PrefaceIntheLecturesprintedinthisVolumeanattemptismadetocarryfartherinsomeparticularsthelineofinvestigationpursuedbytheAuthorinanearlierworkon’AncientLaw’。Thefortunesofthelegalsystemwhichthensuppliedhimwiththegreatestnumberofhisillustrationshavebeenstrikinglyunlikethoseofanotherbodyoflawfromwhichhehasnowendeavouredtoobtainsomenewmaterialsforlegalandsocialhistory。TheRomanLawhasneverceasedtobespokenofwithdeeprespect，anditisinfactthesourceofthegreatestpartoftherulesbywhichcivillifeisstillgovernedintheWesternWorld。TheAncientIrishLaw，theso-calledBrehonLaw，hasbeenforthemostpartbitterlycondemnedbythefewwriterswhohavenoticedit；and，aftergraduallylosingwhateverinfluenceitoncepossessedinthecountryinwhichitgrewup，intheenditwasforciblysuppressed。YettheverycaseswhichhavedeniedamodernhistorytotheBrehonLawhavegivenitaespecialinterestofitsowninourdaythroughthearrestofitsdevelopment；andthisinterest，theAuthorhopes，issufficienttoserveashisexcuseformakingtheconclusionsitsuggeststheprincipalsubjectoftheLecturesnowpublished，exceptthelastthree。
　　Theobligationso*theAuthortovariousGentlemenforinstructionderivedfromtheirpublishedwritingsorprivatecommunicationsareacknowledgedinthebodyofthework，buthehastoexpresshisespecialthankstotheBishopofLimerick，andtoProfessorThaddeusO’Mahony，forfacilitiesofaccesstothestillunpublishedtranslationsofBrehonmanuscripts，aswellasformanyvaluablesuggestions。
　　TheLectureswiththeomissionofportionshaveallbeendeliveredatOxford。
　　CornwallGardens，London，S。W。；
　　November
　　LectureOne。
　　NewMaterialsfortheEarlyHistoryofInstitutionsThesourcesofinformationconcerningtheearlyhistoryofinstitutionswhichhavebeenopenedtousarenumerousandvaluable。Ononesubjectinparticular，whichmaybeconfidentlysaidtohavebeenalmostexclusivelyinvestigatedtilllatelybywriterswhohadfollowedafalsepath，theadditionstoourknowledgeareofspecialinterestandimportance。WeatlengthknowsomethingconcerningthebeginningsofthegreatinstitutionofPropertyinLand。Thecollectiveownershipofthesoilbygroupsofmeneitherinfactunitedbyblood-relationships，orbelievingorassumingthattheyaresounited，isnowentitledtotakerankasanascertainedprimitivephenomenon，onceuniversallycharacterisingthosecommunitiesofmankindbetweenwhosecivilisationandourownthereisanydistinctconnectionoranalogy。Theevidencehasbeenfoundonallsidesofus，dimlyseenandverifiablewithdifficultyincountrieswhichhaveundergonetheenormouspressureoftheRomanEmpire，orwhichhavebeenstronglyaffectedbyitsindirectinfluence，butperfectlyplainandunmistakeableinthepartsoftheworld，peopledbytheAryanrace，wheretheEmpirehasmadeitselffeltveryslightlyornotatall。AsregardstheSclavoniccommunities，theenfranchisementofthepeasantryoftheRussiandominionsinEuropehasgivenastimulustoenquirieswhichformerlyhadattractionsforonlyafewcuriousobservers，andtheamountofinformationcollectedhasbeenverylarge。WenowknowmuchmoreclearlythanwedidbeforethatthesoiloftheolderprovincesoftheRussianEmpirehasbeen，fromtimeimmemorial，almostexclusivelydistributedamonggroupsofself-styledkinsmen，collectedincultivatingvillage-communities，self-organisedandself-governing；and，sincethegreatmeasureofthepresentreign，thecollectiverightsofthesecommunities，andtherightsanddutiesoftheirmembersinrespectofoneanother，arenolongerentangledwithandlimitedbythemanorialprivilegesofanowner-in-chief。
　　ThereisalsofreshevidencethatthemorebackwardoftheoutlyingSclavonicsocietiesareconstituteduponessentiallythesamemodel；anditisoneofthefactswithwhichtheWesternworldwillsomedayassuredlyhavetoreckon，thatthepoliticalideasofsolargeaportionofthehumanrace，anditsideasofpropertyalso，areinextricablyboundupwiththenotionsoffamilyinterdependency，ofcollectiveownership，andofnaturalsubjectiontopatriarchalpower。ThetracesoftheancientsocialorderintheGermanicandScandinaviancountriesare，Ineedscarcelysay，considerablyfainter，andtendalwaystobecomemoreobscured；butthere-examinationofthewrittenevidencerespectingancientTeutoniclifeandcustomproceedswithoutintermission，andincidentallymuchlighthasbeenthrownontheearlyhistoryofpropertybytheremarkableworkofSohm’FrankischeReichs-undGerichtsverfassung’。TheresultsobtainedbythespecialmethodofG。L。VonMaurerhavemeantimebeenverifiedbycomparisonwithphenomenadiscoveredinthemostunexpectedquarters。TheresearchesofM。deLaveleye，inparticular，havebeenconductedoverafieldofverywideextent；
　　and，althoughIdissentfromsomeoftheeconomicconclusionstowhichhehasbeenled，Icannotspeaktoohighlyofthevalueofthematerialscollectedbyhim，anddescribedintherecentlypublishedvolumewhichhehasentitled“LaProprieteetsesFormesPrimitives“。IhavenotobservedthatthevestigesleftonthesoilandlawofEnglandandoftheScottishLowlandsbytheancientVillage-CommunityhavebeenmadethesubjectofanypublishedworksincethemonographofNasseonthe“LandCommunityoftheMiddleAges“wasgiventotheworld，andsincethelecturesdeliveredinthisplacethreeyearssinceappearedinprint。Nobody，however，whoknowsthecarefulnesswithwhichanEnglishCourtofJusticesiftsthematerialsbroughtbeforeitwillwonderatmyattachingaspecialimportancetothejudgmentofLordChancellorHatherley，giveninadifficultcasewhicharosethroughadisputebetweendifferentclassesofpersonsinterestedinamanor，WarrickagainstQueen’scollege，Oxfordreportedin6LawReports，ChanceryAppeals，716。ItappearstometorecognisethetracesofastateofthingsolderthanthetheoreticalbasisofEnglishRealPropertyLaw，and，sofarasitgoes，toallowthatthedescriptionofitgivenherewascorrect。
　　Meanwhile，ifImayjudgefromthecommunicationswhichdonotceasetoreachmefromIndia，andfromvariouspartsofthiscountry，theconstitutionoftheVillage-Community，asitexists，andasitexisted，isengagingtheattentionofalargenumberofindustriousobservers，andthefactsbearinguponthesubject，whichIhopewillsomedaybemadepublic，provetoexistinextraordinaryabundance。
　　TherewasnotsetofcommunitieswhichuntilrecentlysupplieduswithinformationlessinamountandapparentvalueconcerningtheearlyhistoryoflawthanthoseofCelticorigin。
　　Thiswasthemoreremarkable，becauseoneparticulargroupofsmallCelticsocieties，whichhaveengrossedmorethantheirshareoftheinterestofthiscountry——theclansoftheScottishHighlands——hadadmittedlyretainedmanyofthecharacteristics，andinparticularthepoliticalcharacteristicsofamoreancientconditionoftheworld，almostdowntoourownday。Buttheexplanationis，thatallCelticsocietieswereuntilrecentlyseenbythosecompetenttoobservethemthroughapeculiarlydeceptivemedium。Aveilspreadbythelawyers，aveilwovenofRomanlawandofthecomparativelymoderncombinationofprimitiveandRomanlawwhichwecallfeudalism，hungbetweentheHighlandinstitutionsandtheshrewdinvestigatinggeniusoftheScottishLowlanders。AthickmistoffeudallawhidtheancientconstitutionofIrishsocietyfromEnglishobservation，andledtounfoundeddoubtsrespectingtheauthenticityofthelawsofWales。TheancientorganisationoftheCeltsofGaul，describedbyCaesarwiththegreatestclearnessanddecisiveness，appearedtohaveentirelydisappearedfromFrance，partlybecauseFrenchsocietywasexclusivelyexaminedformanycenturiesbylawyerstrainedeitherinRomanorinhighlyfeudalisedlaw，butpartlyalsobecausetheinstitutionsoftheGallicCeltshadreallypassedunderthecrushingmachineryofRomanlegislation。Idonot，indeed，meantosaythatthisdarknesshasnotrecentlygivensignsoflifting。IthasbeenrecognizedthatthecollectionsofWelshlawspublishedbytheRecordCommission，thoughtheiroriginanddateareuncertain，areundoubtedlybodiesofgenuinelegalrules；and，independentlyofthepublicationstowhichIamabouttodirectattention，thegroupofIrishscholars，whichhassucceededaschoolalmostinfamousfortheunchastenedlicenseofitsspeculationsonhistoryandphilology，hadpointedoutmanythingsinIrishcustomwhichconnecteditwiththearchaicpracticesknowntobestillfollowedortohavebeenfollowedbytheGermanicraces。Asearlyas1837MrW。F。Skene，inaworkofmuchvaluecalled“TheHighlandersofScotland“，hadcorrectedmanyofthemistakesonthesubjectofHighlandusageintowhichwritersexclusivelyconversantwithfeudalruleshadbeenbetrayed；andthesameeminentantiquarian，inanappendixtohiseditionoftheScottishchronicler，Fordun，publishedin1872，confirmsevidencewhichhadreachedmeinconsiderablequantitiesfromprivatesourcestotheeffectthatvillage-communitieswith’shiftingseveralties’existedintheHighlandswithinlivingmemory。Quiterecently，also，M。LePlayandothershavecomeuponplaintracesofsuchcommunitiesinseveralpartsofFrance。Aclosere-examinationoftheCustumalsormanualsoffeudalrulesplentifulinFrenchlegalliterature，ledfarthertosomehighlyinterestingresults。ItclearlyappearedfromthemthatcommunitiesofvilleinswereconstantlyfoundontheestatesoftheFrenchterritorialnobility。Thelegalwritershavealwaysrepresentedtheseasvoluntaryassociationswhichwereratherfavouredbythelordonaccountofthegreatercertaintyandregularitywithwhichtheirmembersrenderedhimsuitandservice。Asarule，whenatenantholdingbybasetenuredied，thelordsucceededinthefirstinstancetohisland，aruleofwhichthereareplaintracesinourEnglishlawofcopyhold。Butitisexpresslystatedthat，inthecaseofanassociationofvilleins，thelorddidnotresumetheirland，beingsupposedtobecompensatedbytheirbetterabilitytofurnishhisdues。Nowthattheexplanationhasoncebeengiven，therecanbenodoubtthattheseassociationswerenotreallyvoluntarypartnerships，butgroupsofkinsmen；not，however，sooftenorganisedontheordinarytypeoftheVillage-CommunityasonthatoftheHouse-Community，whichhasrecentlybeenexaminedinDalmatiaandCroatia。EachofthemwaswhattheHindooscallaJointUndividedFamily，acollectionofassumeddescendantsfromacommonancestor，preservingacommonhearthandcommonmealsduringseveralgenerations。Therewasnoescheatofthelandtothelordonadeath，becausesuchacorporationneverdies，andthesuccessionisperpetual。
　　ButmuchthemostinstructivecontributiontoourknowledgeoftheancientCelticsocietieshasbeenfurnishedbytheIrishGovernment，inthetranslationsoftheAncientLawsofIreland，whichhavebeenpublishedatitsexpense。Thefirstvolumeofthesetranslationswaspublishedin1865；thesecondin1869；thethird，enrichedwithsomevaluableprefaces，hasonlyjustappeared。Nooneinterestedinthestudieswhicharenowoccupyinguscouldfailtorecognisetheimportanceoftheearliervolumes，buttherewasmuchdifficultyindeterminingtheirexactbearingontheearlyhistoryofCelticinstitutions。
　　ThebulkofthelawfirstpublishedconsistedinacollectionofrulesbelongingtowhatinourmodernlegallanguageweshouldcalltheLawofDistress。Now，inveryancientbodiesofrulestheLawofDistress，asIshallendeavourtoexplainhereafter，isundoubtedlyentitledtoaverydifferentplacefromthatwhichwouldbegiventoitinanymodernsystemofjurisprudence；butstillitisahighlyspecialbranchoflawinanystageofdevelopment。Thereis，however，anothermorepermanentandmoreseriouscauseofembarrassmentindrawingconclusionsfromtheselaws。Untilcomparativelylatelytheywerepracticallyunintelligible；andtheywererestoredtoknowledgebytheoriginaltranslators，DrO’DonovanandDrO’Curry，twoveryremarkablemen，bothofwhomarenowdead。ThetranslationshavebeencarefullyrevisedbythelearnededitoroftheIrishtext；
　　butitisprobablethatseveralgenerationsofCelticscholarswillhavehadtointerchangecriticismsonthelanguageofthelawsbeforethereaderwhoapproachesthemwithoutanypretensiontoCelticscholarshipcanbequitesurethathehastheexactmeaningofeverypassagebeforehim。Thelaws，too，Ineedscarcelysay，arefulloftechnicalexpressions；andthegreatestscholarwhohasnothadalegaltraining——and，indeed，uptoacertainpointwhenhehashadalegaltraining——mayfailtocatchtheexactexcessordefectofmeaningwhichdistinguishesawordinpopularusefromthesamewordemployedtechnically。Suchconsiderationssuggestthegreatestpossiblecautionindealingwiththisbodyofrules。InwhatfollowsIattempttodrawinferencesonlywhenthemeaninganddriftofthetextseemreasonablycertain，andIhaveavoidedsomepromisinglinesofenquirywhichwouldleadusthroughpassagesofdoubtfulsignification。
　　ThevaluewhichtheAncientLawsofIreland，theso-calledBrehonlaws，willpossesswhentheyarecompletelypublishedandinterpreted，may，Ithink，beillustratedinthisway。LetitberememberedthattheRomanLaw，which，nexttotheChristianReligion，isthemostplentifulsourceoftherulesgoverningactualconductthroughoutWesternEurope，isdescendedfromasmallbodyofAryancustomsreducedtowritinginthefifthcenturybeforeChrist，andknownastheTwelveTablesofRome。
　　Letitfartherberecollectedthatthislawwasatfirstexpandedandenveloped，notatall，orveryslightly，bylegislation，butbyaprocesswhichwemayperceivestillinoperationinvariouscommunities——thejuridicalinterpretationofauthoritativetextsbysuccessivegenerationsoflearnedmen。Now，thelargestcollectionofIrishlegalrules，whichhascomedowntous，professestobeanancientCode，withanappendageoflaterglossesandcommentaries；and，ifitsauthenticitycouldbefullyestablished，thisancientIrishCodewouldcorrespondhistoricallytotheTwelveTablesofRome，andtomanysimilarbodiesofwrittenruleswhichappearintheearlyhistoryofAryansocieties。Thereisreason，however，tothinkthatitsclaimstoantiquitycannotbesustainedtotheirfullextent，andthattheCodeitselfisanaccretionofruleswhichhaveclusteredroundanoldernucleus。Butthatsomesuchkernelorperhapsseveralsuchkernelsofwrittenlawexisted，ishighlyprobable，anditisalsoprobablethatthewholeoftheBrehonlawconsistsofthemandofaccumulationsformeduponthem。Itisfartherprobablethattheprocessbywhichtheseaccumulationswereformedwas，asintheinfancyoftheRomanState，juridicalinterpretation。AccordingtotheopinionwhichIfollow，theinterestingfactabouttheancientIrishlawis，thatthisprocesswasexclusive，andthatnoneofthelateragenciesbywhichlawistransformedcameintoplay。TheBrehonlawsareinnosensealegislativeconstruction，andthustheyareinnosensealegislativeconstruction，andthustheyarenotonlyanauthenticmonumentofaveryancientgroupofAryaninstitutions；