OnthepaperspresentedIinclinetotheview，asalreadyindicated，thattheclaimsofthepatentinsuitshouldbebroadlyconstrued;andwhengivensuchconstruction，theelementsoftheWrightmachinearefoundindefendants’
　　machineperformingthesamefunctionalresult.
　　Therearedissimilaritiesinthedefendants’structure——
　　changesofformandstrengtheningofparts——whichmaybeimprovements，butsuchdissimilaritiesseemtometohavenobearinguponthemeansadoptedtopreservetheequilibrium，whichmeansaretheequivalentoftheclaimsinsuitandattainanidenticalresult.
　　VarianceFromPatentImmaterial.
　　"DefendantsfurthercontendthatthecurvedorarchedsurfacesoftheWrightaeroplanesincommercialusearedeparturesfromthepatent，whichdescribes’substantiallyflatsurfaces，’andthatsuchaconstructionwouldbewhollyimpracticable.Thedrawing，Fig.3，however，attachedtothespecification，showsacurvedlineinwardoftheaeroplanewithstraightlateraledges，andconsideringsuchdrawingwiththeterminologyofthespecification，theslightarchingofthesurfaceisnotthoughtamaterialdeparture;atanyrate，thepatentinissuedoesnotbelongtotheclassofpatentswhichrequiresnarrowingtothedetailsofconstruction."
　　"JuneBug"FirstInfringement.
　　Referringtothematterofpriority，thejudgesaid：
　　"Indeed，nooneinterferedwiththerightsofthepatenteesbyconstructingmachinessimilartotheirsuntilinJuly，1908，whenCurtissexhibitedaflyingmachinewhichhecalledthe’JuneBug.’Hewasimmediatelynotifiedbythepatenteesthatsuchmachinewithitsmovablesurfacesatthetipsofwingsinfringedthepatentinsuit，andherepliedthathedidnotintendtopubliclyexhibitthemachineforprofit，butmerelywasengagedinexhibitingitforscientificpurposesasamemberoftheAerialExperimentAssociation.Tothisthepatenteesdidnotobject.Subsequently，however，themachine，withsupplementaryplanesplacedmidwaybetweentheupperandloweraeroplanes，waspubliclyexhibitedbythedefendantcorporationandusedbyCurtissinaerialflightsforprizesandemoluments.Itfurtherappearsthatthedefendantsnowthreatentocontinuesuchuseforgainandprofit，andtoengageinthemanufactureandsaleofsuchinfringingmachines，therebybecominganactiverivalofcomplainantinthebusinessofconstructingflyingmachinesembodyingtheclaimsinsuit，butsuchuseoftheinfringingmachinesitisthedutyofthiscourt，onthepaperspresented，toenjoin.
　　"Therequirementsinpatentcausesfortheissuanceofaninjunctionpendentelite——thevalidityofthepatent，generalacquiescencebythepublicandinfringementbythedefendants——aresoreasonablyclearthatIbelieveifnotprobablethecomplainantmaysucceedatfinalhearing，andtherefore，statusquoshouldbepreservedandapreliminaryinjunctiongranted.
　　"Soordered."
　　PointsClaimedByCurtiss.
　　ThattheHerring—CurtissCo.willappealisacertainty.
　　Mr.EmersonR.Newell，counselforthecompany，statesitscaseasfollows：
　　"TheCurtissmachinehastwomainsupportingsurfaces，bothofwhicharecurved***andareabsolutelyrigidatalltimesandcannotbemoved，warpedordistortedinanymanner.Thefronthorizontalrudderisusedforthesteeringupordown，andtherearverticalrudderisusedonlyforsteeringtotherightorleft，inthesamemannerasaboatissteeredbyitsrudder.Themachineisprovidedattherearwithafixedhorizontalsurface，whichisnotpresentinthemachineofthepatent，andwhichhasadistinctadvantageintheoperationofdefendants’machine，aswillbehereafterdiscussed.
　　DoesNotWarpMainSurface.
　　"Defendants’machinedoesnotusethewarpingofthemainsupportingsurfacesinrestoringthelateralequilibrium，buthastwocomparativelysmallpivotedbalancingsurfacesorrudders.Whenoneendofthemachineistippedupordownfromthenormal，theseplanesmaybethrowninoppositedirectionsbytheoperator，andsosteereachendofthemachineupordowntoitsnormallevel，atwhichtimetensionuponthemisreleasedandtheyaremovedbackbythepressureofthewindtotheirnormalposition.
　　RudderUsedOnlyForSteering.
　　"Whendefendants’balancingsurfacesaremovedtheypresentequalanglesofincidencetothenormalrushofairandequalresistances，ateachsideofthemachine，andthereisthereforenotendencytoturnaroundaverticalaxisasisthecaseofthemachineofthepatent，consequentlynoreasonornecessityforturningtheverticalrearrudderindefendants’machinetocounteractanysuchturningtendency.Atanyrate，whatevermaybethetheoriesinregardtothismatter，thefactisthattheoperatorofdefendants’machinedoesnotatanytimeturnhisverticalruddertocounteractanyturningtendencycluetothesidebalancingsurfaces，butonlyusesittosteerthemachinethesameasaboatissteered."
　　AeroClubRecognizesWrights.
　　TheAeroClubofAmericahasofficiallyrecognizedtheWrightpatents.ThiscoursewastakenfollowingaconferenceheldApril9th，1910，participatedinbyWilliamWrightandAndrewFreedman，representingtheWrightCo.，andtheAeroClub’scommittee，ofPhilipT.Dodge，W.W.Miller，L.L.Gillespie，Wm.H.PageandCortlandtF.Bishop.
　　AtthismeetingarrangementsweremadebywhichtheAeroClubrecognizestheWrightpatentsandwillnotgiveitssectiontoanyopenmeetwherethepromotersthereofhavenotsecuredalicensefromtheWrightCompany.
　　ThesubstanceoftheagreementwasthattheAeroClubofAmericarecognizestherightsoftheownersoftheWrightpatentsunderthedecisionsoftheFederalcourtsandrefusestocountenancetheinfringementofthosepatentsaslongasthesedecisionsremaininforce.
　　Inthemeantime，inordertoencourageaviation，bothathomeandabroad，andinordertopermitforeignaviatorstotakepartinaviationcontestsinthiscountryitwasagreedthattheAeroClubofAmerica，astheAmericanrepresentativeoftheInternationalAeronauticFederation，shouldapproveonlysuchpubliccontestsasmaybelicensedbytheWrightCompanyandthattheWrightCompany，ontheotherhand，shouldencouragetheholdingofopenmeetsorcontestswhereeverapprovedasaforesaidbytheAeroClubofAmericabygrantinglicensestopromoterswhomakesatisfactoryarrangementswiththecompanyforitscompensationfortheuseofitspatents.Atsuchlicensedmeetanymachineofanymakemayparticipatefreelywithoutsecuringanyfurtherlicenseorpermit.Thedetailsandtermsofallmeetswillbearrangedbythecommitteehavinginchargetheinterestsofbothorganizations.
　　CHAPTERXXIV.
　　HINTSONPROPELLERCONSTRUCTION.
　　Everyprofessionalaviatorhashisownideasastothedesignofthepropeller，oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofflying—machineconstruction.Whileinmanyinstancesthepropeller，atacasualglance，mayappeartobeidentical，closeinspectionwilldevelopthefactthatinnearlyeverycasesomeindividualideaofthedesignerhasbeenincorporated.Thus，twopropellersofthetwo—
　　bladedvariety，whileofthesamegeneralsizeastolengthandwidthofblade，willvarygreatlyastopitchand"twist"orcurvature.
　　WhattheDesignersSeek.
　　Everydesignerisseekingforthesameresult——thesecuringofthegreatestpossiblethrust，orairdisplacement，withtheleastpossibleenergy.
　　Theanglesofanyscrewpropellerbladehavingauniformortruepitchchangegraduallyforeveryincreaseddiameter.Inordertogiveareasonablyclearexplanation，itwillbewelltoreviewinaprimarywaysomeofthedefinitionsortermsusedinconnectionwithandappliedtoscrewpropellers.
　　TermsinGeneralUse.
　　Pitch.——Theterm"pitch，"asappliedtoascrewpropeller，isthetheoreticaldistancethroughwhichitwouldtravelwithoutslipinonerevolution，andasappliedtoapropellerbladeitistheangleatwhichthebladesaresetsoastoenablethemtotravelinaspiralpaththroughafixeddistancetheoreticallywithoutslipinonerevolution.
　　Pitchspeed.——Theterm"pitchspeed"ofascrewpropelleristhespeedinfeetmultipliedbythenumberofrevolutionsitiscausedtomakeinoneminuteoftime.
　　Ifascrewpropellerisrevolved600timesperminute，andifitspitchis7ft.，thenthepitchspeedofsuchapropellerwouldbe7x600revolutions，or4200ft.perminute.
　　Uniformpitch.——Atruepitchscrewpropellerisonehavingitsbladesformedinsuchamannerastoenableallofitsusefulportions，fromtheportionnearestthehubtoitsouterportion，totravelatauniformpitchspeed.Or，inotherwords，thepitchisuniformwhentheprojectedareaofthebladeisparallelalongitsfulllengthandatthesametimerepresentingatruesectorofacircle.
　　Allscrewpropellershavingapitchequaltotheirdiametershavethesameanglefortheirbladesattheirlargestdiameter.
　　WhenPitchIsNotUniform.
　　Ascrewpropellernothavingauniformpitch，buthavingthesameangleforallportionsofitsblades，orsomearbitraryanglenotatruepitch，isdistinguishedfromonehavingatruepitchinthevariationofthepitchspeedsthatthevariousportionsofitsbladesareforcedtotravelthroughwhiletravelingatitsmaximumpitchspeed.
　　OnthissubjectMr.R.W.JamiesonsaysinAeronautics：
　　"Takeforexamplean8—footscrewpropellerhavingan8—footpitchatitslargestdiameter.Iftheangleisthesamethroughoutitsentirebladelength，thenalltheporionsofitsbladesapproachingthehubfromitsouterportionwouldhaveagraduallydecreasingpitch.The2—footportionwouldhavea2—footpitch;the3—footportiona3—
　　footpitch，andsoontothe8—footportionwhichwouldhavean8—footpitch.Whenthisformofpropelleriscausedtorevolve，say500r.p.m.，the8—footportionwouldhaveacalculatedpitchspeedof8feetby500revolutions，or4，000feetpermin.;whilethe2—footportionwouldhaveacalculatedpitchspeedof500revolutionsby2feet，or1，000feetperminute.
　　EffectofNon—Uniformity.
　　"Now，asalloftheportionsofthistypeofscrewpropellermusttravelatsomepitchspeed，whichmusthaveforitsmaximumapitchspeedinfeetbelowthecalculatedpitchspeedofthelargestdiameter，itfollowsthatsomeportionsofitsbladeswouldperformusefulworkwhiletheactionoftheotherportionswouldbenegative——resistingtheforwardmotionoftheportionshavingagreaterpitchspeed.Theportionshavingapitchspeedbelowthatatwhichthescrewistravelingceasetoperformusefulworkaftertheirpitchspeedhasbeenexceededbytheportionshavingalargerdiameterandagreaterpitchspeed.
　　"Wemightcomparethelargerandsmallerdiameterportionsofthisformofscrewpropeller，totwopower—
　　drivenvesselsconnectedwithaline，onecapableoftraveling20milesperhour，theother10milesperhour.Itcanbereadilyunderstoodthattheboatcapableoftraveling10milesperhourwouldhavenousefuleffecttohelptheonetraveling20milesperhour，asitsactionwouldbesuchastoimposeadeadloaduponthelatter’sprogress."
　　Theterm"slip，"asappliedtoascrewpropeller，isthedistancebetweenitscalculatedpitchspeedandtheactualdistanceittravelsthroughunderload，dependingupontheefficiencyandproportionofitsbladesandtheamountofloadithastocarry.
　　Theactionofascrewpropellerwhileperformingusefulworkmightbecomparedtoanuttravelingonathreadedbolt;littleresistanceisofferedtoitsforwardmotionwhileitspinsfreelywithoutload，butgiveitaloadtocarry;thenitwilltakemorepowertokeepupitsspeed;iftoogreataloadisappliedthethreadwillstrip，andsoitiswithascrewpropellerglidingspirallyontheair.Apropellertravelingwithoutloadontonewairmightbecomparedtothenuttravelingfreelyonthebolt.
　　Itwouldconsumebutlittlepoweranditwouldtravelatnearlyitscalculatedpitchspeed，butgiveitworktodoandthenitwilltakepowertodriveit.
　　Thereisareactioncausedfromthepropellerprojectingairbackwardwhenitslips，which，togetherwiththesupportingeffectoftheblades，combinetoproduceusefulworkorpullontheobjecttobecarried.
　　Ascrewpropellerworkingunderloadapproachesmorecloselytoitsmaximumefficiencyasitcarriesitsloadwithaminimumamountofslip，ornearingitscalculatedpitchspeed.
　　WhyBladesAreCurved.
　　Ithasbeenpointedoutbyexperimentthatcertainformsofcurvedsurfacesasappliedtoaeroplaneswillliftmoreperhorsepower，perunitofsquarefoot，whileontheotherhandithasbeenshownthataflatsurfacewillliftmoreperhorsepower，butrequiresmoreareaofsurfacetodoit.
　　Asatruepitchscrewpropellerisvirtuallyarotatingaeroplane，acurvedsurfacemaybeadvantageouslyemployedwhenthelimitofsizepreventsusinglargeplanesurfacesfortheblades.
　　Careshouldbeexercisedinkeepingthechordofanycurvetobeusedforthebladesattheproperpitchangle，andinallcasespropellerbladesshouldbemaderigidsoastopreservethetrueangleandnotbedistortedbycentrifugalforceorfromanyothercause，asflexibilitywillseriouslyaffecttheirpitchspeedandotherwiseaffecttheirefficiency.
　　HowtoDetermineAngle.
　　Tofindtheanglefortheproperpitchatanypointinthediameterofapropeller，determinethecircumferencebymultiplyingthediameterby3.1416，whichrepresentbydrawingalinetoscaleinfeet.Attheendofthislinedrawanotherlinetorepresentthedesiredpitchinfeet.
　　Thendrawalinefromthepointrepresentingthedesiredpitchinfeettothebeginningofthecircumferenceline.
　　Forexample：
　　Ifthepropellertobelaidoutis7feetindiameter，andistohavea7—footpitch，thecircumferencewillbe21.99
　　feet.Drawadiagramrepresentingthecircumferencelineandpitchinfeet.Ifthisdiagramiswrappedaroundacylindertheanglelinewillrepresentatruethread7
　　feetindiameterand7feetlong，andtheangleofthethreadwillbe173/4degrees.
　　RelationofDiametertoCircumference.
　　Sincetheareasofcirclesdecreaseasthediameterlessens，itfollowsthatifapropelleristotravelatauniformpitchspeed，thevolumeofitsbladedisplacementshoulddecreaseasitsdiameterbecomesless，soastooccupyacorrespondingrelationtothecircumferencesoflargerdiameters，andatthesametimetheprojectedareaoftheblademustbeparallelalongitsfulllengthandshouldrepresentatruesectorofacircle.
　　Letussupposea7—footcircletobedividedinto20
　　sectors，oneofwhichrepresentsapropellerblade.Ifthepitchistobe7feet，thenthegreatestdepthoftheanglewouldbe1/20partofthepitch，or42/10inch.Ifthelinerepresentingthegreatestdepthoftheangleiskeptthesamewidthasitapproachesthehub，thepitchwillbeuniform.Ifthebladeissetatananglesoitsprojectedareais1/20partofthepitch，andifitismovedthrough20divisionsforonerevolution，itwouldhaveatravelof7feet.
　　CHAPTERXXV.
　　NEWMOTORSANDDEVICES.
　　Sincethefirsteditionofthisbookwasprinted，earlyin1910，therehasbeenaremarkableadvanceintheconstructionofaeroplanemotors，whichhasresultedinawonderfuldecreaseintheamountofsurfaceareafromthatformerlyrequired.
　　Markedgaininlightnessandspeedofthemotorhasenabledaviatorstogetalong，insomeinstances，withone—quarteroftheplanesupportingareapreviouslyused.ThefirstWrightbiplane，propelledbyamotorof25h.p.，productiveofafairaveragespeedof30milesanhour，hadaplanesurfaceof538
　　squarefeet.Now，byusingaspeciallydesignedmotorof65
　　h.p.，capableofdevelopingaspeedoffrom70to80milesanhour，theWrightsareenabledtosuccessfullynavigateamachinetheplaneareaofwhichisabout130squarefeet.Thisapparatusisintendedtocarryonlyoneperson（theoperator）.
　　AtBelmontPark，N.Y.，theWrightsdemonstratedthatthesmall—surfacedbiplaneismuchfaster，easiertomanageinthehandsofaskilledmanipulator，andabetteraltitudeclimberthanthelargeandcumbersomemachineswith538squarefeetofsurfaceheretoforeusedbythem.
　　Inthismaybefoundapracticalillustrationoftheprinciplethatincreasedspeedpermitsofareductioninplaneareainmathematicalratiotothegaininspeed.Thefasteranyobjectcanbemadetomovethroughtheair，thelesswillbethesupportingsurfacerequiredtosustainagivenweight.But，thereisalimitbeyondwhichtheplanesurfacecannotbereducedwithsafety.Regardmustalwaysbehadtothesecuringofanamplesustainingsurfacesothatincaseofmotorstoppagetherewillbesufficientbuoyancytoenabletheoperatortodescendsafely.
　　ThebabyWrightusedattheBelmontPark（N.Y.）aviationmeetinthefallof1910，hadaplanelengthof19feet6inches，andanextremebreadthof21feet6inches，withatotalsurfaceareaof146squarefeet.ItwasequippedwithanewWright8—cylindermotorof60h.p.，andtwoWrightpropellersof8
　　feet6inchesdiameterand500r.p.m.Itwaseasilythefastestmachineatthemeet.Afterthetests，WilburWrightsaid：
　　"Itisourintentiontoputtogetheramachinewithspeciallydesignedpropellers，speciallydesignedgearsandamotorwhichwillgiveus65horsepoweratleast.Wewillthenbeable，aftersomeexperimentalworkwearedoingnow，tosendforthamachinethatwillmakeanewspeedrecord."
　　InthenewWrightmachinesthefrontelevatingplanesforup—and—downcontrolhavebeeneliminated，andthemovementsoftheapparatusarenowregulatedsolelybytherear，or"tail"
　　control.
　　APowerfulLightMotor.
　　AnothersuccessfulAmericanaviationmotoristheaeromotor，manufacturedbytheDetroitAeronauticConstruction.
　　Aeromotorsaremadeinfourmodelsasfollows：
　　Model1.——4—cylinder，30—40h.p.，weight200pounds.
　　Model2.——4—cylinder，（largerstrokeandbore）40—50h.p.，weight225pounds.
　　Model3.——6—cylinder.50—60h.p.，weight210pounds.
　　Model4.——6—cylinder，60—75h.p.，weight275pounds.
　　Thismotorisofthe4—cycle，vertical，water—cooledtype.
　　RobertsAviationMotor.
　　OneofthesuccessfulaviationmotorsofAmericanmake，isthatproducedbytheRobertsMotorCo.，ofSandusky，Ohio.
　　ItisdesignedbyE.W.Roberts，M.E.，whowasformerlychiefassistantanddesignerforSirHiramMaxim，whenthelatterwasmakinghiscelebratedaeronauticalexperimentsinEnglandin1894—95.Thismotorismadeinboththe4—and6—cylinderforms.The4—cylindermotorweighscompletewithBoschmagnetoandcarbureter165pounds，andwilldevelop40actualbrakeh.p.at1，000r.p.m.，46h.p.at1，200and52
　　h.p.at1，400.The6—cylinderweighs220poundsandwilldevelop60actualbrakeh.p.at1，000r.p.m.，69h.p.at1，200and78h.p.at1，500.
　　Extremelightnesshasbeensecuredbydoingawaywithallsuperfluousparts，ratherthanbyashavingdownofmaterialstoadangerousthinness.Forexample，thereisneitheranintakeorexhaustmanifoldonthemotor.Thedistributingvalveformsapartofthecrankcaseasdoesthewaterintake，andthegearpump.Magnaliumtakestheplaceofaluminuminthecrankcase，becauseitisnotonlylighterbutstrongerandcanbecastverythin.Thecrankshaftis21/2—inchdiameterwitha21/4—inchhole，andwhileitwouldbestrongenoughinordinary40percentcarbonsteelitismadeofsteeltwicethestrengthofthatcustomarilyemployed.Similarcarehasbeenexercisedonotherpartsandtheresultisamotorweighing4
　　poundsperh.p.
　　TheRinekMotor.
　　TheRinekaviationmotor，constructedbytheRinekAeroMfg.Co.，ofEaston，Pa.，isanotherthatismeetingwithfavoramongaviators.TypeB—8isan8—cylindermotor，thecylindersbeingsetatrightangles，onaV—shapedcrankcase.Itiswatercooled，develops50—60h.p.，theminimumat1，220r.p.m.，andweighs280poundswithallaccessories.TypeB—4，a4—cylindermotor，develops30h.p.at1，800r.p.m.，andweighs130poundscomplete.Thecylindersinbothmotorsaremadeofcastironwithcopperwaterjackets.
　　TheOverheadCamshaftBoulevard.
　　TheoverheadcamshaftBoulevardisstillanotherformofaviationmotorwhichhasbeenfavorablyreceived.ThisistheproductoftheBoulevardEngineCo.，ofSt.Louis.Itismadewith4and8cylinders.Theformerdevelops30—35h.p.
　　at1，200r.p.m.，andweighs130pounds.The8—cylindermotorgives60—70h.p.at1，200r.p.m.，andweighs200pounds.
　　Simplicityofconstructionisthemainfeatureofthismotor，especiallyinthemanipulationofthevalves.
　　CHAPTERXXVI.
　　MONOPLANES，TRIPLANES，MULTIPLANES.
　　Untilrecently，Americanaviatorshadnotgivenseriousattentiontoanyformofflyingmachinesasidefrombiplanes.
　　Ofthetwenty—onemonoplanescompetingattheInternationalmeetatBelmontPark，N.Y.，inNovember，1910，onlythreemakeswerehandledbyAmericans.MoissantandDrexelnavigatedBleriotmachines，HarknessanAntoinette，andGlennCurtissasingledeckerofhisownconstruction.Ontheotherhandthevariousforeignaviatorswhotookpartinthemeetunhesitatinglygavepreferencetomonoplanes.
　　WhatevermayhavebeenthecauseofthisseemingprejudiceagainstthemonoplaneonthepartofAmericanairsailors，itisslowlybeingovercome.WhenamanlikeCurtiss，whohasattainedgreatsuccesswithbiplanes，givesseriousattentiontothemonoplaneformofconstructionandgoessofarastobuildandsuccessfullyoperateasinglesurfacemachine，itmaybetakenforgrantedthatthemonoplaneisafixtureinthiscountry.
　　DimensionsofMonoplanes.
　　Themakes，dimensionsandequipmentofthevariousmonoplanesusedatBelmontParkareasfollows：
　　Bleriot——（Moissant，operator）——planelength23feet，extremebreadth28feet，surfacearea160squarefeet，7—cylinder，50h.
　　p.
　　Gnomeengine，Chauvierepropeller，7feet6inchesdiameter，1，200r.p.m.
　　Bleriot——（Drexel，operator）——exactlythesameasMoissant’smachine.
　　Antoinette——（Harkness，operator）——planelength42feet，extremebreadth46feet，surfacearea377squarefeet，Emerson6—cylinder，50h.p.motor，Antoinettepropeller，7feet6inchesdiameter，1，200r.p.m.
　　Curtiss——（GlennH.Curtiss，operator）——planelength25feet，extremebreadth26feet，surfacearea130squarefeet，Curtiss8—cylinder，60h.p.motor，Paragonpropeller，7feetindiameter，1，200r.p.m.
　　WithoneexceptionCurtisshadthesmallestmachineofanyofthoseenteringintocompetition.ThesmallestwasLaDemoiselle，madebySantos—Dumont，theproportionsofwhichwere：planelength20feet，extremebreadth18feet，surfacearea100squarefeet，Clement—Bayard2—cylinder，30h.p.motor，Chauvierepropeller，6feet6inchesindiameter，1，100r.p.m.
　　WinningsMadewithMonoplanes.
　　Operatorsofmonoplaneswonafairshareofthecashprizes.
　　Theywon$30，283outofatotalof$63，250，tosaynothingaboutGrahame—White’swinnings.Thelatterwon$13，600，butpartofhiswinningflightsweremadeinaBleriotmonoplane，andpartinaFarmanmachine.AsidefromGrahame—Whitethewinningsweredividedasfollows：Moissant（Bleriot）$13，350;
　　Latham（Antoinette）$8，183;Aubrun（Bleriot）$2，400;
　　DeLesseps（Bleriot）$2，300;Drexel（Bleriot）$1，700;Radley（Bleriot）$1，300;Simon（Bleriot）$750;Andemars（Clement—
　　Bayard）$100;Barrier（Bleriot）$100.
　　Outofatotalof$30，283，operatorsofBleriotmachineswon$21，900，againomittingGrahame—White’sshare.IfthewinningswithmonoplaneandbiplanecouldbedividedsoastoshowtheamountwonwitheachtypeofmachinethecreditsideoftheBleriotaccountwouldbemateriallyenlarged.
　　TheMostPopularMonoplanes.
　　Whilethenumberofsuccessfulmonoplanesisincreasingrapidly，andthereissomefeatureofadvantageinnearlyallthenewmakes，interestcenterschieflyintheSantos—Dumont，AntoinetteandBleriotmachines.Thisisbecausemorehasbeenaccomplishedwiththemthanwithanyoftheothers，possiblybecausetheyhavehadgreateropportunities.
　　FortheguidanceofthosewhomaywishtobuildamachineofthemonoplanetypeaftertheSantos—DumontorBleriotmodels，thefollowingdetailswillbefounduseful.
　　Santos—Dumont——Thelatestproductionofthismakeriscalledthe"No.20Baby."Itisof18feetspread，and20feetoverallindepth.Itstands4feet2inchesinheight，notcountingthepropeller.Whenthislatterisinaverticalpositiontheextremeheightofthemachineis7feet5inches.Itisstrictlyaone—manapparatus.Thetotalsurfaceareais115
　　squarefeet.Thetotalweightofthemonoplanewithengineandpropelleris352pounds.Santos—Dumontweighs110
　　pounds，sotheentireweightcarriedwhileinflightis462
　　pounds，orabout3.6poundspersquarefootofsurface.
　　Bambooisusedintheconstructionofthebodyframe，andalsofortheframeofthetail.Thebodyframeconsistsofthreebamboopolesabout2inchesindiameterattheforwardendandtaperingtoabout1inchattherear.Thesepolesarejointedwithbrasssocketsneartherearofthemainplanesotheymaybetakenaparteasilyforconvenienceinhousingortransportation.Themainplaneisbuiltuponfourtransversesparsofash，setataslightdihedralangle，twobeingplacedoneachsideofthecentralbamboo.Thesesparsareabout2incheswideby11/8—inchdeepforafewfeeteachsideofthecenterofthemachine，andfromtheretaperdowntoaninchindepthatthecenterbamboo，andattheirouterends，butthewidthremainsthesamethroughouttheirentirelength.Theplanesaredoublesurfacedwithsilkandlacedaboveandbelowthebambooribswhichrunforeandaftunderthemainsparsandterminateinaforkedclipthroughwhichawireisstrungforlacingonthesilk.Thetailconsistsofahorizontalandverticalsurfaceplacedonauniversaljointabout10feetbackoftherearedgeofthemainplane.Bothofthesesurfacesareflatandconsistofasilkcoveringstretcheduponbambooribs.
　　Thehorizontalsurfaceis6feet5inchesacross，and4feet9
　　inchesfromfronttoback.Theverticalsurfaceisofthesamewidth（6feet5inches）butisonly3feet7inchesfromfronttoback.Allthedetailsofconstructionareshownintheaccompanyingillustration.
　　Powerisfurnishedbyaverylight（110pounds）Darracqmotor，ofthedouble—opposed—cylindertype.Ithasaboreof4.118inches，andstrokeof4.724inches，runsat1，800r.p.m.，andwitha61/2—footpropellerdevelopsathrustof2421/2
　　poundswhenthemonoplaneisheldsteady.
　　Bleriot——No.XI，thelatestoftheBleriotproductions，andthegreatestrecordmakerofthelot，is28feetinspreadofmainplane，anddepthof6feetinlargestpart.Thiswouldgiveamainsurfaceof168squarefeet，butastheendsoftheplanearesharplytaperedfromtherear，theactualsurfaceisreducedto150squarefeet.Projectingfromthemainframeisanelongatedtail（shownintheillustration）whichcarriesthehorizontalandverticalrudders.Theformerismadeinthreesections.Thecenterpieceis6feet1inchinspread，and2feet10inchesindepth，containing17squarefeetofsurface.Theendsections，whicharemademovableforwarpingpurposes，areeach2feet10inchessquare，thecombinedsurfaceareaintheentirehorizontalrudderbeing33squarefeet.Theverticalruddercontains41/2squarefeetofsurface，makingtheentiresupportingarea1871/2squarefeet.
　　Fromtheouterendofthepropellershaftinfronttotheextremerearedgeoftheverticalrudder，themachineis25feetdeep.Deductingthe6—footdepthofthemainplaneleaves19
　　feetasthelengthoftherudderbeamandrudders.Themotorequipmentconsistsofa3—cylinder，air—cooledengineofabout30h.p.placedatthefrontendofthebodyframe，andcarryingonitscrankshaftatwo—bladedpropeller6feet8inchesindiameter.Theenginespeedisabout1，250r.p.m.atwhichthepropellerdevelopsathrustofover200pounds.
　　TheBleriotXIcompleteweighs484pounds，andwithoperatorandfuelsupplyreadyfora25—or30—mileflight，715
　　pounds.OnepeculiarityoftheBleriotconstructionisthat，whiletheribsofthemainplanearecurved，thereisnopreliminarybendingofthepiecesasinotherformsofconstruction.
　　Bleriothashisribpiecescutalittlelongerthanrequiredand，byspringingthemintoplace，securesthenecessarycurvature.AgoodviewoftheBleriotplaneframeworkisgivenonpage63.
　　CombinedTriplaneandBiplane.
　　AtNorwich，Conn.，theStebbins—GeynetCo.，afterseveralyearsofexperiment，hasbegunthemanufactureofacombinationtriplaneandbiplanemachine.Thecenterplane，whichislocatedaboutmidwaybetweentheupperandlowersurfaces，ismaderemovable.Thechangefromtriplanetobiplane，orviceversa，maybereadilymadeinafewminutes.Theconstructorsclaimforthistypeofaircraftalargesupportingsurfaceareawiththeminimumofdimensionsinplanes.Althoughthismachinehasonly24—footspreadandisonly26
　　feetoverall，itstotalamountofsupportingareais400squarefeet;weight，600poundsinflyingorder，andliftingcapacityapproximately700poundsmore.
　　TheframeismadeentirelyofaselectedgradeofOregonspruce，finisheddowntoasmoothsurfaceandvarnished.Allstrutsarefish—shapedandsetinaluminumsockets，whichareboltedtotopandlowerbeamswithspecialstrongboltsofsmalldiameter.Themiddleplaneissetinsidethesixuprightsandheldinplacebyaluminumcastings.Aflexibletwistedseven—strandwirecableandStebbins—Geynetturnbucklesareusedfortrussing.
　　Thetopplaneisinthreesections，lacedtogether.Ithasa24—footspreadandis7feetindepth.Themiddleplaneisintwosectionseachof71/2feetspreadand6feetindepth.Thecenterendsofthemiddleplanesectionsdonotcomewithin5feetofjoining，thisopenspacebeingleftfortheengine.
　　Thebottomplaneisof16feetspreadand5feetindepth.Itwillthusbeseenthattheplanesoverhangoneanotherindepth，thebottomonebeingthesmallestinthisrespect.Theplanesaresetatanangleof9degrees，andthereisaclearspaceof3
　　1/2feetbetweeneach，makingthetotaldistancefromthebottomtothetopplaneatrifleover7feet.Thetotalsupportingsurfaceinthemainplanesis350squarefeet.Byarrangingthethreeplanesurfacesatanangleasdescribedandvaryingtheirsize，thegreatestamountofliftingareaissecuredabovethecenterofgravity，andthegreatestweightcarriedbelow.
　　Theribsaremadeoflaminatedspruce，finisheddownto1/2x3/4—inchcrosssectiondimensions，withacurvatureofabout1in20，andfastenedtothebeamswithspecialaluminumcastings.
　　Number2Naiadaeroplaneclothisusedincoveringtheplanes，withpocketssewninfortheribs.
　　Twocombinationelevatingruddersaresetupwellinfront，eachhaving18squarefeetofsupportingarea.Theseruddersarearrangedtoworkinunison，independently，orinoppositedirections.IntheModelBmachine，therearealsotwosmallrearelevatingrudders，whichworkinunisonwiththefrontrudders.Oneverticalrudderof10squarefeetissuspendedintherearofasmallstationaryhorizontalplaneinModelA，whiletheverticalrudderonModelBisonly6squarefeetinsize.Theelevatingruddersarearrangedsoastoactasstabilizingplaneswhenthemachineisinflight.Thewingtipsareheldinplacewithaspecialtwo—piececastingwhichformsahinge，andmakesaquickdetachablejoint.Wingtipsarealsousedinbalancing.
　　ModelAisequippedwithaCameron25—30h.p.，4—cylinder，air—cooledmotor.OnModelBaHolmesrotary7—cylindermotorof4x4—inchboreandstrokeisused.
　　PositivecontrolissecuredbyuseoftheStebbins—Geynet"auto—control"system.Apullorpushmovementoperatestheelevatingrudders，whilethebalancingisdonebymeansofsidemovementsorslightturns.Therearverticalrudderismanipulatedbymeansofafootlever.
　　NewCodyBiplane.
　　AmongthecomparativelynewbiplanesisoneconstructedbyWillardF.Cody，ofLondon，Eng.，theprincipaldistinctivefeatureofwhichisanautomaticcontrolwhichworksindependentlyofthehandlevers.Fortheothercontrolalonglevercarryingasteeringwheelfurnishesallthenecessarycontrolmovements，therebeingnofootworkatall.Theleverisuniversallyjointedandwhenmovedforeandaftoperatesthetwoaileronsasiftheywereone;whentheshaftisrotateditmovesthetailasawhole.Thehorizontaltailcomponentisimmovable.Whentheleverismovedfromsidetosideitworksnotonlytheaileronsandtheindependentelevators，butalsothroughapeculiararrangement，theverticalrearrudderaswell.
　　Thespreadoftheplanesis46feet6inchesandthewidth6
　　feet6inches.Theaileronsjutout1foot6inchesoneachsideofthemachineandare13feet6incheslong.Thecross—
　　shapedtailissupportedbyanoutriggercomposedoftwolongbamboosandofthistheverticalplaneis9feetby4feet，whilethehorizontalplaneis8feetby4feet.Theover—alllengthofthemachineis36feet.Theliftingsurfaceis857squarefeet.Itwillweigh，withapilot，1，450pounds.Thedistancebetweenthemainplanesis8feet6inches，whichisarathernotablefeatureinthisflyer.
　　Thepropellerhasadiameterof11feetand2incheswitha13—foot6—inchpitch;itisdrivenat560revolutionsbyachain，andthegearreductionbetweenthechainandpropellershaftistwotoone.
　　Themachinefromelevatortotailplanebristlesinoriginalpoints.Thehumpintheribshasbeencutawayentirely，sothatalthoughtheplaneisdoublesurfaced，thesurfacesareclosesttogetheratapointwhichapproximatesthecenterofpressure.Theplaneispracticallyoftwostream—lineforms，ofwhichoneisthecontinuationoftheother.Thisconstruction，claimstheinventor，willgiveincreasedlift，anddecreasedheadresistance.Thetrialssubstantiatethis，astheangleofincidenceinflyingisonlyaboutoneintwenty—six.
　　Theribsinthemainplanesaremadeofstripsofsilverspruceone—halfbyone—halfinch，whilethoseintheaileronsaresolidandone—fourthinchthick.Inthemainplanesthefabricishelddownwiththinwoodenfillets.Cody’splanesarenotedfortheirneatness，rigidityandsmoothness.Pegamoidfabricisusedthroughout.
　　PresseyAutomaticControl.
　　AnotheringenioussystemofautomaticcontrolhasbeenperfectedbyDr.J.B.Pressey，ofNewportNews，Va.Theaeroplaneisequippedwithamanuallyoperated，verticalrudder，（3），atthestern，andahorizontal，manuallyoperated，frontcontrol，（4），infront.Attheendsofthemainplane，andaboutmidwaybetweentheupperandlowersectionsthereof，therearesupplementalplanes，（5）.
　　Inconnectionwiththesesupplementalplanes（5），thereisemployedagravityinfluencedweight，theaviatorinhisseat，forholdingtheminahorizontal，orsubstantiallyhorizontal，positionwhenthemainplaneistravelingonanevenkeel;andforcausingthemtotipwhenthemainplanedipslaterally，toportorstarboard，theplanes（5）havingaliftingeffectuponthedepressedendofthemainplane，andadepressingeffectupontheliftedendofthemainplane，soastocorrectsuchlateraldipofthemainplane，andrestoreittoanevenkeel.Totheforward，upperedgeofplanes（5）connectionismadebymeansofrod（13）toonearmofabellcranklever，（14）thelatterbeingpivotallymounteduponaforeandaftpin（15），supportedfromthemainplane;andtheotherarmsoftheportandstarboardbellcranklevers（16），areconnectedbyrod（17），whichhasaneye（18），forreceivingthesegmentalrod（19），securedtoandprojectingfromcrossbaronseatsupportingyoke（7）.When，therefore，themainplanetipsdownwardlyonthestarboardside，therod（17）willbemovedbodilytostarboard，andthestarboardbalancingplane（5）willbeinclinedsoastoraiseitsforwardedgeanddepressitsrearedge，while，atthesametime，theportbalancingplane（5），willbeinclinedsoastodepressitsforwardedge，andraiseitsrearedge，therebycausingthestarboardbalancingplanetoexertaliftingeffect，andtheportbalancingplanetoexertadepressingeffectuponthemainplane，withtheresultofrestoringthemainplanetoanevenkeel，atwhichtimethebalancingplanes（5），willhaveresumedtheirnormal，horizontalposition.
　　Whenthemainplanedipsdownwardlyontheportside，areverseactiontakesplace，withthelikeresultofrestoringthemainplanetoanevenkeel.Inordertocorrectforwardandaftdipofthemainplane，foreandaftbalancingplanes（20）
　　and（23）areprovided.Theseplanesarecarriedbytransverserockshafts，whichmaybepivotallymountedinanysuitableway，uponstructurescarriedbymainplane.Inthepresentinstance，theforwardbalancingplaneispivotallymountedinextensions（21）oftheframe（22）whichcarriestheforward，manuallyoperated，horizontalascendinganddescendingplaneItisabsolutelynecessary，inmakingaturnwithanaeroplane，ifthatturnistobemadeinsafety，thatthemainplaneshallbeinclined，or"banked，"toadegreeproportionaltotheradiusofthecurveandtothespeedoftheaeroplane.Eachdifferentcurve，atthesamespeed，demandsadifferentinclination，asisalsodemandedbyeachvariationinspeedinroundinglikecurves.Thisinventiongivesthedesiredresultwithabsolutecertainty.
　　TheSellers’Multiplane.
　　Anotherinnovationisamultiplane，orfour—surfacedmachine，builtandoperatedbyM.B.Sellers，formerlyofGrahn，Ky.，butnowlocatedatNorwood，Ga.Asidefromtheuseoffoursustainingsurfaces，thenoveltyintheSellersmachineliesinthefactthatitisoperatedsuccessfullywithan8h.p.motor，whichisthesmallestyetusedinactualflight.Indescribinghiswork，Mr.Sellerssayshispurposehasbeentodeveloptheefficiencyofthesurfacestoapointwhereflightmaybeobtainedwiththeminimumofpowerand，judgingbytheresultsaccomplished，hehassucceeded.Inaletterwrittentotheauthorsofthisbook，Mr.Sellerssays：
　　"Idislikehavingmymachinecalledaquadruplane，becausethenumberofplanesisimmaterial;thedistinctivefeaturebeingthearrangementoftheplanesinsteps;abetternamewouldbestepaeroplane，orstepplane.
　　"Themachineaspatented，comprisestwoormoreplanesarrangedinstepform，thehighestbeinginfront.ThemachineIamnowusinghasfourplanes3ft.x18ft.;totalabout200
　　squarefeet;camber（arch）1in16.
　　"Theverticalkeelisforlateralstability;therudderfordirection.Thisisthefirstmachine（sofarasIknow）tohaveacombinationofwheelsandrunnersorskids（Oct.1908）.Thewheelsriseupautomaticallywhenthemachineleavestheground，sothatitmayalightontherunners.
　　"ADuthirt&Chalmers2—cylinderopposed，31/8—inchenginewasusedfirst，andseveralhundredshortflightsweremade.
　　Theenginegavefourbrakeh.p.，whichwasbarelysufficientforcontinuedflight.Theaeroplanecompletewiththisengineweighed78pounds.TheenginenowusedisaBates35/8—inch，2—cylinderopposed，showing8h.p.，andapparentlygivingplentyofpower.Theweightofaeroplanewiththisengineisnow110pounds.Owingtopoorgroundsonlyshortflightshavebeenmade，thelongesttodate（Dec.31，1910）beingabout1，000feet.
　　"Inbuildingthepresentmachine，myobjectwastoproduceasafe，slow，light，andsmallh.p.aeroplane，apurposewhichI
　　haveaccomplished."
　　CHAPTERXXVII.
　　1911AEROPLANERECORDS.
　　THEWORLDATLARGE.
　　GreatestSpeedPerHour，WhateverLengthofFlight，AviatorAlone——E.Nieuport，Mourmelon，France，June21，NieuportMachine，82.72miles;withonepassenger，E.Nieuport，Moumlelon，France，June12，NieuportMachine，67.11miles;withtwopassengers，E.
　　Nieuport，Mourmelon，France，March9，NieuportMachine，63.91
　　miles;withthreepassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，59.84miles;withfourpassengers，G.
　　Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，54.21
　　miles.
　　GreatestDistanceAviatorAlone——G.Fourny，nostops，Buc，France，September2，M.FarmanMachine，447.01miles;E.Helen，threestops，Etampes，France，September8，NieuportMachine，778.45miles;withonepassenger，Lieut.Bier，Austria，October2，EtrichMachine，155.34miles;withtwopassengers，Lieut.
　　Bier，Austria，October4，EtrichMachine，69.59miles;withthreepassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，31.06miles;withfourpassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，15.99miles.
　　GreatestDurationAviatorAlone——G.Fourny，nostops，Buc，France，September2，M.FarmanMachine，11hours，1minute，29
　　seconds，E.Helen，threestops，Etampes，France，September8，NieuportMachine，14hours，7minutes，50seconds，13hours，17
　　minutesnettime;withonepassenger，Suvelack，Johannisthal，Germany，December8，4hours，23minutes;withtwopassengers，T.
　　deW.Milling，NassauBoulevard，NewYork，September26，Burgess—WrightMachine，1hour，54minutes，423—5seconds;withthreepassengers，Warchalowski，Wiener—Neustadt，Aust.，October30，45minutes，46seconds;withfourpassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，17minutes，281—5
　　seconds.
　　GreatestAltitudeAviatorAlone——Garros，St.Malo，France，September4，BleriotMachine，13，362feet;withonepassenger，Prevost，Courcy，France，December2，9，840feet;withtwopassengers，Lieut.Bier，Austria，EtrichMachine，4，010feet.
　　AMERICANRECORDS.
　　GreatestSpeedPerHour，WhateverLengthofFlight，AviatorAlone——A.Leblanc，BelmontPark，N.Y.，October29，BleriotMachine，67.87miles;withonepassenger，C.Grahame—White，Squantum，Mass.，September4，NieuportMachine，63.23miles;withtwopassengers，T.O.M.Sopwith，Chicago，Ill.，August15，WrightMachine，34.96miles.
　　GreatestDistanceAviatorAlone——St.CroixJohnstone，Mineola，N.Y.，July27，Moisant（BleriotType）Machine，176.23miles.
　　GreatestDurationAviatorAlone——HowardW.Gill，Kinloch，Mo.，October19，WrightMachine，4hours，16minutes，35seconds;withonepassenger，G.W.Beatty，Chicago，Ill.，August19，WrightMachine，3hours，42minutes，221—5seconds;withtwopassengers，T.deW.Milling，NassauBoulevard，N.Y.，September26，Burgess—WrightMachine，1hour，54minutes，423—5seconds.
　　GreatestAltitudeAviatorAlone——L.Beachy，Chicago，Ill.，August20，CurtissMachine，11，642feet;withonepassenger，C.Grahame—
　　White，NassauBoulevard，N.Y.，September30，NieuportMachine，3，347feet.
　　WeightCarrying——P.O.Parmelee，Chicago，III.，August19，WrightMachine，458lbs.
　　AVIATIONDEVELOPMENT.
　　Thewonderfulprogressmadeinthescienceofaviationduringtheyear1911farsurpassesanytwelvemonths’advancementrecorded.Theadvancementhasnotbeenconfinedtoanycountryorcontinent，sinceeverypartoftheworldistakingitspartinaviationhistorymaking.
　　Therapidlyincreasinginterestinaviationhasbroughtforthschoolsfortheinstructionofflyinginboththeoldandnewworld，andlicensedairpilotsbeforetheyreceivetheirsanctionsfromthegoverningaeroclubsoftheircountryarerequiredtopassanextremelytryingexaminationinactualflights.Exhibitionflightsandraceswerecommoninallpartsoftheworldduring1911，andtouringaviatorsvisitedIndia，China，Japan，SouthAfrica，AustraliaandSouthAmerica，givingexhibitionsandinstruction.
　　Europewasthesceneofanumberofcross—countryracesinwhichentriesrangingfromtentotwentyaviatorsflewfromcitytocityaroundagivencircuit，whichinsomeinstancesexceeded1，000milesindistance.Cross—countryflightswithandwithoutpassengersbecamesocommonthatthoseoflessthantwohours’durationattractedlittleattention.Therewerefewerattemptsathighaltitudesoaring，althoughtheworld’srecordinthisdepartmentofaviationwasbetteredseveraltimes.Inplaceofthesehighflights，theaviatorsdevotedmoreattentiontospeed，durationandspectacularmanoeuvres，whichappearedtosatisfythespectators.
　　Theprizemoneywonduring1911exceeded$1，000，000，butowingtotheincreasednumberofaviatorstheindividualwinningswerenotaslargeasin1910.
　　Itisestimatedthatwithinthepasttwelvemonthsmorethan300，000mileshavebeencoveredinaeroplaneflightsandmorethanseventhousandpersons，classedeitherasaviatorsorpassengers，takenupintotheair.Theaeroplaneoftodayrangesthroughmonoplane，biplane，triplaneandevenquadraplane，andmorethantwohundredtypesofthesemachinesareinuse.
　　Aeroplanesarebecomingafactorofinternationalcommerce.
　　TherecordsoftheBureauofStatisticsshowthatmorethan$50，000worthofaeroplaneswereimportedinto，andexportedfrom，theUnitedStatesinthemonthsofJuly，AugustandSeptember，1911.TheBureauofStatisticsonlybeganthemaintenanceofaseparaterecordofthiscomparativelynewarticleofcommercewiththeopeningofthefiscalyear1911—12.
　　Twooftheprominentdevelopmentsof1911weretheintroductionofthehydro—aeroplaneandthemotorlessgliderexperimentsoftheWrightbrothersatKilldevilHills，N.C.，whereduringthetwoweeks’experimentsnumerousflightswithandagainstthewindweremade，culminatingintheestablishingofarecordbyOrvilleWrightonOctober25，1911，whenina52—mileperhourblowhereachedanelevationof225feetandremainedintheair10minutesand34
　　seconds.Thesearchforthesecretofautomaticstabilitystillcontinues，andthoughsomeremarkableprogresshasbeenmadethesolutionhasnotyetbeenreached.
　　NOTABLECROSS—COUNTRYFLIGHTSOF1911.
　　Oneoftheimportantfeaturesof1911inaviationwastherapidincreaseinthenumberanddistanceofcross—countryflightsmadeeitherforthepurposeofexhibition，testing，instructionorpleasure.Flightsbetweencitiesinalmosteverycountryoftheworldbecamecommonoccurrences.Sogreatwasthenumberthatonlythoseofmorethanordinaryimportancebecauseofspeed，distanceordurationarerecorded.
　　TheflightsofHarryN.AtwoodfromBostontoWashingtonandfromSt.LouistoNewYork，andC.P.RodgersfromNewYorktoLosAngeleswerethemostimportanteventsofthekindinthiscountry.TheStLouistoNewYorkflightwasadistancebyairroute，1，266miles.Durationofflight，12days.Netflyingtime，28hours53minutes.Averagedailyflight，105.5miles.Averagespeed，43.9milesperhour.
　　TranscontinentalFlightofCalbraithP.Rodgers.——Allworldrecordsforcross—countryflyingwerebrokenduringtheNewYorktoLosAngelesflightofCalbraithP.Rodgers，wholeftSheepsheadBay，N.Y.，onSunday，September17，1911，andcompletedhisflighttothePacificCoastonSunday，November5，atPasadena，Cal.RodgersflewaWrightbiplane，andduringhislongtripthemachinewasrepeatedlyrepaired，sogreatwasthestrainofthelongjourneyintheair.Rodgersisestimatedtohavecovered4，231miles，althoughtheactualrouteasmappedoutwasbut4，017miles.
　　ElapsedtimetoPasadena，Cal.，49days;actualtimeintheair，4，924minutes，equivalentto3days10hours4minutes;
　　averagespeedapproximating51milesperhour.Rodgers’
　　longestflightinonedaywasfromSandersontoSierraBlanca，Texas，onOctober28，whenhecovered231miles.OnNovember12，RodgersfellatCompton，Cal.，andwasbadlyinjured，causingadelayof28days.
　　EuropeanCircuitRace.——StartedfromParisonJune18，1911.Distance，1，073miles，viaParistoLiege;LiegetoSpatoLiege;LiegetoUtrecht，Holland;UtrechttoBrussels，Belgium;BrusselstoRoubaix;RoubaixtoCalais;CalaistoLondon;LondontoCalaisandCalaistoParis.Threeaeronautswerekilledeitheratthestartorshortlyaftertheracewasinprogress.TheywereCapt.Princetau，M.LeMartinandM.Lendron.Threeotherswereinjuredbyfalls.SevenhundredthousandspectatorswitnessedthestartfromtheaviationfieldatVincennes，nearParis.Thereweremorethanfortystarters，ofwhicheightfinished.Thewinner，Lieut.
　　JeanConneau，whofliesunderthenameof"AndreBeaumont，"
　　completedthecircuitonJuly7;hisactualnetflyingtimeforthedistancebeing58h.38m.4—5s.
　　CircuitofEnglandRace——1，010MilesinFiveSections.——
　　Start，July22.Finish，July26.Prize，$50，000.Twenty—
　　eightentriesandeighteenstarters.SeventeenfinishedthefirstsectionfromBrooklandstoHendon，adistanceoftwentymiles.FivereachedEdinburgh，thesecondsection，adistanceof343miles，andfourcompletedtheentirecircuit.
　　ParistoMadridRace.——ThisracewasstartedattheParisaviationheldatIssy—les—MoulineauxonSunday，May21.Thereweretwenty—oneentrants，andfully300，000spectatorsgatheredtowitnesstheinitialflightoftheaerialraces.Theracewasdividedintothreestagesasfollows：ParistoAngouleme，248miles;AngoulemetoSt.Sebastian，208miles，andfromSt.SebastiantoMadrid，386miles，atotaldistanceof842
　　miles.Afterthreeoftheentrantshadsafelyleftthefield，AviatorTrainlostcontrolofhisplane，andinfallingstruckandkilledM.Berteaux，theFrenchMinisterofWar，andseriouslyinjuredPremierMonis.Theaccidentcausedthewithdrawalofallbutsixoftheoriginalentrants，andofthesebutonefinished.TheracecalledforaflightoverthePyreneesMountains，andVedrines，thewinner，hadtorisetoaheightofmorethan7，000feettopassthemountainbarriernearSomosierraPass.BothVedrinesandGibert，anothercompetitor，wereattackedbyeaglesduringthelatterstagesoftheflight.Vedrines，whostartedfromParisonMonday，May22，finishedthelongandperilousraceat8：06
　　a.m.Friday，May26.Vedrinesnetflyingtime，allcontrolsandenforcedstopssubtracted，was14h.55m.18s.Thevariousprizestothewinneraggregated$30，000.
　　TheParis—Rome—TurinRace.——TheconditionsofthisracecalledforaflightbetweenthecitiesofParis，RomeandTurin，coveringadistanceof1，300miles.TheaviatorswerepermittedbytherulestoalightwheneverandwherevertheydesiredandthetimelimitwassetfromMay28toJune15.
　　Aprizeof$100，000wasofferedthewinner，butthecontestwasneverfinished，asoneafteranothertheaviatorsdroppedoutuntilFreyfellnearRoncigilione，France，breakingbotharmsandlegsandunofficiallyendingthecontest.Thereweretwenty—oneentriesandtwelveactualstarters.
　　InternationalSpeedCupRace.——ThethirdannualinternationalJamesGordonBennettspeedcupracewasheldatEastchurch，England，onJuly1，1911，andforthesecondtimewaswonbyanAmericanaviator，C.T.Weymann，inaFrenchracingaeroplane.Thedistancewas150kilometresequivalentto94miles，andthewinner’stimeof1h.11m.36s.
　　showedanaveragespeedof78.77milesperhour.Thefirstracewasheldin1909andwaswonbyGlennCurtiss，whoflewthetwentykilometres（12.4miles）in15minutes502—5
　　secondsatanaveragespeedof47milesperhour.In1910
　　thewinnerwasGrahame—White，whocovered100kilometres（62miles）atBelmontPark，L.I.，in60minutes473—5seconds，anaveragespeedof61.3milesperhour.Inthe1911
　　racethereweresixstarters：threefromFrance，twofromGreatBritainandonefromtheUnitedStates.
　　MilantoTurintoMilanRace.——ThisracewhichwasstartedfromMilan，Italy，onOctober29，wasrestrictedtoItalianaviatorsandhadsixstarters.Thedistancewasapproximately177milesandwonbyManisseroinaBleriotmachinein3h.16m.24—5s.
　　NewYorktoPhiladelphiaRace.——ThefirstintercityaeroplaneraceeverheldintheUnitedStateswasstartedfromNewYorkCityonAugust5，andfinishedinPhiladelphiathesameday.Theprizeof$5，000wasofferedbyacommercialconcernwithstoresinthetwocities：ThreeentrantscompetedfromtheCurtissExhibitionCompany.Thedistancewasapproximately83milesandwonbyL.BeacheyinaCurtissmachinein1h.50m.atanaveragespeedof45milesperhour.
　　Tri—StateRace.——Thetri—stateracewasthefeatureeventoftheHarvardAviationSocietymeetheldatSquantum，Mass.，August26toSeptember6.ItwasheldLaborDay，September4，overacourseof174miles，fromBostontoNashuatoWorcestertoProvidencetoBoston.Fourcompetitorsstarted，ofwhichtwofinished，thewinner，E.Ovington，inaBleriotmachine.Ovington’snetflyingtime，3h.6m.
　　221—5s.Winner’sprize，$10，000.
　　AEROPLANESANDDIRIGIBLEBALLOONSINWARFARE.
　　WonderfulprogresshasbeenmadeinthedevelopmentoftheaeroplaneinthiscountryandinEuropesince1903，andwithinthelasttwoorthreeyearstheleadingpowersoftheworldhaveentereduponextensivetestsandexperimentstodetermineitsavailabilityandusefulnessinlandandnavalwarfare.
　　Atthepresenttimeallthegreatpowersarebuildingorpurchasingaeroplanesonanextensivescale.Theyhaveestablishedgovernmentschoolsfortheinstructionoftheirarmyandnavyofficersandforexperimentalwork.So—called"AirshipFleets"havebeenconstructedandplacedincommissionasauxiliariestothearmiesandnavies.ThefleetsofFranceandGermanyareaboutequalandarelargerbyfarthanthoseofanyoftheotherpowers.Thelengthofthedirigiblescomposingthesefleetsrunsfrom150to500feet;
　　theyareequippedwithenginesoffrom50to500horse—power，witharateofspeedrangingfrom20to30milesperhour.
　　Theirapproximaterangeisfrom200to900miles;thelongestactualrun（madebytheZeppelinII，Germany）is800miles.
　　ABritishnavalairship，oneofthelargestyetbuilt，wascompletedlastsummer.Ithascostover$200，000，anditwasincourseofdesigningandconstructiontwoyears.Itis510
　　feetlong;cancarry22persons，andhasaliftof21tons.
　　Therelativevalueofthedirigibleballoonandtheaeroplaneinactualwarisyettobedetermined.Thedirigibleisconsideredtobethesafer，yetseverallargeballoonsofthisclassinGermanyandFrancehavemetwithdisaster，involvinglossoflives.Thecapacityofthedirigibleforlongerflightsanditssuperiorfacilitiesforcarryingapparatusandoperatorsforwirelesstelegraphyaredistinctadvantages.
　　Therehasnotyetbeenmuchopportunitytotesttheairshipinactualwarfare.TheaeroplanehasbeenusedbytheItaliansinTripoliforscoutingandreconnoiteringandissaidtohavejustifiedexpectations.OnseveraloccasionstheItalianmilitaryaviatorsfollowedthemovementsoftheenemy，inoneinstanceasfarasfortymilesinland.AtthetimeoftheattackbytheTurksaskillfulaeroplanereconnaissancerevealedtheapproachofalargeTurkishforce，believedtobeatthetimesixtymilesawayinthemountains.
　　Aeroplanesandairships，astheyexisttoday，woulddoubtlessrenderveryvaluableserviceinatimeofwar，bothoverlandandwater，inscouting，reconnoitering，carryingdispatches，andassomeexpertsbelieve，inlocatingsubmarinesandminesplacedbytheenemyinchannelsofexitsfromports.
　　A"coastaeroplane"couldflyout30or40milesfromland.
　　andrisingtoagreatheight，descryanyhostileshipsonthedistanthorizon，observetheirnumber，strength，formationanddirection，andreturnwithintwohourswithareporttoobtainwhichwouldrequireseveralswifttorpedo—boatdestroyersandamuchgreatertime.Thequestionastowhetheritwouldbepracticabletobombardanenemyonlandorseawithexplosivebombsdroppedordischargedfromflyingmachinesorairships，isonewhichismuchdiscussedbuthardlyyetdetermined.
　　Aeroplaneshavebeenconstructedwithfloatsintheplaceofrunnersandseveralattemptshavebeenmade，insomecasessuccessfully，tolightwiththemonandtorisefromthewater.Mr.CurtissdidthisatSanFrancisco，inJanuary，1911.Attemptshavealsobeenmadewiththeaeroplanetoalightonandtotakeflightfromthedeckofawarship.Towardtheendof1910AviatorElyflewtolandfromthecruiserBirmingham，andinJanuary，1911，heflewfromlandandalightedonthecruiserPennsylvania.Butinthesecasesspecialarrangementsweremadewhichwouldbehardlypracticableinatimeofactualwar.
　　InNovember，1911，atestwasmadeatNewport，R.I.，byLieut.Rodgers，ofthenavy，ofa"hydro—areoplane"asanauxiliarytoabattleship.Theideaofthetestwastoalightalongsideoftheship，hoistthemachineaboard，putouttoseaandlaunchthemachineagainwiththeuseofacrane.Lieut.
　　RodgerscamedownsmoothlyalongsidetheOhio，hismachinewaseasilydrawnaboardwithacrane，andtheOhiosteameddowntotheopensea，whereitwasblowinghalfagale.But，owingtothemisjudgmentoftheship’sheadway，oneofthewingsofthemachinewhenitstruckthewaterafterbeingreleasedfromthecrane，wentunderthewaterandwassnappedoff.Lieut.Rodgerswasconvincedthatthismethodwastooriskyandthatsomeothermustbedevised.
　　CHAPTERXXVIII.
　　GLOSSARYOFAERONAUTICALTERMS.
　　Aerodrome.——Literallyamachinethatrunsintheair.
　　Aerofoil.——Theadvancingtransversesectionofanaeroplane.
　　Aeroplane.——Aflyingmachineofthegliderpattern，usedincontra—distinctiontoadirigibleballoon.
　　Aeronaut.——Apersonwhotravelsintheair.
　　Aerostat.——Amachinesustainingweightintheair.A
　　balloonisanaerostat.
　　Aerostatic.——Pertainingtosuspensionintheair;theartofaerialnavigation.
　　Ailerons.——Smallstabilizingplanesattachedtothemainplanestoassistinpreservingequilibrium.
　　AngleofIncidence.——Angleformedbymakingcomparisonwithaperpendicularlineorbody.
　　AngleofInclination.——Angleatwhichaflyingmachinerises.Thisangle，likethatofincidence，isobtainedbycomparisonwithanupright，orperpendicularline.
　　AuxiliaryPlanes.——Minorplanesurfaces，usedinconjunctionwiththemainplanesforstabilizingpurposes.
　　Biplane.——Aflying—machineoftheglidertypewithtwosurfaceplanes.
　　BladeTwist.——Theangleoftwistorcurvatureonapropellerblade.
　　Cambered.——Curveorarchinplane，orwingfromporttostarboard.
　　Chassis.——Theunderframeworkofaflyingmachine;theframeworkofthelowerplane.
　　Control.——Systembywhichtheruddersandstabilizingplanesaremanipulated.
　　Dihedral.——Havingtwosidesandsetatanangle，likedihedralplanes，ordihedralpropellerblades.
　　Dirigible.——Obedienttoarudder;somethingthatmaybesteeredordirected.
　　Helicopter.——Flyingmachinetheliftingpowerofwhichisfurnishedbyverticalpropellers.
　　LateralCurvature.——Parabolicforminatransversedirection.
　　LateralEquilibriumorStability.——Maintenanceofthemachineonanevenkeeltransversely.Ifthelateralequilibriumisperfecttheextremeendsofthemachinewillbeonadeadlevel.
　　LongitudinalEquilibriumorStability.——Maintenanceofthemachineonanevenkeelfromfronttorear.
　　Monoplane.——Flyingmachinewithonesupporting，orsurfaceplane.
　　Multiplane.——Flyingmachinewithmorethanthreesurfaceplanes.
　　Ornithopter.——Flyingmachinewithmovablebird—likewings.
　　ParabolicCurves.——Havingtheformofaparabola——aconicsection.
　　PitchofPropellerBlade.——See"Twist."
　　Ribs.——Thepiecesoverwhichtheclothcoveringisstretched.
　　Spread.——Thedistancefromendtoendofthemainsurface;
　　thetransversedimension.
　　Stanchions.——Uprightpiecesconnectingtheupperandlowerframes.
　　Struts.——Thepieceswhichholdtogetherlongitudinallythemainframebeams.
　　Superposed.——Placedoneoveranother.
　　SurfaceArea.——Theamountofcloth—coveredsupportingsurfacewhichfurnishesthesustainingquality.
　　Sustentation.——Suspensionintheair.Powerofsustentation;
　　thequalityofsustainingaweightintheair.
　　Triplane.——Flyingmachinewiththreesurfaceplanes.
　　ThrustofPropeller.——Powerwithwhichthebladesdisplacetheair.
　　Width.——Thedistancefromthefronttotherearedgeofaflyingmachine.
　　WindPressure.——Theforceexertedbythewindwhenabodyismovingagainstit.Thereisalwaysmoreorlesswindpressure，eveninacalm.
　　WingTips.——Theextremeendsofthemainsurfaceplanes.Sometimesthesearemovablepartsofthemainplanes，andsometimesseparateauxiliaryplanes.