首页 >出版文学> Essays and Lectures>第1章
  Contents
  TheRiseofHistoricalCriticismTheEnglishRenaissanceofArtHouseDecorationArtandtheHandicraftmanLecturetoArtStudentsLondonModelsPoemsinProse
  THERISEOFHISTORICALCRITICISM
  CHAPTERI
  HISTORICALcriticismnowhereoccursasanisolatedfactinthecivilisationorliteratureofanypeople.Itispartofthatcomplexworkingtowardsfreedomwhichmaybedescribedastherevoltagainstauthority.Itismerelyonefacetofthatspeculativespiritofaninnovation,whichinthesphereofactionproducesdemocracyandrevolution,andinthatofthoughtistheparentofphilosophyandphysicalscience;anditsimportanceasafactorofprogressisbasednotsomuchontheresultsitattains,asonthetoneofthoughtwhichitrepresents,andthemethodbywhichitworks.
  Beingthustheresultantofforcesessentiallyrevolutionary,itisnottobefoundintheancientworldamongthematerialdespotismsofAsiaorthestationarycivilisationofEgypt.TheclaycylindersofAssyriaandBabylon,thehieroglyphicsofthepyramids,formnothistorybutthematerialforhistory.
  TheChineseannals,ascendingastheydotothebarbarousforestlifeofthenation,aremarkedwithasobernessofjudgment,afreedomfrominvention,whichisalmostunparalleledinthewritingsofanypeople;buttheprotectivespiritwhichisthecharacteristicofthatpeopleprovedasfataltotheirliteratureastotheircommerce.Freecriticismisasunknownasfreetrade.
  WhileasregardstheHindus,theiracute,analyticalandlogicalmindisdirectedrathertogrammar,criticismandphilosophythantohistoryorchronology.Indeed,inhistorytheirimaginationseemstohaverunwild,legendandfactaresoindissolublymingledtogetherthatanyattempttoseparatethemseemsvain.IfweexcepttheidentificationoftheGreekSandracottuswiththeIndianChandragupta,wehavereallynocluebywhichwecantestthetruthoftheirwritingsorexaminetheirmethodofinvestigation.
  ItisamongtheHellenicbranchoftheIndo—Germanicracethathistoryproperistobefound,aswellasthespiritofhistoricalcriticism;amongthatwonderfuloffshootoftheprimitiveAryans,whomwecallbythenameofGreeksandtowhom,ashasbeenwellsaid,weoweallthatmovesintheworldexcepttheblindforcesofnature.
  For,fromthedaywhentheyleftthechilltable—landsofTibetandjourneyed,anomadpeople,toAEgeanshores,thecharacteristicoftheirnaturehasbeenthesearchforlight,andthespiritofhistoricalcriticismispartofthatwonderfulAufklarungorilluminationoftheintellectwhichseemstohaveburstontheGreekracelikeagreatfloodoflightaboutthesixthcenturyB.C.
  L’ESPRITD’UNSIECLENENAITPASETNEMEURTPASEJOURFIXE,andthefirstcriticisperhapsasdifficulttodiscoverasthefirstman.Itisfromdemocracythatthespiritofcriticismborrowsitsintoleranceofdogmaticauthority,fromphysicalsciencethealluringanalogiesoflawandorder,fromphilosophytheconceptionofanessentialunityunderlyingthecomplexmanifestationsofphenomena.Itappearsfirstratherasachangedattitudeofmindthanasaprincipleofresearch,anditsearliestinfluencesaretobefoundinthesacredwritings.
  Formenbegintodoubtinquestionsofreligionfirst,andtheninmattersofmoresecularinterest;andasregardsthenatureofthespiritofhistoricalcriticismitselfinitsultimatedevelopment,itisnotconfinedmerelytotheempiricalmethodofascertainingwhetheraneventhappenedornot,butisconcernedalsowiththeinvestigationintothecausesofevents,thegeneralrelationswhichphenomenaoflifeholdtooneanother,andinitsultimatedevelopmentpassesintothewiderquestionofthephilosophyofhistory.
  Now,whiletheworkingsofhistoricalcriticisminthesetwospheresofsacredanduninspiredhistoryareessentiallymanifestationsofthesamespirit,yettheirmethodsaresodifferent,thecanonsofevidencesoentirelyseparate,andthemotivesineachcasesounconnected,thatitwillbenecessaryforaclearestimationoftheprogressofGreekthought,thatweshouldconsiderthesetwoquestionsentirelyapartfromoneanother.I
  shalltheninbothcasestakethesuccessionofwritersintheirchronologicalorderasrepresentingtherationalorder—notthatthesuccessionoftimeisalwaysthesuccessionofideas,orthatdialecticsmoveseverinthestraightlineinwhichHegelconceivesitsadvance.InGreekthought,aselsewhere,thereareperiodsofstagnationandapparentretrogression,yettheirintellectualdevelopment,notmerelyinthequestionofhistoricalcriticism,butintheirart,theirpoetryandtheirphilosophy,seemssoessentiallynormal,sofreefromalldisturbingexternalinfluences,sopeculiarlyrational,thatinfollowinginthefootstepsoftimeweshallreallybeprogressingintheordersanctionedbyreason.
  CHAPTERII
  ATanearlyperiodintheirintellectualdevelopmenttheGreeksreachedthatcriticalpointinthehistoryofeverycivilisednation,whenspeculativeinvadesthedomainofrevealedtruth,whenthespiritualideasofthepeoplecannolongerbesatisfiedbythelower,materialconceptionsoftheirinspiredwriters,andwhenmenfinditimpossibletopourthenewwineoffreethoughtintotheoldbottlesofanarrowandatrammellingcreed.
  FromtheirAryanancestorstheyhadreceivedthefatallegacyofamythologystainedwithimmoralandmonstrousstorieswhichstrovetohidetherationalorderofnatureinachaosofmiracles,andtomarbyimputedwickednesstheperfectionofGod’snature—averyshirtofNessosinwhichtheHeraclesofrationalismbarelyescapedannihilation.NowwhileundoubtedlythespeculationsofThales,andthealluringanalogiesoflawandorderaffordedbyphysicalscience,weremostimportantforcesinencouragingtheriseofthespiritofscepticism,yetitwasonitsethicalsidethattheGreekmythologywaschieflyopentoattack.
  Itisdifficulttoshakethepopularbeliefinmiracles,butnomanwilladmitsinandimmoralityasattributesoftheIdealheworships;sothefirstsymptomsofaneworderofthoughtareshowninthepassionateoutcriesofXenophanesandHeraclitosagainsttheevilthingssaidbyHomerofthesonsofGod;andinthestorytoldofPythagoras,howthathesawtorturedinHellthe’twofoundersofGreektheology,’wecanrecognisetheriseoftheAufklarungasclearlyasweseetheReformationforeshadowedintheINFERNOofDante.
  Anyhonestbelief,then,intheplaintruthofthesestoriessoonsuccumbedbeforethedestructiveeffectsoftheAPRIORIethicalcriticismofthisschool;buttheorthodoxparty,asisitscustom,foundimmediatelyaconvenientshelterundertheaegisofthedoctrineofmetaphorsandconcealedmeanings.
  TothisallegoricalschoolthetaleofthefightaroundthewallsofTroywasamystery,behindwhich,asbehindaveil,werehiddencertainmoralandphysicaltruths.ThecontestbetweenAthenaandAreswasthateternalcontestbetweenrationalthoughtandthebruteforceofignorance;thearrowswhichrattledinthequiverofthe’FarDarter’werenolongertheinstrumentsofvengeanceshotfromthegoldenbowofthechildofGod,butthecommonraysofthesun,whichwasitselfnothingbutamereinertmassofburningmetal.
  Moderninvestigation,withtheruthlessnessofPhilistineanalysis,hasultimatelybroughtHelenofTroydowntoasymbolofthedawn.
  TherewerePhilistinesamongtheGreeksalsowhosawinthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]ameremetaphorforatmosphericpower.
  Nowwhilethistendencytolookformetaphorsandhiddenmeaningsmustberankedasoneofthegermsofhistoricalcriticism,yetitwasessentiallyunscientific.ItsinherentweaknessisclearlypointedoutbyPlato,whoshowedthatwhilethistheorywillnodoubtexplainmanyofthecurrentlegends,yet,ifitistobeappealedtoatall,itmustbeasauniversalprinciple;apositionheisbynomeanspreparedtoadmit.
  Likemanyothergreatprinciplesitsufferedfromitsdisciples,andfurnisheditsownrefutationwhenthewebofPenelopewasanalysedintoametaphoroftherulesofformallogic,thewarprepresentingthepremises,andthewooftheconclusion.
  Rejecting,then,theallegoricalinterpretationofthesacredwritingsasanessentiallydangerousmethod,provingeithertoomuchortoolittle,Platohimselfreturnstotheearliermodeofattack,andre—writeshistorywithadidacticpurpose,layingdowncertainethicalcanonsofhistoricalcriticism.Godisgood;Godisjust;Godistrue;Godiswithoutthecommonpassionsofmen.
  ThesearetheteststowhichwearetobringthestoriesoftheGreekreligion.
  ’Godpredestinesnomentoruin,norsendsdestructiononinnocentcities;Heneverwalkstheearthinstrangedisguise,norhastomournforthedeathofanywell—belovedson.AwaywiththetearsforSarpedon,thelyingdreamsenttoAgamemnon,andthestoryofthebrokencovenant!’(Plato,REPUBLIC,Bookii.380;iii.388,391.)
  Similarethicalcanonsareappliedtotheaccountsoftheheroesofthedaysofold,andbythesameAPRIORIprinciplesAchillesisrescuedfromthechargesofavariceandinsolenceinapassagewhichmayberecitedastheearliestinstanceofthat’whitewashingofgreatmen,’asithasbeencalled,whichissopopularinourownday,whenCatilineandClodiusarerepresentedashonestandfar—seeingpoliticians,whenEINEEDLEUNDGUTENATURisclaimedforTiberius,andNeroisrescuedfromhisheritageofinfamyasanaccomplishedDILETTANTEwhosemoralaberrationsaremorethanexcusedbyhisexquisiteartisticsenseandcharmingtenorvoice.
  Butbesidestheallegorisingprincipleofinterpretation,andtheethicalreconstructionofhistory,therewasathirdtheory,whichmaybecalledthesemi—historical,andwhichgoesbythenameofEuhemeros,thoughhewasbynomeansthefirsttopropoundit.
  AppealingtoafictitiousmonumentwhichhedeclaredthathehaddiscoveredintheislandofPanchaia,andwhichpurportedtobeacolumnerectedbyZeus,anddetailingtheincidentsofhisreignonearth,thisshallowthinkerattemptedtoshowthatthegodsandheroesofancientGreecewere’mereordinarymortals,whoseachievementshadbeenagooddealexaggeratedandmisrepresented,’
  andthatthepropercanonofhistoricalcriticismasregardsthetreatmentofmythswastorationalisetheincredible,andtopresenttheplausibleresiduumasactualtruth.
  Tohimandhisschool,thecentaurs,forinstance,thosemythicalsonsofthestorm,strangelinksbetweenthelivesofmenandanimals,weremerelysomeyouthsfromthevillageofNepheleinThessaly,distinguishedfortheirsportingtastes;the’livingharvestofpanopliedknights,’whichsprangsomysticallyfromthedragon’steeth,abodyofmercenarytroopssupportedbytheprofitsonasuccessfulspeculationinivory;andActaeon,anordinarymasterofhounds,who,livingbeforethedaysofsubscription,waseatenoutofhouseandhomebytheexpensesofhiskennel.
  Now,thatundertheglamourofmythandlegendsomesubstratumofhistoricalfactmaylie,isapropositionrenderedextremelyprobablebythemoderninvestigationsintotheworkingsofthemythopoeicspiritinpost—Christiantimes.CharlemagneandRoland,St.FrancisandWilliamTell,arenonethelessrealpersonagesbecausetheirhistoriesarefilledwithmuchthatisfictitiousandincredible,butinallcaseswhatisessentiallynecessaryissomeexternalcorroboration,suchasisaffordedbythementionofRolandandRoncesvallesinthechroniclesofEngland,or(inthesphereofGreeklegend)bytheexcavationsofHissarlik.Buttorobamythicalnarrativeofitskernelofsupernaturalelements,andtopresentthedryhuskthusobtainedashistoricalfact,is,ashasbeenwellsaid,tomistakeentirelythetruemethodofinvestigationandtoidentifyplausibilitywithtruth.
  AndasregardsthecriticalpointurgedbyPalaiphatos,Strabo,andPolybius,thatpureinventiononHomer’spartisinconceivable,wemaywithoutscrupleallowit,formyths,likeconstitutions,growgradually,andarenotformedinaday.Butbetweenapoet’sdeliberatecreationandhistoricalaccuracythereisawidefieldofthemythopoeicfaculty.
  ThisEuhemeristictheorywaswelcomedasanessentiallyphilosophicalandcriticalmethodbytheunscientificRomans,towhomitwasintroducedbythepoetEnnius,thatpioneerofcosmopolitanHellenicism,anditcontinuedtocharacterisethetoneofancientthoughtonthequestionofthetreatmentofmythologytilltheriseofChristianity,whenitwasturnedbysuchwritersasAugustineandMinuciusFelixintoaformidableweaponofattackonPaganism.ItwasthenabandonedbyallthosewhostillbentthekneetoAthenaortoZeus,andageneralreturn,aidedbythephilosophicmysticsofAlexandria,totheallegorisingprincipleofinterpretationtookplace,astheonlymeansofsavingthedeitiesofOlympusfromtheTitanassaultsofthenewGalileanGod.Inwhatvaindefence,thestatueofMarysetintheheartofthePantheoncanbesttellus.
  Religions,however,maybeabsorbed,buttheyneveraredisproved,andthestoriesoftheGreekmythology,spiritualisedbythepurifyinginfluenceofChristianity,reappearinmanyofthesouthernpartsofEuropeinourownday.TheoldfablethattheGreekgodstookservicewiththenewreligionunderassumednameshasmoretruthinitthanthemanycaretodiscover.
  Havingnowtracedtheprogressofhistoricalcriticisminthespecialtreatmentofmythandlegend,Ishallproceedtoinvestigatetheforminwhichthesamespiritmanifesteditselfasregardswhatonemaytermsecularhistoryandsecularhistorians.
  Thefieldtraversedwillbefoundtobeinsomerespectsthesame,butthementalattitude,thespirit,themotiveofinvestigationareallchanged.
  TherewereheroesbeforethesonofAtreusandhistoriansbeforeHerodotus,yetthelatterisrightlyhailedasthefatherofhistory,forinhimwediscovernotmerelytheempiricalconnectionofcauseandeffect,butthatconstantreferencetoLaws,whichisthecharacteristicofthehistorianproper.
  Forallhistorymustbeessentiallyuniversal;notinthesenseofcomprisingallthesynchronouseventsofthepasttime,butthroughtheuniversalityoftheprinciplesemployed.AndthegreatconceptionswhichunifytheworkofHerodotusaresuchasevenmodernthoughthasnotyetrejected.TheimmediategovernmentoftheworldbyGod,thenemesisandpunishmentwhichsinandprideinvariablybringwiththem,therevealingofGod’spurposetoHispeoplebysignsandomens,bymiraclesandbyprophecy;thesearetoHerodotusthelawswhichgovernthephenomenaofhistory.Heisessentiallythetypeofsupernaturalhistorian;hiseyesareeverstrainedtodiscerntheSpiritofGodmovingoverthefaceofthewatersoflife;heismoreconcernedwithfinalthanwithefficientcauses.
  YetwecandiscerninhimtheriseofthatHISTORICSENSEwhichistherationalantecedentofthescienceofhistoricalcriticism,the[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],tousethewordsofaGreekwriter,asopposedtothatwhichcomeseither[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
  HehaspassedthroughthevalleyoffaithandhascaughtaglimpseofthesunlitheightsofReason;butlikeallthosewho,whileacceptingthesupernatural,yetattempttoapplythecanonsofrationalism,heisessentiallyinconsistent.ForthebetterapprehensionofthecharacterofthishistoricsenseinHerodotusitwillbenecessarytoexamineatsomelengththevariousformsofcriticisminwhichitmanifestsitself.
  SuchfabulousstoriesasthatofthePhoenix,ofthegoat—footedmen,oftheheadlessbeingswitheyesintheirbreasts,ofthemenwhosleptsixmonthsintheyear([Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]),ofthewer—wolfoftheNeuri,andthelike,areentirelyrejectedbyhimasbeingopposedtotheordinaryexperienceoflife,andtothosenaturallawswhoseuniversalinfluencetheearlyGreekphysicalphilosophershadalreadymadeknowntotheworldofthought.Otherlegends,suchasthesucklingofCyrusbyabitch,orthefeather—rainofnorthernEurope,arerationalisedandexplainedintoawoman’snameandafallofsnow.
  ThesupernaturaloriginoftheScythiannation,fromtheunionofHerculesandthemonstrousEchidna,issetasidebyhimforthemoreprobableaccountthattheywereanomadtribedrivenbytheMassagetaefromAsia;andheappealstothelocalnamesoftheircountryasproofofthefactthattheKimmeriansweretheoriginalpossessors.
  ButinthecaseofHerodotusitwillbemoreinstructivetopassonfrompointslikethesetothosequestionsofgeneralprobability,thetrueapprehensionofwhichdependsratheronacertainqualityofmindthanonanypossibilityofformulatedrules,questionswhichformnounimportantpartofscientifichistory;foritmustberememberedalwaysthatthecanonsofhistoricalcriticismareessentiallydifferentfromthoseofjudicialevidence,fortheycannot,likethelatter,bemadeplaintoeveryordinarymind,butappealtoacertainhistoricalfacultyfoundedontheexperienceoflife.Besides,therulesforthereceptionofevidenceincourtsoflawarepurelystationary,whilethescienceofhistoricalprobabilityisessentiallyprogressive,andchangeswiththeadvancingspiritofeachage.
  Now,ofallthespeculativecanonsofhistoricalcriticism,noneismoreimportantthanthatwhichrestsonpsychologicalprobability.
  Arguingfromhisknowledgeofhumannature,HerodotusrejectsthepresenceofHelenwithinthewallsofTroy.Hadshebeenthere,hesays,Priamandhiskinsmenwouldneverhavebeensomad([Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced])asnottogiveherup,whentheyandtheirchildrenandtheircitywereinsuchperil(ii.118);andasregardstheauthorityofHomer,someincidentalpassagesinhispoemshowthatheknewofHelen’ssojourninEgyptduringthesiege,butselectedtheotherstoryasbeingamoresuitablemotiveforanepic.SimilarlyhedoesnotbelievethattheAlcmaeonidaefamily,afamilywhohadalwaysbeenthehatersoftyranny([Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]),andtowhom,evenmorethantoHarmodiosandAristogeiton,Athensoweditsliberty,wouldeverhavebeensotreacherousastoholdupashieldafterthebattleofMarathonasasignalforthePersianhosttofallonthecity.A
  shield,heacknowledges,washeldup,butitcouldnotpossiblyhavebeendonebysuchfriendsoflibertyasthehouseofAlcmaeon;
  norwillhebelievethatagreatkinglikeRhampsinituswouldhavesenthisdaughter[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
  Elsewherehearguesfrommoregeneralconsiderationsofprobability;aGreekcourtesanlikeRhodopiswouldhardlyhavebeenrichenoughtobuildapyramid,and,besides,onchronologicalgroundsthestoryisimpossible(ii.134).
  Inanotherpassage(ii.63),aftergivinganaccountoftheforcibleentryofthepriestsofAresintothechapelofthegod’smother,whichseemstohavebeenasortofreligiousfactionfightwherestickswerefreelyused([Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]),’Ifeelsure,’hesays,’thatmanyofthemdiedfromgettingtheirheadsbroken,notwithstandingtheassertionsoftheEgyptianprieststothecontrary.’ThereisalsosomethingcharminglynaiveintheaccounthegivesofthecelebratedGreekswimmerwhodivedadistanceofeightystadiatogivehiscountrymenwarningofthePersianadvance.’If,however,’hesays,’Imayofferanopiniononthesubject,Iwouldsaythathecameinaboat.’
  Thereis,ofcourse,somethingalittletrivialinsomeoftheinstancesIhavequoted;butinawriterlikeHerodotus,whostandsontheborderlandbetweenfaithandrationalism,onelikestonoteeventhemostminuteinstancesoftheriseofthecriticalandscepticalspiritofinquiry.
  Howreallystrange,atbase,itwaswithhimmay,Ithink,beshownbyareferencetothosepassageswhereheappliesrationalisticteststomattersconnectedwithreligion.Henowhere,indeed,grappleswiththemoralandscientificdifficultiesoftheGreekBible;andwhereherejectsasincrediblethemarvellousachievementsofHerculesinEgypt,hedoessoontheexpressgroundsthathehadnotyetbeenreceivedamongthegods,andsowasstillsubjecttotheordinaryconditionsofmortallife([Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]).
  Evenwithintheselimits,however,hisreligiousconscienceseemstohavebeentroubledatsuchdaringrationalism,andthepassage(ii.45)concludeswithapioushopethatGodwillpardonhimforhavinggonesofar,thegreatrationalisticpassagebeing,ofcourse,thatinwhichherejectsthemythicalaccountofthefoundationofDodona.’Howcanadovespeakwithahumanvoice?’
  heasks,andrationalisesthebirdintoaforeignprincess.
  SimilarlyheseemsmoreinclinedtobelievethatthegreatstormatthebeginningofthePersianWarceasedfromordinaryatmosphericcauses,andnotinconsequenceoftheincantationsoftheMAGIANS.
  HecallsMelampos,whomthemajorityoftheGreekslookedonasaninspiredprophet,’aclevermanwhohadacquiredforhimselftheartofprophecy’;andasregardsthemiracletoldoftheAEginetanstatuesoftheprimevaldeitiesofDamiaandAuxesia,thattheyfellontheirkneeswhenthesacrilegiousAtheniansstrovetocarrythemoff,’anyonemaybelieveit,’hesays,’wholikes,butasformyself,Iplacenocredenceinthetale.’
  Somuchthenfortherationalisticspiritofhistoricalcriticism,asfarasitappearsexplicitlyintheworksofthisgreatandphilosophicwriter;butforanadequateappreciationofhispositionwemustalsonotehowconscioushewasofthevalueofdocumentaryevidence,oftheuseofinscriptions,oftheimportanceofthepoetsasthrowinglightonmannersandcustomsaswellasonhistoricalincidents.Nowriterofanyagehasmorevividlyrecognisedthefactthathistoryisamatterofevidence,andthatitisasnecessaryforthehistoriantostatehisauthorityasitistoproduceone’switnessesinacourtoflaw.
  While,however,wecandiscerninHerodotustheriseofanhistoricsense,wemustnotblindourselvestothelargeamountofinstanceswherehereceivessupernaturalinfluencesaspartoftheordinaryforcesoflife.ComparedtoThucydides,whosucceededhiminthedevelopmentofhistory,heappearsalmostlikeamediaevalwritermatchedwithamodernrationalist.For,contemporarythoughtheywere,betweenthesetwoauthorsthereisaninfinitechasmofthought.
  Theessentialdifferenceoftheirmethodsmaybebestillustratedfromthosepassageswheretheytreatofthesamesubject.TheexecutionoftheSpartanheralds,NicolaosandAneristos,duringthePeloponnesianWarisregardedbyHerodotusasoneofthemostsupernaturalinstancesoftheworkingsofnemesisandthewrathofanoutragedhero;whilethelengthenedsiegeandultimatefallofTroywasbroughtaboutbytheavenginghandofGoddesiringtomanifestuntomenthemightypenaltieswhichalwaysfollowuponmightysins.ButThucydideseitherseesnot,ordesiresnottosee,ineitheroftheseeventsthefingerofProvidence,orthepunishmentofwickeddoers.ThedeathoftheheraldsismerelyanAthenianretaliationforsimilaroutragescommittedbytheoppositeside;thelongagonyofthetenyears’siegeisduemerelytothewantofagoodcommissariatintheGreekarmy;whilethefallofthecityistheresultofaunitedmilitaryattackconsequentonagoodsupplyofprovisions.
  Now,itistobeobservedthatinthislatterpassage,aswellaselsewhere,Thucydidesisinnosenseofthewordascepticasregardshisattitudetowardsthetruthoftheseancientlegends.
  AgamemnonandAtreus,TheseusandEurystheus,evenMinos,aboutwhomHerodotushassomedoubts,aretohimasrealpersonagesasAlcibiadesorGylippus.Thepointsinhishistoricalcriticismofthepastare,first,hisrejectionofallextra—naturalinterference,and,secondly,theattributingtotheseancientheroesthemotivesandmodesofthoughtofhisownday.Thepresentwastohimthekeytotheexplanationofthepast,asitwastothepredictionofthefuture.
  Now,asregardshisattitudetowardsthesupernaturalheisatonewithmodernscience.Wetooknowthat,justastheprimevalcoal—
  bedsrevealtousthetracesofrain—dropsandotheratmosphericphenomenasimilartothoseofourownday,so,inestimatingthehistoryofthepast,theintroductionofnoforcemustbeallowedwhoseworkingswecannotobserveamongthephenomenaaroundus.Tolaydowncanonsofultra—historicalcredibilityfortheexplanationofeventswhichhappentohaveprecededusbyafewthousandyears,isasthoroughlyunscientificasitistointerminglepreternaturalingeologicaltheories.
  Whateverthecanonsofartmaybe,nodifficultyinhistoryissogreatastowarranttheintroductionofaspiritofspirit[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],inthesenseofaviolationofthelawsofnature.
  Upontheotherpoint,however,Thucydidesfallsintoananachronism.Torefusetoallowtheworkingsofchivalrousandself—denyingmotivesamongtheknightsoftheTrojancrusade,becausehesawnoneinthefaction—lovingAthenianofhisownday,istoshowanentireignoranceofthevariouscharacteristicsofhumannaturedevelopingunderdifferentcircumstances,andtodenytoaprimitivechieftainlikeAgamemnonthatauthorityfoundedonopinion,towhichwegivethenameofdivineright,istofallintoanhistoricalerrorquiteasgrossasattributingtoAtreusthecourtingofthepopulace([Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced])
  withaviewtotheMyceneanthrone.
  ThegeneralmethodofhistoricalcriticismpursuedbyThucydideshavingbeenthusindicated,itremainstoproceedmoreintodetailasregardsthoseparticularpointswhereheclaimsforhimselfamorerationalmethodofestimatingevidencethaneitherthepublicorhispredecessorspossessed.
  ’Solittlepains,’heremarks,’dothevulgartakeintheinvestigationoftruth,satisfiedwiththeirpreconceivedopinions,’thatthemajorityoftheGreeksbelieveinaPitanatecohortoftheSpartanarmyandinadoublevotebeingtheprerogativeoftheSpartankings,neitherofwhichopinionshasanyfoundationinfact.Butthechiefpointonwhichhelaysstressasevincingthe’uncriticalwaywithwhichmenreceivelegends,eventhelegendsoftheirowncountry,’istheentirebaselessnessofthecommonAtheniantraditioninwhichHarmodiosandAristogeitonwererepresentedasthepatrioticliberatorsofAthensfromthePeisistratidtyranny.Sofar,hepointsout,fromtheloveoffreedombeingtheirmotive,bothofthemwereinfluencedbymerelypersonalconsiderations,AristogeitonbeingjealousofHipparchos’
  attentiontoHarmodios,thenabeautifulboyintheflowerofGreekloveliness,whilethelatter’sindignationwasarousedbyaninsultofferedtohissisterbytheprince.
  Theirmotives,then,werepersonalrevenge,whiletheresultoftheirconspiracyservedonlytorivetmoretightlythechainsofservitudewhichboundAthenstothePeisistratidhouse,forHipparchos,whomtheykilled,wasonlythetyrant’syoungerbrother,andnotthetyranthimself.
  ToprovehistheorythatHippiaswastheelder,heappealstotheevidenceaffordedbyapublicinscriptioninwhichhisnameoccursimmediatelyafterthatofhisfather,apointwhichhethinksshowsthathewastheeldest,andsotheheir.Thisviewhefurthercorroboratesbyanotherinscription,onthealtarofApollo,whichmentionsthechildrenofHippiasandnotthoseofhisbrothers;
  ’foritwasnaturalfortheeldesttobemarriedfirst’;andbesidesthis,onthescoreofgeneralprobabilityhepointsoutthat,hadHippiasbeentheyounger,hewouldnothavesoeasilyobtainedthetyrannyonthedeathofHipparchos.
  Now,whatisimportantinThucydides,asevincedinthetreatmentoflegendgenerally,isnottheresultshearrivedat,butthemethodbywhichheworks.Thefirstgreatrationalistichistorian,hemaybesaidtohavepavedthewayforallthosewhofollowedafterhim,thoughitmustalwaysberememberedthat,whilethetotalabsenceinhispagesofallthemysticalparaphernaliaofthesupernaturaltheoryoflifeisanadvanceintheprogressofrationalism,andanerainscientifichistory,whoseimportancecouldneverbeover—estimated,yetwefindalongwithitatotalabsenceofanymentionofthosevarioussocialandeconomicalforceswhichformsuchimportantfactorsintheevolutionoftheworld,andtowhichHerodotusrightlygavegreatprominenceinhisimmortalwork.ThehistoryofThucydidesisessentiallyone—sidedandincomplete.Theintricatedetailsofsiegesandbattles,subjectswithwhichthehistorianproperhasreallynothingtodoexceptsofarastheymaythrowlightonthespiritoftheage,wewouldreadilyexchangeforsomenoticeoftheconditionofprivatesocietyinAthens,ortheinfluenceandpositionofwomen.
  Thereisanadvanceinthemethodofhistoricalcriticism;thereisanadvanceintheconceptionandmotiveofhistoryitself;forinThucydideswemaydiscernthatnaturalreactionagainsttheintrusionofdidacticandtheologicalconsiderationsintothesphereofthepureintellect,thespiritofwhichmaybefoundintheEuripideantreatmentoftragedyandthelaterschoolsofart,aswellasinthePlatonicconceptionofscience.
  History,nodoubt,hassplendidlessonsforourinstruction,justasallgoodartcomestousastheheraldofthenoblesttruth.
  But,tosetbeforeeitherthepainterorthehistoriantheinculcationofmorallessonsasanaimtobeconsciouslypursued,istomissentirelythetruemotiveandcharacteristicbothofartandhistory,whichisintheonecasethecreationofbeauty,intheotherthediscoveryofthelawsoftheevolutionofprogress:
  ILNEFAUTDEMANDERDEL’ARTQUEL’ART,DUPASSEQUELEPASSE.
  HerodotuswrotetoillustratethewonderfulwaysofProvidenceandthenemesisthatfallsonsin,andhisworkisagoodexampleofthetruththatnothingcandispensewithcriticismsomuchasamoralaim.Thucydideshasnocreedtopreach,nodoctrinetoprove.Heanalysestheresultswhichfollowinevitablyfromcertainantecedents,inorderthatonarecurrenceofthesamecrisismenmayknowhowtoact.
  Hisobjectwastodiscoverthelawsofthepastsoastoserveasalighttoilluminethefuture.Wemustnotconfusetherecognitionoftheutilityofhistorywithanyideasofadidacticaim.TwopointsmoreinThucydidesremainforourconsideration:histreatmentoftheriseofGreekcivilisation,andoftheprimitiveconditionofHellas,aswellasthequestionhowfarcanhebesaidreallytohaverecognisedtheexistenceoflawsregulatingthecomplexphenomenaoflife.
  CHAPTERIII
  THEinvestigationintothetwogreatproblemsoftheoriginofsocietyandthephilosophyofhistoryoccupiessuchanimportantpositionintheevolutionofGreekthoughtthat,toobtainanyclearviewoftheworkingsofthecriticalspirit,itwillbenecessarytotraceatsomelengththeirriseandscientificdevelopmentasevincednotmerelyintheworksofhistoriansproper,butalsointhephilosophicaltreatisesofPlatoandAristotle.Theimportantpositionwhichthesetwogreatthinkersoccupyintheprogressofhistoricalcriticismcanhardlybeover—
  estimated.IdonotmeanmerelyasregardstheirtreatmentoftheGreekBible,andPlato’sendeavourstopurgesacredhistoryofitsimmoralitybytheapplicationofethicalcanonsatthetimewhenAristotlewasbeginningtounderminethebasisofmiraclesbyhisscientificconceptionoflaw,butwithreferencetothesetwowiderquestionsoftheriseofcivilinstitutionsandthephilosophyofhistory.
  Andfirst,asregardsthecurrenttheoriesoftheprimitiveconditionofsociety,therewasawidedivergenceofopinioninHellenicsociety,justasthereisnow.Forwhilethemajorityoftheorthodoxpublic,ofwhomHesiodmaybetakenastherepresentative,lookedback,asagreatmanyofourowndaystilldo,toafabulousageofinnocenthappiness,aBELL’ETEDELL’
  AURO,wheresinanddeathwereunknownandmenandwomenwerelikeGods,theforemostmenofintellectsuchasAristotleandPlato,AEschylusandmanyoftheotherpoets(1)sawinprimitiveman’afewsmallsparksofhumanitypreservedonthetopsofmountainsaftersomedeluge,’’withoutanideaofcities,governmentsorlegislation,’’livingthelivesofwildbeastsinsunlesscaves,’
  ’theironlylawbeingthesurvivalofthefittest.’
  Andthis,too,wastheopinionofThucydides,whoseARCHAEOLOGIAasitiscontainsamostvaluabledisquisitionontheearlyconditionofHellas,whichitwillbenecessarytoexamineatsomelength.
  Now,asregardsthemeansemployedgenerallybyThucydidesfortheelucidationofancienthistory,Ihavealreadypointedouthowthat,whileacknowledgingthat’itisthetendencyofeverypoettoexaggerate,asitisofeverychroniclertoseektobeattractiveattheexpenseoftruth;heyetassumesinthethoroughlyeuhemeristicway,thatundertheveilofmythandlegendtheredoesyetexistarationalbasisoffactdiscoverablebythemethodofrejectingallsupernaturalinterferenceaswellasanyextraordinarymotivesinfluencingtheactors.Itisincompleteaccordancewiththisspiritthatheappeals,forinstance,totheHomericepithetof[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],asappliedtoCorinth,asaproofoftheearlycommercialprosperityofthatcity;tothefactofthegenericnameHELLENESnotoccurringintheILIADasacorroborationofhistheoryoftheessentiallydisunitedcharacteroftheprimitiveGreektribes;andhearguesfromtheline’O’ermanyislandsandallArgosruled,’asappliedtoAgamemnon,thathisforcesmusthavebeenpartiallynaval,’forAgamemnon’swasacontinentalpower,andhecouldnothavebeenmasterofanybuttheadjacentislands,andthesewouldnotbemanybutthroughthepossessionofafleet.’
  Anticipatinginsomemeasurethecomparativemethodofresearch,hearguesfromthefactofthemorebarbarousGreektribes,suchastheAEtoliansandAcarnanians,stillcarryingarmsinhisownday,thatthiscustomwasthecaseoriginallyoverthewholecountry.
  ’Thefact,’hesays,’thatthepeopleinthesepartsofHellasarestilllivingintheoldwaypointstoatimewhenthesamemodeoflifewasequallycommontoall.’Similarly,inanotherpassage,heshowshowacorroborationofhistheoryoftherespectablecharacterofpiracyinancientdaysisaffordedby’thehonourwithwhichsomeoftheinhabitantsofthecontinentstillregardasuccessfulmarauder,’aswellasbythefactthatthequestion,’Areyouapirate?’isacommonfeatureofprimitivesocietyasshowninthepoets;andfinally,afterobservinghowtheoldGreekcustomofwearingbeltsingymnasticcontestsstillsurvivedamongthemoreuncivilisedAsiatictribes,heobservesthattherearemanyotherpointsinwhichalikenessmaybeshownbetweenthelifeoftheprimitiveHellenesandthatofthebarbariansto—day.’
  Asregardstheevidenceaffordedbyancientremains,whileadducingasaproofoftheinsecurecharacterofearlyGreeksocietythefactoftheircities(2)beingalwaysbuiltatsomedistancefromthesea,yetheiscarefultowarnus,andthecautionoughttobeborneinmindbyallarchaeologists,thatwehavenorighttoconcludefromthescantyremainsofanycitythatitslegendarygreatnessinprimitivetimeswasamereexaggeration.’Wearenotjustified,’hesays,’inrejectingthetraditionofthemagnitudeoftheTrojanarmament,becauseMycenaeandtheothertownsofthatageseemtoussmallandinsignificant.For,ifLacedaemonwastobecomedesolate,anyantiquarianjudgingmerelyfromitsruinswouldbeinclinedtoregardthetaleoftheSpartanhegemonyasanidlemyth;forthecityisamerecollectionofvillagesaftertheoldfashionofHellas,andhasnoneofthosesplendidpublicbuildingsandtempleswhichcharacteriseAthens,andwhoseremains,inthecaseofthelattercity,wouldbesomarvellousastoleadthesuperficialobserverintoanexaggeratedestimateoftheAthenianpower.’Nothingcanbemorescientificthanthearchaeologicalcanonslaiddown,whosetruthisstrikinglyillustratedtoanyonewhohascomparedthewastefieldsoftheEurotasplainwiththelordlymonumentsoftheAthenianacropolis.
  (3)
  Ontheotherhand,Thucydidesisquiteconsciousofthevalueofthepositiveevidenceaffordedbyarchaeologicalremains.Heappeals,forinstance,tothecharacterofthearmourfoundintheDeliantombsandthepeculiarmodeofsepulture,ascorroborationofhistheoryofthepredominanceoftheCarianelementamongtheprimitiveislanders,andtotheconcentrationofallthetempleseitherintheAcropolis,orinitsimmediatevicinity,tothenameof[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]bywhichitwasstillknown,andtotheextraordinarysanctityofthespringofwaterthere,asproofthattheprimitivecitywasoriginallyconfinedtothecitadel,andthedistrictimmediatelybeneathit(ii.16).Andlastly,intheveryopeningofhishistory,anticipatingoneofthemostscientificofmodernmethods,hepointsouthowinearlystatesofcivilisationimmensefertilityofthesoiltendstofavourthepersonalaggrandisementofindividuals,andsotostopthenormalprogressofthecountrythrough’theriseoffactions,thatendlesssourceofruin’;andalsobytheallurementsitofferstoaforeigninvader,tonecessitateacontinualchangeofpopulation,oneimmigrationfollowingonanother.HeexemplifieshistheorybypointingtotheendlesspoliticalrevolutionsthatcharacterisedArcadia,ThessalyandBoeotia,thethreerichestspotsinGreece,aswellasbythenegativeinstanceoftheundisturbedstateinprimitivetimeofAttica,whichwasalwaysremarkableforthedrynessandpovertyofitssoil.
  Now,whileundoubtedlyinthesepassageswemayrecognisethefirstanticipationofmanyofthemostmodernprinciplesofresearch,wemustrememberhowessentiallylimitedistherangeoftheARCHAEOLOGIA,andhownotheoryatallisofferedonthewiderquestionsofthegeneralconditionsoftheriseandprogressofhumanity,aproblemwhichisfirstscientificallydiscussedintheREPUBLICofPlato.
  Andattheoutsetitmustbepremisedthat,whilethestudyofprimitivemanisanessentiallyinductivescience,restingratherontheaccumulationofevidencethanonspeculation,amongtheGreeksitwasprosecutedratherondeductiveprinciples.
  Thucydidesdid,indeed,availhimselfoftheopportunitiesaffordedbytheunequaldevelopmentofcivilisationinhisowndayinGreece,andintheplacesIhavepointedoutseemstohaveanticipatedthecomparativemethod.ButwedonotfindlaterwritersavailingthemselvesofthewonderfullyaccurateandpicturesqueaccountsgivenbyHerodotusofthecustomsofsavagetribes.Totakeoneinstance,whichbearsagooddealonmodernquestions,wefindintheworksofthisgreattravellerthegradualandprogressivestepsinthedevelopmentofthefamilylifeclearlymanifestedinthemeregregariousherdingtogetheroftheAgathyrsi,theirprimitivekinsmanshipthroughwomenincommon,andtheriseofafeelingofpaternityfromastateofpolyandry.Thistribestoodatthattimeonthatborderlandbetweenumbilicalrelationshipandthefamilywhichhasbeensuchadifficultpointformodernanthropologiststofind.
  Theancientauthors,however,areunanimousininsistingthatthefamilyistheultimateunitofsociety,though,asIhavesaid,aninductivestudyofprimitiveraces,oreventheaccountsgivenofthembyHerodotus,wouldhaveshownthemthatthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]ofapersonalhousehold,tousePlato’sexpression,isreallyamostcomplexnotionappearingalwaysinalatestageofcivilisation,alongwithrecognitionofprivatepropertyandtherightsofindividualism.
  Philologyalso,whichinthehandsofmoderninvestigatorshasprovedsuchasplendidinstrumentofresearch,wasinancientdaysstudiedonprinciplestoounscientifictobeofmuchuse.
  HerodotuspointsoutthatthewordERIDANOSisessentiallyGreekincharacter,thatconsequentlytheriversupposedtorunroundtheworldisprobablyamereGreekinvention.Hisremarks,however,onlanguagegenerally,asinthecaseofPIROMISandtheendingofthePersiannames,showonwhatunsoundbasishisknowledgeoflanguagerested.
  IntheBACCHAEofEuripidesthereisanextremelyinterestingpassageinwhichtheimmoralstoriesoftheGreekmythologyareaccountedforontheprincipleofthatmisunderstandingofwordsandmetaphorstowhichmodernsciencehasgiventhenameofadiseaseoflanguage.InanswertotheimpiousrationalismofPentheus—asortofmodernPhilistine—Teiresias,whomaybetermedtheMaxMulleroftheThebancycle,pointsoutthatthestoryofDionysusbeinginclosedinZeus’thighreallyarosefromthelinguisticconfusionbetween[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]and[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
  Onthewhole,however—forIhavequotedthesetwoinstancesonlytoshowtheunscientificcharacterofearlyphilology—wemaysaythatthisimportantinstrumentinrecreatingthehistoryofthepastwasnotreallyusedbytheancientsasameansofhistoricalcriticism.Nordidtheancientsemploythatothermethod,usedtosuchadvantageinourownday,bywhichinthesymbolismandformulasofanadvancedcivilisationwecandetecttheunconscioussurvivalofancientcustoms:for,whereasintheshamcaptureofthebrideatamarriagefeast,whichwascommoninWalestillarecenttime,wecandiscernthelingeringreminiscenceofthebarbaroushabitofexogamy,theancientwriterssawonlythedeliberatecommemorationofanhistoricalevent.
  AristotledoesnottellusbywhatmethodhediscoveredthattheGreeksusedtobuytheirwivesinprimitivetimes,but,judgingbyhisgeneralprinciples,itwasprobablythroughsomelegendormythonthesubjectwhichlastedtohisownday,andnot,aswewoulddo,byarguingbackfromthemarriagepresentsgiventothebrideandherrelatives.(4)
  Theoriginofthecommonproverb’worthsomanybeeves,’inwhichwediscerntheunconscioussurvivalofapurelypastoralstateofsocietybeforetheuseofmetalswasknown,isascribedbyPlutarchtothefactofTheseushavingcoinedmoneybearingabull’shead.
  Similarly,theAmathusianfestival,inwhichayoungmanimitatedthelaboursofawomanintravail,isregardedbyhimasariteinstitutedinAriadne’shonour,andtheCarianadorationofasparagusasasimplecommemorationoftheadventureofthenymphPerigune.InthefirstoftheseWEdiscernthebeginningofagnationandkinsmanshipthroughthefather,whichstilllingersinthe’couvee’ofNewZealandtribes:whilethesecondisarelicofthetotemandfetishworshipofplants.
  Now,inentireoppositiontothismoderninductiveprincipleofresearchstandsthephilosophicPlato,whoseaccountofprimitivemanisentirelyspeculativeanddeductive.
  Theoriginofsocietyheascribestonecessity,themotherofallinventions,andimaginesthatindividualmanbegandeliberatelytoherdtogetheronaccountoftheadvantagesoftheprincipleofdivisionoflabourandtherenderingofmutualneed.
  Itmust,however,beborneinmindthatPlato’sobjectinthiswholepassageintheREPUBLICwas,perhaps,notsomuchtoanalysetheconditionsofearlysocietyastoillustratetheimportanceofthedivisionoflabour,theshibbolethofhispoliticaleconomy,byshowingwhatapowerfulfactoritmusthavebeeninthemostprimitiveaswellasinthemostcomplexstatesofsociety;justasintheLAWShealmostrewritesentirelythehistoryofthePeloponnesusinordertoprovethenecessityofabalanceofpower.
  Hesurely,Imean,musthaverecognisedhimselfhowessentiallyincompletehistheorywasintakingnoaccountoftheoriginoffamilylife,thepositionandinfluenceofwomen,andothersocialquestions,aswellasindisregardingthosedeepermotivesofreligion,whicharesuchimportantfactorsinearlycivilisation,andwhoseinfluenceAristotleseemstohaveclearlyapprehended,whenhesaysthattheaimofprimitivesocietywasnotmerelylifebutthehigherlife,andthatintheoriginofsocietyutilityisnotthesolemotive,butthatthereissomethingspiritualinitif,atleast,’spiritual’willbringoutthemeaningofthatcomplexexpression[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
  Otherwise,thewholeaccountintheREPUBLICofprimitivemanwillalwaysremainasawarningagainsttheintrusionofAPRIORI
  speculationsinthedomainappropriatetoinduction.
  Now,Aristotle’stheoryoftheoriginofsociety,likehisphilosophyofethics,restsultimatelyontheprincipleoffinalcauses,notinthetheologicalmeaningofanaimortendencyimposedfromwithout,butinthescientificsenseoffunctioncorrespondingtoorgan.’Naturemakethnothinginvain’isthetextofAristotleinthisasinotherinquiries.Manbeingtheonlyanimalpossessedofthepowerofrationalspeechis,heasserts,bynatureintendedtobesocial,moresothanthebeeoranyothergregariousanimal.
  Heis[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],andthenationaltendencytowardshigherformsofperfectionbringsthe’armedsavagewhousedtosellhiswife’tothefreeindependenceofafreestate,andtothe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],whichwasthetestoftruecitizenship.Thestagespassedthroughbyhumanitystartwiththefamilyfirstastheultimateunit.
  Theconglomerationoffamiliesformsavillageruledbythatpatriarchalswaywhichistheoldestformofgovernmentintheworld,asisshownbythefactthatallmencountittobetheconstitutionofheaven,andthevillagesaremergedintothestate,andheretheprogressionstops.
  ForAristotle,likeallGreekthinkers,foundhisidealwithinthewallsofthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],yetperhapsinhisremarkthataunitedGreecewouldruletheworldwemaydiscernsomeanticipationofthat’federalunionoffreestatesintooneconsolidatedempire’which,morethanthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],istooureyestheultimatelyperfectpolity.
  HowfarAristotlewasjustifiedinregardingthefamilyastheultimateunit,withthematerialsaffordedtohimbyGreekliterature,Ihavealreadynoticed.Besides,Aristotle,Imayremark,hadhereflectedonthemeaningofthatAthenianlawwhich,whileprohibitingmarriagewithauterinesister,permitteditwithasister—german,oronthecommontraditioninAthensthatbeforethetimeofCecropschildrenboretheirmothers’names,oronsomeoftheSpartanregulations,couldhardlyhavefailedtoseetheuniversalityofkinsmanshipthroughwomeninearlydays,andthelateappearanceofmonandry.Yet,whilehemissedthispoint,incommon,itmustbeacknowledged,withmanymodernwriters,suchasSirHenryMaine,itisessentiallyasanexplorerofinductiveinstancesthatwerecognisehisimprovementonPlato.Thetreatise[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],diditremaintousinitsentirety,wouldhavebeenoneofthemostvaluablelandmarksintheprogressofhistoricalcriticism,andthefirstscientifictreatiseonthescienceofcomparativepolitics.
  Afewfragmentsstillremaintous,inoneofwhichwefindAristotleappealingtotheauthorityofanancientinscriptiononthe’DiskofIphitus,’oneofthemostcelebratedGreekantiquities,tocorroboratehistheoryoftheLycurgeanrevivaloftheOlympianfestival;whilehisenormousresearchisevincedintheelaborateexplanationhegivesofthehistoricaloriginofproverbssuchas[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced],ofreligioussongslikethe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]oftheBotticeanvirgins,orthepraisesofloveandwar.
  And,finally,itistobeobservedhowmuchwiderthanPlato’shistheoryoftheoriginofsocietyis.Theybothrestonapsychologicalbasis,butAristotle’srecognitionofthecapacityforprogressandthetendencytowardsahigherlifeshowshowmuchdeeperhisknowledgeofhumannaturewas.
  Inimitationofthesetwophilosophers,Polybiusgivesanaccountoftheoriginofsocietyintheopeningtohisphilosophyofhistory.SomewhatinthespiritofPlato,heimaginesthatafteroneofthecyclicdelugeswhichsweepoffmankindatstatedperiodsandannihilateallpre—existingcivilisation,thefewsurvivingmembersofhumanitycoalesceformutualprotection,and,asinthecasewithordinaryanimals,theonemostremarkableforphysicalstrengthiselectedking.Inashorttime,owingtotheworkingsofsympathyandthedesireofapprobation,themoralqualitiesbegintomaketheirappearance,andintellectualinsteadofbodilyexcellencebecomesthequalificationforsovereignty.
  Otherpoints,astheriseoflawandthelike,aredweltoninasomewhatmodernspirit,andalthoughPolybiusseemsnottohaveemployedtheinductivemethodofresearchinthisquestion,orrather,Ishouldsay,ofthehierarchicalorderoftherationalprogressofideasinlife,heisnotfarremovedfromwhatthelaboriousinvestigationsofmoderntravellershavegivenus.
  And,indeed,asregardstheworkingofthespeculativefacultyinthecreationofhistory,itisinallrespectsmarvelloushowthatthemosttruthfulaccountsofthepassagefrombarbarismtocivilisationinancientliteraturecomefromtheworksofpoets.
  TheelaborateresearchesofMr.TylorandSirJohnLubbockhavedonelittlemorethanverifythetheoriesputforwardinthePROMETHEUSBOUNDandtheDENATURARERUM;yetneitherAEschylusnorLucretiasfollowedinthemodernpath,butratherattainedtotruthbyacertainalmostmysticpowerofcreativeimagination,suchaswenowseektobanishfromscienceasadangerouspower,thoughtoitscienceseemstoowemanyofitsmostsplendidgeneralities.(5)
  Leavingthenthequestionoftheoriginofsocietyastreatedbytheancients,Ishallnowturntotheotherandthemoreimportantquestionofhowfartheymayhesaidtohaveattainedtowhatwecallthephilosophyofhistory.
  Nowattheoutsetwemustnotethat,whiletheconceptionsoflawandorderhavebeenuniversallyreceivedasthegoverningprinciplesofthephenomenaofnatureinthesphereofphysicalscience,yettheirintrusionintothedomainofhistoryandthelifeofmanhasalwaysbeenmetwithastrongopposition,onthegroundoftheincalculablenatureoftwogreatforcesactingonhumanaction,acertaincauselessspontaneitywhichmencallfreewill,andtheextra—naturalinterferencewhichtheyattributeasaconstantattributetoGod.
  Now,thatthereisascienceoftheapparentlyvariablephenomenaofhistoryisaconceptionwhichWEhaveperhapsonlyrecentlybeguntoappreciate;yet,likeallothergreatthoughts,itseemstohavecometotheGreekmindspontaneously,throughacertainsplendourofimagination,inthemorningtideoftheircivilisation,beforeinductiveresearchhadarmedthemwiththeinstrumentsofverification.ForIthinkitispossibletodiscerninsomeofthemysticspeculationsoftheearlyGreekthinkersthatdesiretodiscoverwhatisthat’invariableexistenceofwhichtherearevariablestates,’andtoincorporateitinsomeoneformulaoflawwhichmayservetoexplainthedifferentmanifestationsofallorganicbodies,MANINCLUDED,whichisthegermofthephilosophyofhistory;thegermindeedofanideaofwhichitisnottoomuchtosaythatonitanykindofhistoricalcriticism,worthyofthename,mustultimatelyrest.
  Fortheveryfirstrequisiteforanyscientificconceptionofhistoryisthedoctrineofuniformsequence:inotherwords,thatcertaineventshavinghappened,certainothereventscorrespondingtothemwillhappenalso;thatthepastisthekeyofthefuture.
  Nowatthebirthofthisgreatconceptionscience,itistrue,presided,yetreligionitwaswhichattheoutsetclotheditinitsowngarb,andfamiliarisedmenwithitbyappealingtotheirheartsfirstandthentotheirintellects;knowingthatatthebeginningofthingsitisthroughthemoralnature,andnotthroughtheintellectual,thatgreattruthsarespread.
  SoinHerodotus,whomaybetakenasarepresentativeoftheorthodoxtoneofthought,theideaoftheuniformsequenceofcauseandeffectappearsunderthetheologicalaspectofNemesisandProvidence,whichisreallythescientificconceptionoflaw,onlyitisviewedfromanETHICALstandpoint.
  NowinThucydidesthephilosophyofhistoryrestsontheprobability,whichtheuniformityofhumannatureaffordsus,thatthefuturewillinthecourseofhumanthingsresemblethepast,ifnotreproduceit.HeappearstocontemplatearecurrenceofthephenomenaofhistoryasequallycertainwithareturnoftheepidemicoftheGreatPlague.
  NotwithstandingwhatGermancriticshavewrittenonthesubject,wemustbewareofregardingthisconceptionasamerereproductionofthatcyclictheoryofeventswhichseesintheworldnothingbuttheregularrotationofStropheandAntistrophe,intheeternalchoiroflifeanddeath.
  For,inhisremarksontheexcessesoftheCorcyreanRevolution,Thucydidesdistinctlyrestshisideaoftherecurrenceofhistoryonthepsychologicalgroundsofthegeneralsamenessofmankind.
  ’Thesufferings,’hesays,’whichrevolutionentaileduponthecitiesweremanyandterrible,suchashaveoccurredandalwayswilloccursaslongashumannatureremainsthesame,thoughinasevererormilderform,andvaryingintheirsymptomsaccordingtothevarietyoftheparticularcases.
  ’Inpeaceandprosperitystatesandindividualshavebettersentiments,becausetheyarenotconfrontedwithimperiousnecessities;butwartakesawaytheeasysupplyofmen’swants,andsoprovesahardtaskmaster,whichbringsmostmen’scharacterstoalevelwiththeirfortunes.’