Itseemsextremelyprobablethat，inaparticularstageofsociety，thispersonalservicetotheChieforKingwaseverywhererenderedinexpectationofrewardintheshapeofagiftofland。TheCompanionsoftheTeutonickings，inContinentalEurope，sharedlargelyintheBenefices-grantsofRomanprovinciallandfullypeopledandstocked。InancientEnglandthesameclassarebelievedtohavebeenthelargestgranteesofpubliclandnexttotheChurch；anddoubtlesswehaveherepartofthesecretofthemysteriouschangebywhichanewnobilityofThanes，derivingdignityandauthorityfromtheKing，absorbedtheoldernobilityofEorls。ButwearealittleapttoforgettheplentifulnessoflandincountrieslyingbeyondthenorthernandwesternlimitsoftheRomanEmpire，orjustwithinthem。MrThoroldRogers，writingofaperiodrelativelymuchlater，andfoundinghisopinionontheextantevidenceofreturnsfrommanor-lands，speaksoflandasthe’cheapestcommodityoftheMiddleAges。’Thepracticaldifficultywasnottoobtainland，buttheinstrumentsformakingitproductive；andhence，inasocietyolderrelativelythananyTeutonicsocietyofwhichwehaveanydistinctknowledge，thatverysocietywhichtheBrehontractsenableustounderstand，itmayverywellhavebeenthattheobjectofsuitatcourtwasmuchlesstoobtainlandthantoobtaincattle。TheChief，asIhavealreadysaid，wasbeforeallthingsrichinflocksandherds。Hewasmilitaryleader，andagreatpartofhiswealthmusthavebeenspoilofwar，butinhiscivilcapacityhemultipliedhiskinethroughhisgrowingpowerofappropriatingthewasteforpasture，andthroughasystemofdispersinghisherdsamongthetribesmen，whichwillbedescribedinthenextLecture。TheCompanionwhofollowedhimtotheforay，orwasreadytodoso，cannotbuthavebeenenrichedbyhisbounty；andthus，ifalreadynoble，hebecamegreater；ifhewasnotnoble，thewaytonobilitylaythroughwealth。ThepassagewhichIamabouttoreadtoyoumayservetoillustratewhatprobablytookplace，thoughthereisnothingexceptcommonhumanitytoconnectthetribesofwhosecustomsitspeakswiththeprimitiveTeutonsandCelts。TheRevH。Dugmore，inamostinterestingvolume，calleda’CompendiumofKafirLawsandCustoms，’andpublishedattheWesleyanMissionaryPress，MountCoke，BritishKaffraria，writesthusofmuchthemostadvancedoftheSouthAfricannativeraces，theKafirsorZulusp。27：’Ascattleconstitutethesolewealthofthepeople，sotheyaretheironlymediumofsuchtransactionsasinvolveexchange，payment，orreward。Theretainersofachiefservehimforcattle；norisitexpectedthathecouldmaintainhisinfluence，orindeedsecureanynumberoffollowers，ifunabletoprovidethemwithwhatatonceconstitutestheirmoney，food，andclothing。Herequires，then，aconstantfundfromwhichtosatisfyhisdependants；andtheamountofthefundrequiredmaybejudgedoffromthecharacterofthedemandmadeuponhim。Hisretinue，court，orwhateveritistobecalled，consistsofmenfromallpartsofthetribe，theyoung，theclever，andthebrave，whocometodocourtserviceforatime，thattheymayobtaincattletofurnishthemwiththemeansofprocuringwives，arms，orotherobjectsofdesire。Onobtainingthesetheyreturntotheirhomesandgiveplacetoothers。Thustheimmediateretinueofachiefiscontinuallychanging，andconstitutesapermanentdrainonhisresources。’MrDugmoregoesontostatethatthesourcesofthechief’swealtharetheinheritedcattleofhisfather，offeringsmadetohimontheceremonyofhiscircumcision，benevolencesleviedfromhistribe，finesandconfiscations，andtheresultsofpredatoryexcursions。
　　TheremarkablepartplayedbykineinancientIrishsocietywill，Ihope，bemademoreintelligibleinthenextLecture。
　　Meantime，letmeobservethatthetwoCelticsocietiesincludedintheseislandswhichlongestretainedtheirancientusageswerebothnotoriouslygiventotheplunderofcattle。LordMacaulay，inspeakingofIrishcattle-stealing，sometimes，Imustown，seemstometoexpresshimselfasifhethoughtthepracticeattributabletosomenativeviceofIrishcharacter；butnodoubtitwaswhatMrTylorhastaughtustocallasurvival，anancientandinveteratehabit，whichinthiscasecontinuedthroughthemisfortunewhichdeniedtoIrelandthegreatconditionofmodernlegalideas，astrongcentralgovernment。Theverysamepractice，amongtheCeltsoftheScottishHighlandsandtherudeGermanicpopulationoftheLowlandBorder，hasalmostbeeninvestedbyoneman’sgeniuswiththedignityofavirtue。Again，turningto’Waverley，’IsupposethereisnotruerrepresentativeoftheprimitiveCelticchiefthanDonaldBeanLean，whodrivesthecattleofTullyVeolan，andemploysasoothsayertopredictthenumberofbeeveswhicharelikelytocomeinhisWay。Heisafarmoregenuine’survival’thanFergusMcIvor，whoallbutdesertshiscauseforadisappointmentaboutanearldom。
　　IthasbeenpointedoutthatthestatusoftheKing’sCompanionswasatfirstinsomewayservile。WheneverlegalexpressionhastobegiventotherelationsoftheComitatustotheTeutonickings，theportionsoftheRomanlawselectedareuniformlythosewhichdeclarethesemi-servilerelationoftheClientorFreedmantohisPatron。TheBrehonlawpermitsustotakethesameviewofthecorrespondingclassinCelticsocieties。SeveraltextsindicatethataChiefofhighdegreeisalwaysexpectedtosurroundhimselfwithunfreedependants；andyouwillrecollectthattheretinueoftheKingofErinwastoconsistnotonlyoffreetribesmenbutofabodyguardofmenboundtohimbyservileobligations。Sofarasitgoes，IquiteagreewiththeexplanationwhichMrFreemanhasgivenoftheoriginalconnectionbetweenservilestatusandthatnobilitywithwhichtheprimitivenobilityofbirthhasbecomemixedupandconfounded。’Thelowlyclientage，’hesays，’oftheRomanPatricianandthenoblefollowingoftheHellenicandTeutonicleadermayreallycomefromthesamesource，andmaybothalikebepartsofthesameprimevalheritage。’’ComparativePolitics，’p。261。Butperhapswemaypermitourselvestogoastepbeyondthisaccount。TheComitatusorCompanionsoftheChief，evenwhentheywerefreemen，werenotnecessarilyOrordinarilyhisnearkindred。Theirdependenceonhim，carryingwithitfriendshipandaffection，wouldinmodernsocietiesplacetheminapositionwellunderstood，andonsomethinglikeanequalitywithhim；butinthebeginningofthingsonemanwasalwaysthekinsman，theslave，ortheenemyofanother，andmerefriendshipandaffectionwould，bythemselves，createnotiebetweenmanandman。Inorderthattheymighthaveanyreality，theywouldhavetobeconsideredasestablishingoneoftherelationsknowntothatstageofthought。Betweenequalsthiswouldbeassumedorfictitiouskinship。ButbetweentheChiefwhoembodiedpurityoftribaldescentandhisassociates，itwouldhavemoreorlesstofollowthepatternoftheslave’sdependenceonhismaster，and，wheretheCompanionwasnotactuallytheChief’sslave，thebondwhichconnectedthemwouldveryprobablybeadaptedtothemorehonourablemodelfurnishedbytherelationbetweenex-slaveandex-master。
　　TheChiefandtheLandTheBrehonlaw-tractsstronglysuggestthat，amongthethingswhichweinmoderntimeshavemostforgotten，istheimportanceofhornedcattle，notmerelyintheinfancyofsociety，butataperiodwhenithadmadesomeconsiderableadvancetowardsmaturityItisscarcelypossibletoturnoverapagewithoutfindingsomeallusiontobeeves，tobulls，cows，heifers，andcalves。Horsesappear，sheep，swine，anddogs；andbees，theproducersofthegreatestofprimitiveluxuries，haveaplaceassignedtothemasanarticleofpropertywhichhassomethingcorrespondingtoitinoldRomanlaw。Buttheanimalsmuchthemostfrequentlymentionedarekine。Therearesomefewfactsbothofetymologyandoflegalclassificationwhichpointtotheformerimportanceofoxen。Capitale——kinereckonedbythehead-cattle——hasgivenbirthtooneofthemostfamoustermsoflawandtooneofthemostfamoustermsofpoliticaleconomy，ChattelsandCapital。Pecuniawasprobablythewordformoneywhichwasemployedbythelargestpartofmankindforthelongesttimetogether。Butoxen，thoughtheyhavefurnishedamodernsynonymforpersonalproperty，werenot，Ineedscarcelysay，classedinthelowerorderofcommoditiesinallancientsystemsoflaw。TheprimitiveRomanlawplacedtheminthehighestclass，andjoinedthemwithlandandslavesasitemsoftheResMancipi。
　　Asinseveralotherinstances，thelegaldignityofthisdescriptionofpropertyamongtheRomansappearstoanswertoitsreligiousdignityamongtheHindoos。Kine，whichthemostancientSanscritliteratureshowstohavebeeneatenasfood，becameatsomeunknownperiodsacred，andtheirfleshforbidden；
　　and。ultimatelytwoofthechief’ThingswhichrequiredaMancipation’atRome，oxenandlandedproperty，hadtheircounterpartinthesacredbullofSivaandthesacredlandofIndia。
　　Thesubjecthaspossiblybeenobscuredbyanimpressionthathornedcattlewereonlyofpreeminentimportancetomankindinthatpastoralstageofsocietywhichhasbeenthethemeofsomuchnotaltogetherprofitablespeculation。Theactualevidenceseemstoshowthattheirgreatestvaluewasobtainedwhengroupsofmensettledonspacesoflandandbetookthemselvestothecultivationoffood-grains。Itisverypossiblethatkinewereatfirstexclusivelyvaluedfortheirfleshandmilk，butitisclearthatinveryearlytimesadistinctspecialimportancebelongedtothemastheinstrumentormediumofexchange。IntheHomericliterature，theyarecertainlyameasureofvalue；thereseemsnoreasontodoubtthetraditionalstorythattheearliestcoinedmoneyknownatRomewasstampedwiththefigureofanox；
　　andatalleventstheconnectionbetween’pecus’and’pecunia’isunmistakeable。Part，butbynomeansall，theprominencegivenbytheBrehonlawyerstohornedcattlewisescertainlyfromtheirusefulnessinexchange。ThroughouttheBrehontractsfines，dues，rents，andreturnsarecalculatedinlive-stock，notexclusivelyinkine，butnearlyso。Twostandardsofvalueareconstantlyreferredto，’sed’and’cumhal。’’Cumhal’issaidtohaveoriginallymeantafemaleslave，justas’ancilla’inmedievalLatinitysometimesmeansthepriceofaslave-girl；but’sed’isplainlyusedforanamountorquantityoflivestock，probablytosomesmallextentvariable。Thenextstage，however，inthehistoryofcattleisthatatwhichtheirservicetomankindisgreatest。Theyarenowvaluedchiefly，insomecommunitiesexclusively，fortheiruseintillage，fortheirlabourandtheirmanure。TheirplacehasbeentakenverygenerallyinWesternEuropebyhorsesasbeastsofplough，butthechangewaseventherebothgradualandcomparativelymodern；andtherearestilllargeportionsoftheworldwherethehorseisexclusivelyemployed，asitseemseverywheretohavebeenatonetime，forwar，forpleasure，orthechase。OxenwerethusalmostthesolerepresentativesofwhataPoliticalEconomistwouldnowcallCapitalappliedtoland。IthinkitprobablethattheeconomicalcauseswhichledtothedisuseofoxenasamediumofexchangeledalsotothechangeintheirlegalpositionwhichwefindtohavetakenplaceatRomeandinIndia。ThesanctificationoftheoxamongtheHindoos，renderinghisfleshunlawfulasfood，mustcertainlyhavebeenconnectedwiththedesiretopreservehimfortillage，andhiselevationtoaplaceamongtheResMancipimaywellhavebeensupposedtohavethesametendency，sinceitmadehisalienationextremelydifficult，andmusthavegreatlyembarrassedhisemploymentinexchange。Atthispointthehistoryofhornedcattlebecomesunhappilymixedupwiththatoflargeportionsofmankind。Thesamecauseswhichweperceivealteringthepositionoftheoxandturninghimintoananimalpartiallyadscriptusglebaeiundoubtedlyproducedalsoagreatextensionofslavery。Theplentifulnessofland，eveninwhatareconsideredoldcountries，downtocomparativelyrecenttimes，andthescarcityofcapitaleveninitsrudestforms，seemtometobeplacedintheclearestlightbyMrThoroldRogers’sdeeplyinstructivevolumesonAgricultureandPricesduringtheMiddleAges；andmuchinhistorywhichhasbeenonlypartiallyintelligibleisexplainedbythem。TheenormousimportationofslavesintothecentralterritoriesoftheRomanCommonwealth，andthewholesaledegradationofthefreecultivatingcommunitiesofWesternEuropeintoassemblagesofvilleins，seemtobeexpedientsofthesamenatureasrestrictionsonthealienationoftheoxandonitsconsumptionforfood，andtohavebeenalikesuggestedbythesameimperiousnecessityofprocuringandpreservinginstrumentsforthecultivationofland。
　　Theimportanceofhornedcattletomeninaparticularstateofsocietymust，asitseemstome，becarefullyborneinmindifwearetounderstandoneofthemostremarkablepartsoftheancientIrishlawwhichrelatestothepracticeof’givingstock。’Istatedbeforethat，thoughIdidnotdrawthesameinferencesfromthefact，Iagreedwiththewriterswhothinkthattheland-systemofancientIrelandwastheoreticallybasedonthedivisionofthetribe-landsamongthefreetribesmen。ButIalsosaidthatinmyopinionthetruedifficultyofthosedayswasnottoobtainlandbuttoobtainthemeansofcultivatingit。
　　Thewantofcapital，takeninitsoriginalsense，wasthenecessitywhichpressedonthesmallholderoflandandreducedhimoccasionallytothesoreststraits。Ontheotherhand，thegreatownersofcattlewerethevariousChiefs，whoseprimitivesuperioritytotheothertribesmeninthisrespectwasprobablyowingtotheirnaturalfunctionsasmilitaryleadersofthetribe。TheBrehonlawsuggeststomethattheChiefstoowerepressedbyadifficultyoftheirown，thatoffindingsufficientpasturagefortheirherds。Doubtlesstheirpoweroverthewaste-landsoftheparticulargroupoverwhichtheyhappenedtopresidewasalwaysgrowing，butthemostfruitfulportionsofthetribalterritorywouldprobablybethosewhichthefreetribesmenoccupied。ThefactthatthewealthoftheChiefsincattlewasoutofproportiontotheirpowerofdealingwiththetriballands，andthefactthatthetribesmenwereeverynowandthenseverelypressedbythenecessityofprocuringthemeansoftillage，appeartometosupplythebestexplanationofthesystemofgivingandreceivingstock，towhichtwosub-tractsoftheSenchusMoraredevoted，theCain-SaerrathandtheCain-Aigillne，theLawofSaer-stocktenureandtheLawofDaer-stocktenure。