Wearethusbroughtfacetofacewithaproblemwhich
　　possessesinterestinproportiontoitsdifficulty——theproblem
　　oftheoriginofCastes。Icannotprofesstodomorethan
　　approachit，buttheopportunityofthrowingeventheleastlight
　　onasubjectsodarkoughtnottobeneglected。Firstletmesay
　　that，amongthecomparativelyfewEnglishwriterswhohave
　　noticedtheBrehonlawyers，somehavelooselydescribedthemasa
　　caste。Butthisisanimproperuseoftheword，thoughitisone
　　notuncommoninIndia。AsregardsthepositionoftheBrehonsin
　　veryearlytimes，theevidenceoftheIrishrecordsisconsistent
　　withthetestimonyofCaesarastotheliteraryclassofthe
　　GallicCelts，andseemstoshowthatanyonewhowentthrougha
　　particulartrainingmightbecomeaBrehon。When，however，Ireland
　　begantobeexaminedbyEnglishobservers，itisplainthatthe
　　artandknowledgeoftheBrehonhadbecomehereditaryincertain
　　familieswhowereattachedtoordependentontheChiefsof
　　particulartribes。Thereisnothingremarkableinthischange，
　　whichhasobviouslyoccurredwithavastnumberoftradesand
　　professionsinIndia，nowpopularlycalledcastes。Insocieties
　　ofanarchaictype，aparticularcraftorkindofknowledge
　　becomesintimeanhereditaryprofessionoffamilies，almostasa
　　matterofcourse。ThedifficultywithanativeofIndia，
　　unsophisticatedbyEnglishideas，isnottofindareasonwhya
　　sonshouldsucceedtothelearningofhisfather，and
　　consequentlytohisofficeandduties；hisdifficultywould
　　ratherbetoexplaintohimselfwhyitshouldnotbeso，andhow
　　thepublicinterestscouldbeconsultedbyanyotherarrangement。
　　TheStatesgovernedbynativeIndianPrincesarebecomingagood
　　dealAnglicised，butstillinthemitisthepractically
　　universalrulethatofficeishereditary。Wedonot，however，
　　thusarriveatacompleteaccountofthegrowthofthosecastes
　　whicharedefinitesectionsofgreatpopulationsoneonlyof
　　thesecastesreallysurvivesinIndia，thatoftheBrahmins，and
　　itisstronglysuspectedthatthewholeliterarytheoryofCaste，
　　whichisofBrahminorigin，isbasedontheexistenceofthe
　　Brahmincasteatone。Now，thetendencyofknowledgetobecome
　　hereditaryis，byitself，consistentwithagreatvarietyof
　　religiousandliterarycultivation；but，asafact，theBrahmins
　　ofIndiaarearemarkablyhomogeneousclass，admittingthoughno
　　doubtwithconsiderablelocalqualificationsageneral
　　brotherhoodofallmembersoftheorder。
　　While，then，Icannotsaythatourscantyinformation
　　respectingchangesinthestatusoftheBrehonlawyershelpsus
　　muchtowardsacomprehensionofthebeginningsofCasteinthe
　　truesense，Icertainlythinkthatwelearnsomethingmorethan
　　weknewbeforefromthereferencesintheBrehontractsto
　　LiteraryFosterage。Theyappeartometogiveanewemphasisand
　　pointtotherulesofHindooLawrespectingtheremotesuccession
　　ofthe’spiritualpreceptor’tothepropertyoffamilies。It
　　seemsasifinthemostancientstateofbothsystemsLiteraryor
　　Religiousfatherhoodhadbeencloselyassimilatedtoactual
　　fatherhood。Underthesecircumstances，ifgreatschoolsofVedaic
　　learningexistedinIndiainveryancienttimes，aswehave
　　strongreasontothinktheydid，therelationbetweenTeacherand
　　Pupilwouldcloselyfollowandimitatetherelationbetween
　　fatherandson。Agreatprofessionwouldthusbeformed，with
　　storesofcommonknowledge；butthetiebetweenthememberswould
　　notbepurelyintellectual；itwouldfromthefirstbeconceived
　　asofthenatureofkinship。Suchasystem，astheoldideas
　　decayed，wouldtendinfalliblytobecomeoneofreal
　　consanguinity。Theaptitudeforsacredknowledgewouldcometo
　　bethoughttoruninthebloodofsonswhosefathershadbeen
　　instructedinit，andnonebutsuchsonswouldbereceivedinto
　　theschools。ACastewouldthusbeformed，intheeyesofits
　　membersthetypeofallCastes。
　　Wehavethusstrongreasonforthinkingthatsocietiesstill
　　undertheinfluenceofprimitivethoughtlabourunderacertain
　　incapacityforregardingmen，groupedtogetherbyvirtueofany
　　institutionswhatsoever，asconnectedotherwisethanthrough
　　blood-relationship。Wefindthat，throughthisbarrennessof
　　conception，theyareapttoextendthenotionofconsanguinity
　　andthelanguagebeginninginittoinstitutionsoftheirownnot
　　reallyfoundedoncommunityofblood，andeventoinstitutionsof
　　foreignorigin。Wefindalsothattheassociationbetween
　　institutionsarisingfromtruekinshipandinstitutionsbasedon
　　artificialkinshipissometimessostrong，thattheemotions
　　whichtheyrespectivelycallfortharepractically
　　indistinguishable。Thesephenomenaofearlythoughtandfeeling
　　appeartomeamplytoaccountforsomefactsofIrishhistory
　　whichnearlyallEnglishwritersonIrelandhavenoticedwith
　　extremesurpriseorindignation。TheexpressionsofSirJohn
　　Davis，whilestatingthatmanyoftheearlyAnglo-Norman
　　adventurerssettledinIrelandbecameintimepureIrish
　　chieftains，reflecttheviolentastonishmentandangerwhichthe
　　transformationexcitedinEnglishmen。’TheEnglishColonistsdid
　　embraceandusetheIrishcustom，aftertheyhadrejectedthe
　　CivilandHonourableLawsandCustomsofEngland，wherebythey
　　becamedegenerateandmetamorphosedlikeNebuchadnezzar，who，
　　althoughhehadthefaceofaman，hadtheheartofabeast；or
　　likethosewhohaddrunkofCirce’scupandwereturnedintovery
　　beasts，andyettooksuchpleasureintheirbeastlymannerof
　　lifeastheywouldnotreturntotheirshapeofmenagain；
　　insomuchaswithinlesstimethantheageofaman，theyhadno
　　marksordifferenceleftamongthemofthatnoblenationfrom
　　whichtheyweredescended。’Thefact，statedinthisbitter
　　language，isnotespeciallymarvellous。Wehaveseenthegeneral
　　complexionofIrishsocietygivingitscolourtoinstitutionsof
　　allsorts——associationsofkinsmenshadingoffintoassemblages
　　ofpartnersandguild-brothers——fosterparentage，spiritual
　　parentage，andpreceptorshiptakingtheirhuefromnatural
　　paternity——ecclesiasticalorganisationblendingwithtribal
　　organisation。TheAnglo-Normancaptainwhohadthoughttoconquer
　　forhimselfanIrishsignorypassedinsensiblyinthesameway
　　intothechieftainofanIrishtribe。Thedependantswho
　　surroundedhimdidnotpossiblydrawanycleardistinction
　　betweentheactualdepositaryofpowerandthenaturaldepositary
　　ofpower，and，asthecontagiousnessofideasisinproportionto
　　theirfewness，itisintelligiblethathetoowasaffectedbythe
　　mentalatmosphereinwhichhelived。Norwereothermotives
　　wanting。TheextremepovertyandconstantdistractionsofIreland
　　didnotpreventanextraordinaryamountoftheprideof
　　authority，oftheprideofbirth，andevenoftheprideofwealth
　　fromcentringinthedignityofanIrishChief。
　　ThePrimitiveFormsofLegalRemediesI。
　　IstatedonaformeroccasionLecture1。p。8thatthebranchoflawwhichwenowcalltheLawofDistressoccupiesthegreatestpartofthelargestBrehonlaw-tract，theSenchusMor。
　　TheimportancethusgiventoDistressisafactofmuchsignificance，andinthisandthefollowingLectureIproposetodiscussthequestionsitraisesandtheconclusionsitsuggests。
　　ThevalueofthepreciousdiscoverymadebyNiebuhr，whenhedisinterredin1816themanuscriptofGaius，doesnotsolelyarisefromthenewlightwhichwasatoncethrownonthebeginningsofthelegalsystemwhichisthemountainofthegreatestpartofcivilisedjurisprudence。Thereareportionsofthetreatisethenrestoredtotheworldwhichaffordusglimpsesofsomethingolderthanlawitself，andwhichenableustoconnectwithlawthepracticesdictatedtobarbarousmenbyimpulseswhichithasbecometheprimeofficeofalllawtocontrol。AttheheadofthepassagesintheworkofGaiuswhichallowthemind’seyetopenetratesomelittlewayintothechaosoutofwhichsocialordersprang，Iplacethefragmentaryandimperfectaccount，givennearthecommencementoftheFourthBook，oftheoldLegisActiones，whichintheageofGaiushimselfhadceasedtohavemorethananhistoricalandantiquarianinterest。
　　LegisActio，ofwhichtheexactmeaningdoesnotseemtohavebeenknowntoGaius，maybeconjecturedtohavebeenthesubstantiveformoftheverbalexpression，legemorlegeagere，andtohavebeenequivalenttowhatwenowcallProcedure。IthasbeenseveraltimesobservedthatamongtheLegisActionesareincludedseveralproceedingswhicharenotofthenatureofActionsorSuits，butarerathermodesofexecutingdecrees。Thefactseemstobethat，byacourseofchangewhichmaybetracedinthehistoryofRomanlaw，oneportion，’Actio，’ofthevenerablephrase’LegisActio’hasbeengraduallydisjoinedfromtherest，andhascometodenotethatstageoftheadministrationofjusticewhichisdirectlyconductedbytheCourt，together，insomejudicialsystems，withthestageimmediatelyprecedingit。I
　　supposethatoriginallylex，usedoftheassumedwrittenbasisofRomanlaw，andlegisactio，correspondedroughlytowhatmanycenturiesafterwardswerecalledSubstantiveandAdjectiveLaw，thelawdeclaringrightsanddutiesandtherulesaccordingtowhichthelawdeclaringrightsanddutiesisadministered。Ontheexpressionjustmentioned，AdjectiveLaw，withwhichBenthamandhisschoolhavefamiliarisedus，IwillmakearemarkwhichappliestomuchinthephraseologyandclassificationsoftheAnalyticalJurists，thatitiscorrectandconvenientaccordingtotheideasoftheirday，butthat，ifusedofveryoldlaw，itisapttoleadtoanhistoricalmisconception。Itwouldnotbeuntruetoassertthat，inonestageofhumanaffairs，rightsanddutiesarerathertheadjectiveofprocedurethanprocedureamereappendagetorightsandduties。Therehavebeentimeswhentherealdifficultylay，notinconceivingwhatamanwasentitledto，butinobtainingit；sothatthemethod，violentorlegal，bywhichanendwasobtainedwasofmoreconsequencethanthenatureoftheenditself。Asafact，itisonlyinthemostrecenttimesorinthemosthighlydevelopedlegalsystemsthatremedieshavelostimportanceincomparisonwithrightsandhaveceasedtoaffectthemdeeplyandvariously。
　　ThefirstandinmanyrespectsthemostinterestingoftheseancientmodesofproceedingistheLegisActioSacramenti，theundoubtedparentofalltheRomanActions，andconsequentlyofmostofthecivilremediesnowinuseintheworld。SeveralyearsagoIpointedoutAncientLaw，pp。376，377thatthetechnicalformalitiesappearedplainly，uponinspection，tobeadramatisationoftheOriginofJustice。’Twoarmedmen，’Isaid，’arewranglingaboutsomedisputedproperty。ThePraetor，virpietategravis，happenstobegoingbyandinterposestostopthecontest。Thedisputantsstatetheircasetohim，andagreethatheshallarbitratebetweenthem，itbeingarrangedthattheloser，besidesresigningthesubjectofthequarrel，shallpayasumofmoneytotheumpireasremunerationforhistroubleandlossoftime。’’Thisinterpretation，’Ithenadded，’wouldbelessplausiblethanitis，wereitnotthat，byasurprisingcoincidence，theceremonydescribedbyGaiusastheimperativecourseofproceedinginaLegisActioissubstantiallythesamewithoneofthetwosubjectswhichtheGodHephaestusisDescribedbyHomerasmouldingintotheFirstCompartmentoftheShieldofAchilles。’Singethesepassageswerewritten，thelaboursofmorerecentenquirersenableustoclassthisjudicialpictureoftheoriginofonegreatinstitution，CivilJustice，withotherpictorialordramaticrepresentationsofforgottenpracticeswhich，invariouspartsoftheworld，surviveintheformsattendinginstitutionsofatleastequalimportance。Itmaybeseen，forexample，fromMrMcLennan’sworkon’PrimitiveMarriage，’thatalargepartofmankindstillsimulateintheirmarriageceremoniesthecarryingoffthebridebyviolence，andthuspreservethememoryofthereignofforcewhich，atalleventsasbetweentribeandtribe，precededeverywherethereignoflaw。Itisnotatthesametimetobesupposedthattheselong-descendeddramasimplyoreverimpliedanydisrespectfortheinstitutionswithwhichtheyareassociated。Inallprobabilitytheyintentionallycommemoratenottheevilbuttheremedyfortheevil：and，untiltheydegenerateintomeaninglessusages，theyareenacted，notinhonourofbruteforce，butinhonouroftheinstitutionswhichsupersededit，MarriageandCivilJustice。