticularmodesofactions，andmeasuresofconduct，whichthecustomsofdifferentcountries，themannersofdifferentages，andthecircumstancesofdifferentconjunctures，haveappropriated，asitwere；itisalwaysridiculous，orimprudentanddangeroustoemploythem。
　　Butthisisnotall。Bycontemplatingthevastvarietyofparticularcharactersandevents；byexaminingthestrangecombinationofcauses，different，remote，andseeminglyopposite，thatoftenconcurinproducingoneeffect；andthesurprisingfertilityofonesingleanduniformcauseintheproducingofamultitudeofeffects，asdifferent，remote，andseeminglyasopposite；
　　bytracingcarefully，ascarefullyasifthesubjectheconsiderswereofpersonalandimmediateconcerntohim，alltheminuteandsometimesscarceperceivablecircumstances，eitherinthecharactersofactors，orinthecourseofactions，thathistoryenableshimtotrace，andaccordingtowhichthesuccessofaffairs，eventhegreatest，ismostlydetermined；bythese，andsuchmethodsasthese，forImightdescendintoamuchgreaterdetail，amanofpartsmayimprovethestudyofhistorytoitsproperandprincipaluse；hemaysharpenthepenetration，fixtheattentionofhismind，andstrengthenhisjudgment；hemayacquirethefacultyandthehabitofdiscerningquicker，andlookingfarther；andofexertingthatflexibility，andsteadiness，whicharenecessarytobejoinedintheconductofallaffairsthatdependontheconcurrenceoroppositionofothermen。
　　MrLocke，Ithink，recommendsthestudyofgeometryeventothosewhohavenodesignofbeinggeometricians：andhegivesareasonforit，thatmaybeapplieStothepresentcase。Suchpersonsmayforgeteveryproblemthathasbeenproposed，andeverysolutionthattheyorothershavegiven；
　　butthehabitofpursuinglongtrainsofideaswillremainwiththem，andtheywillpiercethroughthemazesofsophism，anddiscoveralatenttruth，wherepersonswhohavenotthishabitwillneverfindit。
　　Inthismannerthestudyofhistorywillprepareusforactionandobservation。
　　Historyistheancientauthor：experienceisthemodernlanguage。Weformourtasteonthefirst，wetranslatethesenseandreason，wetransfusethespiritandforce；butweimitateonlytheparticulargracesoftheoriginal；
　　weimitatethemaccordingtotheidiomofourowntongue，thatis，wesubstituteoftenequivalentsinthelieuofthem，andarefarfromaffectingtocopythemservilely。Toconclude，asexperienceisconversantaboutthepresent，andthepresentenablesustoguessatthefuture；sohistoryisconversantaboutthepast，andbyknowingthethingsthathavebeen，webecomebetterabletojudgeofthethingsthatare。