TheEconomicandPhilosophicalManuscripts：Preface
　　KarlMarx’sECONOMICANDPHILOSOPHICALMANUSCRIPTS
　　PrefaceIhavealreadygivennoticeintheDeutsch—FranzösischeJahrbücher，thecritiqueofjurisprudenceandpoliticalscienceintheformofacritiqueoftheHegelianPhilosophyofRight.Inthecourseofelaborationforpublication，theinterminglingofcriticismdirectedonlyagainstspeculationwithcriticismofthevarioussubjectsthemselvesprovedutterlyunsuitable，hamperingthedevelopmentoftheargumentandrenderingcomprehensiondifficult.
　　Moreoverthewealthanddiversityofthesubjectstobetreated，couldhavebeencompressedintooneworkonlyinapurelyaphoristicstyle;
　　whileanaphoristicpresentationofthiskind，foritspart，wouldhavegiventheimpressionofarbitrarysystemizing.Ishallthereforeissuethecritiqueoflaw，ethics，politics，etc.，inaseriesofdistinct，independentpamphlets，andattheendtryinaspecialworktopresentthemagainasaconnectedwholeshowingtheinterrelationshipoftheseparateparts，andfinally，shallmakeacritiqueofthespeculativeelaborationofthatmaterial.Forthisreasonitwillbefoundthattheinterconnectionbetweenpoliticaleconomyandthestate，law，ethics，civillife，etc.，istouchedoninthepresentworkonlytotheextenttowhichpoliticaleconomyitselfexprofessotouchesonthesesubjects.
　　Itishardlynecessarytoassurethereaderconversantwithpoliticaleconomythatmyresultshavebeenwonbymeansofawhollyempiricalanalysisbasedonaconscientiouscriticalstudyofpoliticaleconomy.
　　Whereastheuninformedreviewerwhotriestohidehiscompleteignoranceandintellectualpovertybyhurlingthe"utopianphrase"atthepositivecritic’shead，oragainsuchphrasesas"pure，resolute，utterlycriticalcriticism，"the"notmerelylegalbutsocial——utterlysocial——society，"the"compact，massymass，"the"oratoricaloratorsofthemassymass，"thisreviewerhasyettofurnishthefirstproofthatbesideshistheologicalfamily—affairshehasanythingtocontributetoadiscussionofworldlymatters.
　　ItgoeswithoutsayingthatbesidestheFrenchandEnglishSocialistsIhavemadeuseofGermanSocialistworksaswell.TheonlyoriginalGermanworksofsubstanceinthisscience，however——otherthanWeitling’swritings——aretheessaysbyHesspublishedinEinundzwanzigBogen，andEngels’sUmrissezueinerKritikderNationalökonomieintheDeutsch—FranzösischeJahrbücher，where，likewise，Iindicatedinaverygeneralwaythebasicelementsofthiswork.
　　Besidesbeingindebtedtotheseauthorswhohavegivencriticalattentiontopoliticaleconomy，positivecriticismasawhole——andthereforealsoGermanpositivecriticismofpoliticaleconomy——owesitstruefoundationtothediscoveriesofFeuerbach，againstwhosePhilosophiederZukunftandThesenzurReformderPhilosophieintheAnecdotis，despitethetacitusethatismadeofthem，thepettyenvyofsomeandtheveritablewrathofothersseemtohaveinstigatedaregularconspiracyofsilence.
　　ItisonlywithFeuerbachthatpositive，humanisticandnaturalisticcriticismbegins.Thelessnoisetheymake，themorecertain，profound，widespreadandenduringistheeffectofFeuerbach’swritings，theonlywritingssinceHegel’sPhänomenologieandLogiktocontainarealtheoreticalrevolution.
　　Incontrasttothecriticaltheologiansofourday，Ihavedeemedtheconcludingchapterofthepresentwork——thesettlingofaccountswithHegeliandialecticandHegelianphilosophyasawhole——tobeabsolutelynecessary，atasknotyetperformed.Thislackofthoroughnessisnotaccidental，sinceeventhecriticaltheologianremainsatheologian.Hence，eitherhehadtostartfromcertainpresuppositionsofphilosophyacceptedasauthoritative;orifintheprocessofcriticismandasaresultofotherpeople’sdiscoveriesdoubtsaboutthesephilosophicalpresuppositionshaveariseninhim，heabandonsthemwithoutvindicationandinacowardlyfashion，abstractsfromthemshowinghisserviledependencemerelyinanegative，unconsciousandsophisticalmanner.
　　Inthisconnectionthecriticaltheologianiseitherforeverrepeatingassurancesaboutthepurityofhisowncriticism，ortriestomakeitseemasthoughallthatwasletforcriticismtodealwithnowwassomeotherimmatureformofcriticismoutsideitself——sayeighteenth—centurycriticism——andthebackwardnessofthemasses，inordertodiverttheobserver’sattentionaswellashisownfromthenecessarytaskofsettlingaccountsbetweencriticismanditspointoforigin——
　　HegeliandialecticandGermanphilosophyasawhole——fromthisnecessaryraisingofmoderncriticismaboveitsownlimitationandcrudity.
　　Eventually，however，wheneverdiscoveries（suchasFeuerbach’s）
　　aremadeaboutthenatureofhisownphilosophicpresuppositions，thecriticaltheologianpartlymakesitappearasifheweretheonewhohadaccomplishedthis，producingthatappearancebytakingtheresultsofthesediscoveriesand，withoutbeingabletodevelopthem，hurlingthemintheformofcatch—phrasesatwritersstillcaughtintheconfinesofphilosophy;partlyheevenmanagestoacquireasenseofhisownsuperioritytosuchdiscoveriesbycovertlyassertinginaveiled，maliciousandskepticalfashionelementsoftheHegeliandialecticwhichhestillfindslackinginthecriticismofthatdialectic（whichhavenotyetbeencriticallyserveduptohimforhisuse）againstsuchcriticism——nothavingtriedtobringsuchelementsintotheirproperrelationorhavingbeencapableofdoingso，asserting，say，thecategoryofmediatingproofagainstthecategoryofpositive，self—originatingtruth，etc.，inawaypeculiartoHegeliandialectic.
　　Fortothetheologicalcriticitseemsquitenaturalthateverythinghastobedonebyphilosophy，sothathecanchatterawayaboutpurity，resoluteness，andutterlycriticalcriticism;andhefancieshimselfthetrueconquerorofphilosophywheneverhehappenstofeelsome"moment"inHegeltobelackinginFeuerbach——forhowevermuchhepracticesthespiritualidolatryof"self—consciousness"and"mind"thetheologicalcriticdoesnotgetbeyondfeelingtoconsciousness.
　　Oncloseinspectiontheologicalcriticism——genuinelyprogressivethoughiswasattheinceptionofthemovement——isseeninthefinalanalysistobenothingbuttheculminationandconsequenceoftheoldphilosophical，andespeciallytheHegelian，transcendentalism，twistedintoatheologicalcaricature.Thisinterestingexampleofthejusticeinhistory，whichnowassignstotheology，everphilosophy’sspotofinfection，thefurtherroleofportrayinginitselfthenegativedissolutionofphilosophy——i.e.，theprocessofitsdecay——thishistoricalnemesisIshalldemonstrateonanotheroccasion.
　　Howfar，ontheotherhand，Feuerbach’sdiscoveriesaboutthenatureofphilosophyrequiredstill，fortheirproofatleast，acriticalsettlingofaccountswithphilosophicaldialecticwillbeseenfrommyexpositionitself.
　　TheEconomicandPhilosophicalManuscripts：1stKarlMarx’sECONOMICANDPHILOSOPHICALMANUSCRIPTSFirstManuscriptWAGESOFLABORWagesaredeterminedbythefiercestrugglebetweencapitalistandworker.Thecapitalistinevitablywins.Thecapitalistcanlivelongerwithouttheworkerthantheworkercanlivewithouthim.Combinationamongcapitalistsishabitualandeffective，whilecombinationamongtheworkersisforbiddenandhaspainfulconsequencesforthem.Inadditiontothat，thelandownerandthecapitalistcanincreasetheirrevenueswiththeprofitsofindustry，whiletheworkercansupplementhisincomefromindustrywithneithergroundrentnorinterestoncapital.Thisisthereasonfortheintensityofcompetitionamongtheworkers.Itis，therefore，onlyfortheworkerthattheseparationofcapital，landedproperty，andlabor，isanecessary，essential，andperniciousseparation.Capitalandlandedpropertyneednotremainconstantinthisabstraction，asmustthelaboroftheworkers.
　　So，fortheworker，theseparationofcapital，groundrent，andlabor，isfatal.
　　Forwages，thelowestandtheonlynecessaryrateisthatrequiredforthesubsistenceoftheworkerduringworkandenoughextratosupportafamilyandpreventtheraceofworkersfromdyingout.Accordingto[economistAdam]Smith，thenormalwageisthelowestwhichiscompatiblewithcommonhumanity——i.e.，withabestialexistence.[SeeSmith，TheWealthofNations，2vols.，Everymanedition，Vol.I，p.61.]
　　Thedemandformennecessarilyregulatestheproductionofmen，asofeveryothercommodity.Ifthesupplygreatlyexceedsthedemand，thenonesectionoftheworkerssinksintobeggaryorstarvation.Theexistenceoftheworkeris，therefore，reducedtothesameconditionastheexistenceofeveryothercommodity.Theworkerhasbecomeacommodity，andheisluckyifhecanfindabuyer.Andthedemandonwhichtheworker’slifedependsisregulatedbythewhimsofthewealthyandthecapitalists.Ifsupplyexceedsdemand，oneoftheelementswhichgotomakeuptheprice——profit，groundrent，wages——willbepaidbelowitsprice.A
　　partoftheseelementsis，therefore，withdrawnfromthisapplication，withtheresultthatthemarketpricegravitatestowardsthenaturalpriceasthecentralpoint.But1.itisverydifficultfortheworkertodirecthislaborelsewherewherethereisamarkeddivisionoflabor;and2.becauseofhissubordinaterelationshiptothecapitalist，heisthefirsttosuffer.
　　Sotheworkerissuretoloseandtolosemostfromthegravitationofthemarketpricetowardsthenaturalprice.Anditispreciselytheabilityofthecapitalisttodirecthiscapitalelsewherewhicheitherdrivestheworker，whoisrestrictedtooneparticularbranchofemployment，intostarvationorforceshimtosubmittoallthecapitalist’sdemands.
　　Thesuddenchancefluctuationsinmarketpricehitgroundrentlessthanthatpartofthepricewhichconstitutesprofitandwages，buttheyhitprofitlessthanwages.Foreverywagewhichrises，thereisgenerallyonewhichremainsstationaryandanotherwhichfalls.
　　Theworkerdoesnotnecessarilygainwhenthecapitalistgains，buthenecessarilyloseswithhim.Forexample，theworkerdoesnotgainifthecapitalistkeepsthemarketpriceabovethenaturalpricebymeansofamanufacturingortradesecret，amonopolyorafavorablyplacedproperty.
　　Moreover，thepricesoflaboraremuchmoreconstantthanthepricesofprovisions.Theyareoftenininverseproportion.Inadearyear，wagesdropbecauseofadropindemandandrisebecauseofanincreaseinthepriceofprovisions.They，therefore，balance.Inanycase，someworkersareleftwithoutbread.Incheapyears，wagesriseonaccountoftheriseindemand，andfallonaccountofthefallinthepriceofprovisions.
　　Sotheybalance.[Smith，I，pp.76—7.]
　　Anotherdisadvantagefortheworker：
　　Thepriceofthelaborofdifferentkindsofworkersvariesmuchmorethantheprofitsofthevariousbranchesinwhichcapitalisputtouse.Inthecaseoflabor，allthenatural，spiritual，andsocialvariationsinindividualactivityaremanifestedandvariouslyrewarded，wereasdeadcapitalbehavesinauniformwayandisindifferenttorealindividualactivity.
　　Ingeneral，weshouldnotethatwhereworkerandcapitalistbothsuffer，theworkersuffersinhisveryexistencewhilethecapitalistsuffersintheprofitonhisdeadmammon.
　　Theworkerhasnotonlytostruggleforhisphysicalmeansofsubsistence;hemustalsostruggleforwork——i.e.，forthepossibilityandthemeansofrealizinghisactivity.Letusconsiderthethreemainconditionswhichcanoccurinsocietyandtheireffectontheworker.
　　（1）Ifthewealthofsocietyisdecreasing，theworkersuffersmost，althoughtheworkingclasscannotgainasmuchasthepropertyownerswhensocietyisprospering，nonesuffersmorecruellyfromitsdeclinethantheworkingclass.[Smith，I，p.230.]
　　（2）Letusnowconsiderasocietyinwhichwealthisincreasing.
　　Thisconditionistheonlyonefavorabletotheworker.Here，competitiontakesplaceamongthecapitalists.Thedemandforworkersoutstripssupply.
　　But：
　　Inthefirstplace，theriseofwagesleadstooverworkamongtheworkers.Themoretheywanttoearnthemoretheymustsacrificetheirtimeandfreedomandworklikeslavesintheserviceofavarice.Indoingso，theyshortentheirlives.Butthisisalltothegoodoftheworkingclassasawhole，sinceitcreatesareneweddemand.Thisclassmustalwayssacrificeapartofitselfifitistoavoidtotaldestruction.
　　Furthermore，whenisasocietyinaconditionofincreasingprosperity？
　　Whenthecapitalsandrevenuesofacountryaregrowing.Butthisisonlypossible（a）asaresultoftheaccumulationofalargequantityoflabor，forcapitalisaccumulatedlabor;thatistosay，whenmoreandmoreoftheworkers’productsarebeingtakenfromhim，whenhisownlaborincreasinglyconfrontshimasalienpropertyandthemeansofhisexistenceandofhisactivityareincreasinglyconcentratedinthehandsofthecapitalist.
　　（b）Theaccumulationofcapitalincreasesthedivisionoflabor，andthedivisionoflaborincreasesthenumberofworkers;conversely，thegrowthinthenumberofworkersincreasesthedivisionoflabor，justasthegrowthinthedivisionoflaborincreasestheaccumulationofcapital.
　　Asaconsequenceofthisdivisionoflabor，ontheonehand，andtheaccumulationofcapitals，ontheother，theworkerbecomesmoreandmoreuniformlydependentonlabor，andonaparticular，veryone—sidedandmachine—liketypeoflabor.Justasheisdepressed，therefore，bothintellectuallyandphysicallytothelevelofamachine，andfrombeingamanbecomesanabstractactivityandastomach，sohealsobecomesmoreandmoredependentoneveryfluctuationinthemarketprice，intheinvestmentofcapitalandinthewhimsofthewealthy.Equally，theincreaseinthatclassofmenwhodonothingbutworkincreasesthecompetitionamongtheworkersandthereforelowerstheirprice.Inthefactorysystem，conditionssuchasthesereachtheirclimax.
　　（c）Inasocietywhichisbecomingincreasinglyprosperous，onlytheveryrichestcancontinuetolivefromtheinterestonmoney.
　　Alltherestmustrunabusinesswiththeircapital，orputitonthemarket.
　　Asaresult，thecompetitionamongthecapitalistsincreases，thereisagrowingconcentrationofcapital，thebigcapitalistsruinthesmallones，andasectionoftheformercapitalistssinksintotheclassoftheworkers——which，becauseofthisincreaseinnumbers，suffersafurtherdepressionofwagesandbecomesevenmoredependentonthehandfulofbigcapitalists.Becausethenumberofcapitalistshasfallen，competitionforworkershasincreased，thecompetitionamongthemhasbecomeallthemoreconsiderable，unnaturalandviolent.Hence，asectionoftheworkingclassisreducedtobeggaryorstarvationwiththesamenecessityasasectionofthemiddlecapitalistsendsupintheworkingclass.
　　So，eveninthestateofsocietymostfavorabletohim，theinevitableconsequencefortheworkerandearlydeath，reductiontoamachine，enslavementtocapitalwhichpilesupinthreateningoppositiontohim，freshcompetitionandstarvationorbeggaryforasectionoftheworkers.
　　Anincreaseinwagesarousesintheworkerthesamedesiretogetrichasinthecapitalist，buthecanonlysatisfythisdesirebysacrificinghismindandbody.Anincreaseinwagespresupposes，andbringsabout，theaccumulationofcapital，andthusopposestheproductoflabortotheworkerassomethingincreasinglyalientohim.Similarly，thedivisionoflabormakeshimmoreandmoreone—sidedanddependent，introducingcompetitionfrommachinesaswellasfrommen.Sincetheworkerhasbeenreducedtoamachine，themachinecanconfronthimasacompetitor.Finally，justastheaccumulationofcapitalincreasesthequantityofindustryand，therefore，thenumberofworkers，soitenablesthesamequantityofindustrytoproduceagreaterquantityofproducts.Thisleadstooverproductionandendsupeitherbyputtingalargenumberofworkersoutofworkorbyreducingtheirwagestoapittance.
　　Sucharetheconsequencesofaconditionofsocietywhichismostfavorabletotheworker——i.e.，aconditionofgrowingwealth.
　　But，inthelongrun，thetimewillcomewhenthisstateofgrowthreachesapeak.Whatisthesituationoftheworkerthen？
　　（3）"Inacountrywhichhadacquiredthatfullcomplementofrichesboththewagesoflaborandtheprofitsofstockwouldprobablybeverylowthecompetitionforemploymentwouldnecessarilybesogreatastoreducethewagesoflabortowhatwasbarelysufficienttokeepupthenumberoflaborers，and，thecountrybeingalreadyfullypeopled，thatnumbercouldneverbeaugmented."[SmithI，p.84]Thesurpluspopulationwouldhavetodie.
　　So，inadecliningstateofsociety，wehavetheincreasingmiseryoftheworker;inanadvancingstate，complicatedmisery;andintheterminalstate，staticmisery.
　　Smithtellsusthatasocietyofwhichthegreaterpartsuffersisnothappy.[SmithI，p.70]But，sinceeventhemostprosperousstateofsocietyleadstosufferingforthemajority，andsincetheeconomicsystem[Nationalokonomie]，whichisasocietybasedonprivateinterests，bringsaboutsuchastateofprosperity，itfollowsthatsociety’sdistressisthegoaloftheeconomicsystem.
　　Weshouldfurthernoteinconnectionwiththerelationshipbetweenworkerandcapitalistthatthelatterismorethancompensatedforwagerisesbyareductionintheamountoflabortime，andthatwagerisesandincreasesintheinterestoncapitalactoncommoditypriceslikesimpleandcompoundinterestrespectively.
　　Letusnowlookatthingsfromthepointofviewofthepoliticaleconomistandcomparewhathehastosayaboutthetheoreticalandpracticalclaimsoftheworker.
　　Hetellsusthat，originally，andintheory，thewholeproduceoflaborbelongstotheworker.[SmithI，p.57]But，atthesametime，hetellsusthatwhattheworkeractuallyreceivesisthesmallestpartoftheproduct，theabsoluteminimumnecessary;justenoughforhimtoexistnotasahumanbeingbutasaworkerandforhimtopropagatenothumanitybuttheslaveclassoftheworkers.
　　Thepoliticaleconomisttellsusthateverythingisboughtwithlaborandthatcapitalisnothingbutaccumulatedlabor，butthengoesontosaythattheworker，farfrombeinginapositiontobuyeverything，mustsellhimselfandhishumanity.
　　Whilethegroundrentoftheindolentlandownergenerallyamountstoathirdoftheproductofthesoil，andtheprofitofthebusycapitalisttoasmuchastwicetherateofinterest，thesurpluswhichtheworkerearnsamountsatbesttotheequivalentofdeaththroughstarvationfortwoofhisfourchildren.[SmithI，p.60]]
　　Accordingtothepoliticaleconomist，laboristheonlymeanswherebymancanenhancethevalueofnaturalproducts，andlaboristheactivepropertyofman.But，accordingtothissamepoliticaleconomy，thelandownerandthecapitalist，whoassucharemerelyprivilegedandidlegods，areeverywheresuperiortotheworkeranddictatethelawtohim.
　　Accordingtothepoliticaleconomist，laboristheonlyconstantpriceofthings.Butnothingismoresubjecttochancethanthepriceoflabor，nothingexposedtogreaterfluctuations.
　　Whilethedivisionoflaborincreasestotheproductivepoweroflaborandthewealthandrefinementofsociety，itimpoverishestheworkerandreduceshimtoamachine.Whilelaborgivesrisetotheaccumulationofcapital，andsobringsaboutthegrowingprosperityofsociety，itmakestheworkerincreasinglydependentonthecapitalist，exposeshimtogreatercompetitionanddriveshimintothefrenziedworldofoverproduction，withitssubsequentslump.
　　Accordingtothepoliticaleconomist，theinterestoftheworkerisneveropposedtotheinterestofsociety.But，societyisinvariablyandinevitablyopposedtotheinterestoftheworker.
　　Accordingtothepoliticaleconomist，theinterestoftheworkerisneveropposedtothatofsociety：（1）becausetheriseinwagesismorethanmadeupforbythereductionintheamountoflabortime，withtheotherconsequencesexplainedabove，and（2）becauseinrelationtosocietytheentiregrossproductisnetproduct，andonlyinrelationtotheindividualdoesthenetproducthaveanysignificance.
　　Butitfollowsfromtheanalysesmadebythepoliticaleconomists，eventhoughtheythemselvesareunawareofthefact，thatlaboritself——notonlyunderpresentconditions，butingeneral，insofarasitsgoalisrestrictedtotheincreaseofwealth——isharmfulanddestructive.
　　*Intheory，groundrentandprofitoncapitalaredeductionsmadefromwages.But，inreality，wagesareadeductionwhichlandandcapitalgranttheworker，anallowancemadefromtheproductoflabortotheworker，tolabor.
　　Theworkersuffersmostwhensocietyisinastateofdecline.
　　Heowestheparticularseverityofhisdistresstohispositionasaworker，butthedistressassuchisaresultofthesituationofsociety.
　　But，whensocietyisinastateofprogress，thedeclineandimpoverishmentoftheworkeristheproductofhislaborandthewealthproducedbyhim.
　　Thismisery，therefore，proceedsfromtheveryessenceofpresent—daylabor.
　　Asocietyatthepeakofprosperity——anideal，butonewhichissubstantiallyachieved，andwhichisatleastthegoaloftheeconomicsystemandofcivilsociety——isstaticmiseryfortheworker.
　　Itgoeswithoutsayingthatpoliticaleconomyregardstheproletarian——i.e.，hewholiveswithoutcapitalandgroundrent，fromlaboralone，andfromone—sided，abstractlaboratthat——asnothingmorethanaworker.Itcan，therefore，advancethethesisthat，likeahorse，hemustreceiveenoughtoenablehimtowork.Itdoesnotconsiderhim，duringthetimewhenheisnotworking，asahumanbeing.Itleavesthistocriminallaw，doctors，religion，statisticaltables，politics，andthebeadle.
　　Letusnowriseabovethelevelofpoliticaleconomyandexaminetheideasdevelopedabove，takenalmostwordforwordfromthepoliticaleconomists，fortheanswerstothesetwoquestions：
　　（1）Whatisthemeaning，inthedevelopmentofmankind，ofthisreductionofthegreaterpartofmankindtoabstractlabor？
　　（2）Whatmistakesaremadebythepiecemealreformers，whoeitherwanttoraisewagesandtherebyimprovethesituationoftheworkingclass，or——likeProudhon——seeequalityofwagesasthegoalofsocialrevolution？
　　Inpoliticaleconomy，laborappearsonlyintheformofwage—earningactivity.
　　*"Itcanbearguedthatthoseoccupationwhichdemandspecificabilitiesorlongertraininghaveonthewholebecomemorelucrative;whilethecommensuratewageformechanicallyuniformactivity，inwhicheveryonecanbequicklyandeasilytrained，hasfallen，andinevitablyso，asaresultofgrowingcompetition.Anditispreciselythiskindoflaborwhich，underthepresentsystemoflabororganization，isbyfarthemostcommon.
　　"So，ifaworkerinthefirstcategorynowearnsseventimesasmuchashedid50yearsago，whileanotherinthesecondcategorycontinuestoearnthesameashedidthen，thenonaveragetheyearnfourtimesasmuch.
　　"Butifinagivencountrythereareonlyathousandworkersinthefirstcategoryandamillioninthesecond，then999，000arenobetteroffthan50yearsago，andtheyareworseoffifthepricesofstaplegoodshaverisen.
　　"Andyetpeoplearetryingtodeceivethemselvesaboutthemostnumerousclassofthepopulationwithsuperficialaveragecalculationsofthissort.
　　"Moreover，thesizeofwagesisonlyonefactorinevaluatingaworker’sincome：itisalsoessentialtotakeintoaccountthelengthoftimeforwhichsuchwagesareguaranteed，andthereisnoquestionofguaranteesintheanarchyofso—calledfreecompetitionwithitscontinualfluctuationsandstagnation.Finally，wemustbearinmindthehoursofworkwhichwereusualearlierandthosewhichareusualnow.AndfortheEnglishcottonworkers，theworkingdayhasbeenincreased，asaresultoftheemployers’
　　greed，from12to16hoursduringthepast25yearsorso——i.e.，sincelabor—savingmachineswereintroduced.Thisincreaseinonecountryandinonebranchofindustryinevitablycarriedovertoagreaterorlesserdegreeintootherareas，fortherightsofthewealthytosubjectthepoortoboundlessexploitationarestilluniversallyacknowledged."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，DieBewegungderProduktion，einegeschichtlichstatistisckeAbhandlung.
　　ZurichandWinterthur，1843，p.65]
　　"Buteveneventhiswereastrueasitisfalse，thattheaverageincomeofallclassesofsocietyhasgrown，thedifferencesandrelativeintervalsbetweenincomescanstillhavegrownbigger，sothatthecontrastbetweenwealthandpovertybecomessharper.Foritispreciselybecausetotalproductionrisesthatneeds，desires，andclaimsalsoincrease，andtheyincreaseinthesamemeasureasproductionrises;relativepovertycanthereforegrowwhileabsolutepovertydiminishes.TheSamoyedisnotpoorwithhisblubberandrancidfish，forinhisself—containedsociety，everyonehasthesameneeds.But，inastatewhichismakingrapidheadway，which，inthecourseofadecade，increasesitstotalproductioninrelationtothepopulationbyathird，theworkerwhoearnsthesameattheendofthe10yearsashedidatthebeginninghasnotmaintainedhisstandardofliving，hehasgrownpoorerbyathird."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，pp.65—6]Butpoliticaleconomyknowstheworkeronlyasabeastofburden，asananimalreducedtotheminimumbodilyneeds.
　　"Ifapeopleistoincreaseitsspiritualfreedom，itcannolongerremaininthralltoitsbodilyneeds，itcannolongerbetheservantoftheflesh.Aboveall，itneedstimeforintellectualexerciseandrecreation.Thistimeiswonthroughnewdevelopmentsintheorganizationoflabor.
　　"Nowadays，asingleworkerinthecottonmills，asaresultofnewwaysofproducingpowerandnewmachinery，canoftendoworkthatpreviouslyneeded100oreven250—300workers.Allbranchesofindustryhavewitnessedsimilarconsequences，sinceexternalnaturalforcesareincreasinglybeingbroughttobearonhumanlabor.Iftheamountoftimeandhumanenergyneededearliertosatisfyagivenquantityofmaterialneedswaslaterreducedbyhalf，then，withoutanyforfeitureofmaterialcomfort，themarginforintellectualcreationandrecreationwillhaveincreasedbyhalf.
　　"But，eventhesharingofthespoilswhichwewinfromoldChronosonhisveryownterritorystilldependsonblindandunjustchance.
　　"InFrance，ithasbeenestimatedthat，atthepresentstageofproduction，anaverageworkingdayoffivehoursfromeachpersoncapableofworkwouldbesufficienttosatisfyallsociety’smaterialneedsInspiteofthetimesavedthroughimprovementsinmachinery，thetimespentinslavelaborinthefactorieshasincreasedformanypeople."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，pp.67—8]
　　"Thetransitionfromcomplicatedhandicraftspresupposesabreakingdownofsuchworkintothesimpleoperationsofwhichitconsists.
　　Tobeginwith，however，onlyapartoftheuniformlyrecurringoperationsfallstothemachines，whileanotherpartfallstomen.
　　Permanentlyuniformactivityofthiskindisbyitsverynatureharmfultobothsoulandbody——afactwhichisalsoconfirmedbyexperience;andso，whenmachineryiscombinedinthisway，withthemeredivisionoflaboramongalargernumberofmen，alltheshortcomingsofthelatterinevitablymaketheirappearance.Theseshortcomingsincludethegreatermortalityoffactoryworkers
　　"Noattentionhasbeenpaidtotheessentialdistinctionbetweenhowfarmenworkthroughmachinesandhowfartheyworkasmachines."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，pp.69]
　　"Inthefuturelifeofthenations，however，themindlessforcesofnatureoperatinginmachineswillbeourslavesandservants."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，pp.74]
　　"IntheEnglishspinningmills，only158，818menareemployed，comparedwith196，818women.Forevery100menworkersintheLancashirecottonmills，thereare103womenworkers’inScotland，thefigureisashighas209.IntheEnglishflaxmillsinLeeds，thereare147womenforevery100menworkers;inDundee，andontheeastcoastofScotland，thisfigureisashighas280.IntheEnglishsilk—factories，therearemanywomenworkers;inthewoolfactories，wheregreaterstrengthisneeded，therearemoremen.
　　AsfortheNorthAmericancottonmills，in1833therewerenofewerthan38，927womenalongside18，593men.
　　"So，asaresultofchangesintheorganizationoflabor，awiderareaofemploymentopportunitieshasbeenopeneduptomembersofthefemalesexmoreeconomicindependenceforwomenbothsexesbroughtclosertogetherintheirsocialrelations."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，pp.71—2]
　　"EmployedintheEnglishspinningmillsoperatedbysteamandwaterintheyear1835were：20，558childrenbetween8and12yearsofage;35，867between12and13;and，finally，108，208between13and18
　　"True，theadvancesinmechanization，whichremovemoreandmoreofthemonotonoustasksfromhumanhands，aregraduallyeliminatingtheseills.But，standinginthewayofthesemorerapidadvancesisthefactthatthecapitalistsareinapositiontomakeuseoftheenergiesofthelowerclasses，rightdowntochildren，veryeasilyandverycheaply，andtousetheminsteadofmachinery."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，pp.70—1]
　　"LordBrougham’sappealtotheworkers：’Becomecapitalists！’
　　"Theevilthatmillionareonlyabletoekeoutalivingthroughexhausting，physicallydestructive，andmorallyandintellectuallycrippling，labor;thattheyareevenforcedtoregardthemisfortuneoffindingsuchworkasfortunate."
　　[WilhelmSchulz，pp.60]
　　"So，inordertolive，thenon—ownersareforcedtoplacethemselvesdirectlyorindirectlyattheserviceofowners——
　　i.e.，becomedependentuponthem."[C.Pecqueur，Theorienouvelled’economiesocialeetpolitique，ouetudessurl’organisationdessocietes，Paris，1842，p.409]"Servants——pay;workers——wages;clerks——salariesoremoluments"hireoutone’slabor"，"lendoutone’slaboratinterest"，"workinanother’splace".
　　"hireoutthematerialsoflabor"，"lendthematerialsoflaboratinterest"，"makeanotherworkinone’splace".[C.Pecqueur，p.409—10，411]"Thiseconomicconstitutioncondemnsmentosuchabjectemployments，suchdesolateandbitterdegradation，thatbycomparisonsavageryappearslikearoyalcondition.""Prostitutionofthenon—owningclassinallitsforms."Rag—and—bonemen.[C.Pecqueur，p.417—18，421]CharlesLoudon，inhisworkSolutionduproblemedelapopulation，givesthenumberofprostitutesinEnglandas60—70，000.Thenumberofwomenof"doubtfulvirtue"isroughlythesame.
　　"Theaveragelifespanoftheseunfortunatecreaturesonthestreets，aftertheyhaveembarkedontheircareerofvice，isaboutsixorsevenyears.Thismeansthat，ifthenumberof60—70，000
　　prostitutesistobemaintained，theremustbeinthethreekingdomsatleast8—9，000womenayearwhotakeupthisinfamoustrade——
　　i.e.，roughly24victimsaday，whichisanaverageofoneanhour.
　　So，ifthesameproportionistrueforthewholesurfaceoftheplanet，thenatalltimestheremustbeone—and—a—halfmillionoftheseunhappycreatures."
　　[CharlesLoudon，Solutionduproblemedelapopulationetdelasubsistence，soumiseaunmedecindansuneseriedulettres，Paris，1842，p.229]
　　"Thepopulationofthepoorgrowswiththeirpoverty，anditisatthemostextremelimitofneedthathumanbeingscrowdtogetherinthegreatestnumbersinordertofightamongthemselvesfortherighttosuffer"In1821，thepopulationofIrelandwas6，801，827.By1831，ithadrisento7，764，010;thatis，a14percentincreasein10years.InLeinster，themostprosperousoftheprovinces，thepopulationonlygrewby8percent，whileinConnaught，thepoorestoftheprovinces，theincreasewasashighas21percent.（ExtractfromInquiriesPublishedinEnglandonIreland，Vienna，1840.）
　　[EugeneBuret，DelamiseredesclasseslaborieusesenAngleterreetenFrance，2vols.，Paris，1840，Vol.I，pp.36—7]Politicaleconomyregardslaborabstractly，asathing;laborisacommodity;ifthepriceishigh，thecommodityismuchindemand;ifitislow，thenitismuchinsupply;"thepriceoflaborasacommoditymustfalllowerandlower".
　　[ibid.，p.43]Thisisbroughtaboutpartlybythecompetitionamongtheworkersthemselves.
　　"theworkingpopulation，selleroflabor，isforcedtoacceptthesmallestpartoftheproductIsthetheoryoflaborasacommodityanythingotherthanadisguisedtheoryofslavery？"
　　"Whythenwaslaborregardedasnothingmorethananexchangevalue？"
　　[EugeneBuret，p.43]Thebigworkshopsprefertobuythelaborofwomenandchildren，becauseitcostslessthanthatofmen.
　　"Vis—a—vishisemployer，theworkerisnotatallinthepositionofafreesellerThecapitalistisalwaysfreetoemploylabor，andtheworkerisalwaysforcedtosellit.Thevalueoflaboriscompletelydestroyedifitisnotsoldateveryinstant.
　　Unlikegenuinecommodities，laborcanbeneitheraccumulatednorsaved.
　　"Laborislife，andiflifeisnotexchangedeverydayforfood，itsuffersandsoonperishes.Ifhumanlifeistoberegardedasacommodity，weareforcedtoadmitslavery."
　　[EugeneBuret，p.49—50]So，iflaborisacommodity，itisacommoditywiththemostunfortunatecharacteristics.But，evenaccordingtoeconomicprinciples，itisnotone，foritisnotthe"freeproductofafreemarket".[ibid.，p.50
　　]Thepresenteconomicregime"reducesatthesametimeboththepriceandtheremunerationoflabor;itperfectstheworkeranddegradestheman."[ibid.，p.52—3]"Industryhasbecomeawar，commerceagame."
　　[ibid.，p.62]
　　"Themachinesforspinningcotton（inEngland）alonerepresent84，000，000handworkers."
　　[EugeneBuret，p.193]Uptonow，industryhasbeeninthesituationofawarofconquest：
　　"ithassquanderedthelivesofthemenwhocomposeditsarmywithasmuchindifferenceasthegreatconquerors.Itsgoalwasthepossessionofriches，andnothumanhappiness.""Theseinterests（i.e.，economicinterests），lefttotheirownfreedevelopment，cannothelpcomingintoconflict;waristheironlyarbiter，andthedecisionsofwarassigndefeatanddeathtosomeandvictorytoothersItisintheconflictofopposingforcesthatsciencelooksfororderandequilibrium;perpetualwas，intheviewofscience，istheonlymeansofachievingpeace;thiswariscalledcompetition."
　　[EugeneBuret，pp.20，23]
　　"Theindustrialwar，ifitistobewagedsuccessfully，needslargearmieswhichitcanconcentrateatonepointanddecimateatwill.
　　Andneitherdevotionnordutymovesthesoldiersofthisarmytobeartheburdenplaceduponthem;whatmovesthemistheneedtoescapetheharshnessofstarvation.Theyfeelneitheraffectionnorgratitudefortheirbosses，whoarenotboundintheirsubordinatesbyanyfeelingofgoodwillandwhoregardthemnotashumanbeingsbutasinstrumentsofproductionwhichbringinasmuchandcostaslittleaspossible.Thesegroupsofworkers，whoaremoreandmorecrowdedtogether，cannotevenbesuretheytheywillalwaysbeemployed;theindustrywhichhassummonedthemtogetherallowsthemtoliveonlybecauseitneedsthem;assoonasitcangetridofthem，itabandonsthemwithouttheslightesthesitation;andtheworkersareforcedtooffertheirpersonsandtheirlaborforwhateveristhegoingprice.Thelonger，moredistressingandloathsometheworkwhichisgiventhem，thelesstheyarepaid;onecanseeworkerswhotoiltheirwaynon—stopthrougha16—hourdayandwhoscarcelymanagetobuytherightnottodie."
　　[EugeneBuret，pp.68—9]
　　"Weareconvincedasarethecommissionersappointedtolookintotheconditionsofthehandloomweavers，thatthelargeindustrialtownswouldquicklylosetheirpopulationofworkersiftheydidnotallthetimereceiveacontinualstreamofhealthypeopleandfreshbloodfromthesurroundingcountryareas."
　　[EugeneBuret，pp.362]
　　PROFITOFCAPITAL
　　1.Capital（1）Whatisthebasisofcapital——i.e.，ofprivatepropertyintheproductsofanother’slabor？
　　"Evenifcapitalcannotbereducedtosimpletheftorfraud，itstillneedstheassistanceoflegislationtosanctifyinheritance."
　　[Jean—BaptisteSay，Traied’economiepolitique，thirdedition，2volumes，Paris，1817，I，p.136，footnote]Howdoesonebecomeanownerofproductivestock？Howdoesonbecomeowneroftheproductscreatedbymeansofthisstock？
　　Throughpositivelaw.[Say，II，p.4]
　　Whatdoesoneacquirewithcapital，withtheinheritanceofalargefortune，forexample？
　　"Thepersonwhoacquires，orsucceedstoagreatfortune，doesnotnecessarilyacquireorsucceedtoanypoliticalpowerThepowerwhichthatpossessionimmediatelyanddirectlyconveystohim，isthepowerofpurchasing;acertaincommandoverallthelabor，oroveralltheproduceoflabor，whichistheninthemarket."
　　[Smith，WealthofNations，I，pp.26—7]Capitalis，therefore，thepowertocommandlabor，anditsproducts.Thecapitalistpossessesthispowernotonaccountofhispersonalorhumanpropertiesbutinsofarasheisanownerofcapital.Hispoweristhepurchasingpowerofhiscapital，whichnothingcanwithstand.
　　Later，weshallseehowthecapitalist，bymeansofcapital，exerciseshispowertocommandlabor;butweshallthengoontoseehowcapital，initsturn，isabletorulethecapitalisthimself.
　　Whatiscapital？
　　"Acertainquantityoflaborstockedandstoredup"
　　[Smith，p.295]Capitalisstoredup—labor.
　　（2）Bonds，orstock，isanyaccumulationoftheproductsofthesoilorofmanufacture.Stockisonlycalledcapitalwhenityieldsitsownerarevenueorprofit.
　　2.TheProfitofCapitalTheprofitorgainofcapitalisaltogetherdifferentfromthewagesoflabor.Thisdifferencemanifestsitselfintwoways：firstly，theprofitsofcapitalareregulatedaltogetherbythevalueofthestockemployed，althoughthelaborofinspectionanddirectionfordifferentcapitalsmaybethesame.Furthermore，inmanylargefactories，thewholelaborofthiskindiscommittedtosomeprincipalclerk，whosewagesneverbearanyregularproportiontothecapitalofwhichheoverseesthemanagement.Andtheownerofthiscapital，thoughheisthusdischargedofalmostalllabor，stillexpectsthathisprofitsshouldbeararegularproportiontohiscapital.[Smith，p.43]
　　Whydoesthecapitalistdemandthisproportionbetweenprofitandcapital？
　　Hecouldhavenointerestinemployingtheseworkers，unlessheexpectedfromthesaleoftheirworksomethingmorethanwassufficienttoreplacethestockadvancedbyhimaswages;andhecouldhavenointeresttoemployagreatstockratherthanasmallone，unlesshisprofitsweretobearsomeproportiontotheextentofhisstock.[Smith，p.42]
　　Sothecapitalistmakesaprofitfirstontheagesandsecondlyontherawmaterialsadvancedbyhim.
　　Whatrelation，then，doesprofithavetocapital？
　　Itisnoteasytoascertainwhataretheaveragewagesoflaboreveninaparticularplaceandataparticulartime，anditisevenmoredifficulttodeterminetheprofitoncapital.Variationsofpriceincommoditieswhichthecapitalistdealsin，thegoodorbadfortunebothofhisrivalsandofhiscustomers，athousandotheraccidentstowhichhisgoodsareliableintransitandinwarehouses，allproduceadaily，almosthourly，variationinprofits.[Smith，pp.78—9]Butalthoughitmaybeimpossibletodetermine，withanydegreeofprecision，theaverageprofitsofcapital，somenotionmaybeformedofthemfromtheinterestofmoney.Whereveragreatdealcanbemadebytheuseofmoney，agreatdealwillbegivenfortheuseofit;whereverlittlecanbemade，littlewillbegiven.[Smith，p.79]
　　"Theproportionwhichtheusualmarketrateofinterestoughttobeartotheordinaryrateofclearprofit，necessarilyvariesasprofitrisesorfalls.DoubleinterestisinGreatBritainreckonedwhatthemerchantscallagood，moderate，reasonableprofit，termswhichmeannomorethanacommonandusualprofit."
　　[Smith，p.87]Whatisthelowestrateofprofit？Andwhatisthehighest？
　　Thelowestrateofordinaryprofitoncapitalsmustalwaysbesomethingmorethanwhatissufficienttocompensatetheoccassionallossestowhicheveryemploymentofcapitalisexposed.Itisthissurplusvalueonlywhichistheneatorclearprofit.Thesameholdsforthelowestrateofinterest.[Smith，p.86]
　　Thehighestratetowhichordinaryprofitscanrisemaybesuchas，inthepriceofthegreaterpartofcommodities，eastsupthewholeoftherentofthelandandreducesthewagesoflaborexpendedinpreparingthecommodityandbringingittomarkettothelowestrate，thebaresubsistenceofthelaborer.Theworkmanmustalwayshavebeenfedinsomewayorotherwhilehewasaboutthework;buttherentoflandcandisappearentirely.
　　Examples：theservantsoftheEastIndiaCompanyinBengal.[Smith，pp.
　　86—7]
　　Besidesalltheadvantagesoflimitedcompetitionwhichthecapitalistcanexploitinsuchacase，hecankeepthemarketpriceabovethenaturalprice，byquitehonorablemeans.
　　Firstly，bysecretsintrade，wherethemarketisatagreatdistancefromtheresidenceofthosewhosupplyit;thatis，byconcealingachangeinprice，anincreaseabovethenaturallevel.Theeffectofthisconcealmentisthatothercapitalistsdonotinvesttheircapitalinthisbranchofindustry.
　　Secondly，bysecretsinmanufacture，whichenablethecapitalisttocutproductioncostsandsellhisgoodsatthesameprice，orevenatalowerpricethanhiscompetitors，whilemakingabiggerprofit.（Deceitbyconcealmentisnotimmoral？DealingsontheStockExchange.）Furthermore，whereproductionisconfinedtoaparticularlocality（asinthecaseofselectwines）andtheeffectivedemandcanneverbesatisfied.Finally，throughmonopoliesgrantedtoindividualsorcompanies.Thepriceofmonopolyisthehighestwhichcanbegot.[Smith，pp.53—4]
　　Otherchancecauseswhichcanraisetheprofitoncapital：
　　Theacquisitionofnewterritory，orofnewbranchesoftrade，maysometimesrisetheprofitsofstockeveninawealthycountry，becausepartofthecapitaliswithdrawnfromtheoldbranchesoftrade，competitioncomestobelessthanbefore，andthemarketislessfullysupplieswithcommodities，thepricesofwhichthenrise：thosewhodealinthesecommoditiescanthenaffordtoborrowatahigherinterest.[Smith，p.83]Asanyparticularcommoditycomestobemoremanufactured，thatpartofthepricewhichresolvesitselfintowagesandprofitcomestobegreaterinproportiontothatwhichresolvesitselfintorent.Intheprogressofthemanufactureofcommodity，notonlythenumberoftheprofitsincrease，buteverysubsequentprofitisgreaterthantheprecedingone;becausethecapitalfromwhichitisderivedmustalwaysbegreater.Thecapitalwhichemploystheweavers，forexample，mustbegreaterthanthatwhichemploysthespinners;becauseitnotonlyreplacesthatcapitalwithitsprofits，butpaysbesides，thewagesoftheweavers;andtheprofitsmustalwaysbearsomeproportiontothecapital.[Smith，p.45]
　　So，thegrowingroleplayedbyhumanlaborinfashioningthenaturalproductincreasesnotthewagesoflaborbutpartlythenumberofprofitablecapitalsandpartlythesizeofeachcapitalinproportiontothosethatprecedeit.
　　Morelaterabouttheprofitwhichthecapitalistderivesfromthedivisionoflabor.
　　Heprofitsintwoways：firstly，fromthedivisionoflaborandsecondly，andmoregenerally，fromthegrowingroleplayedbyhumanlaborinfashioningthenaturalproduct.Thelargerthehumanshareinacommodity，thelargertheprofitofdeadcapital.
　　Inoneandthesamesociety，theaverageratesofprofitoncapitalaremorenearlyuponalevelthanarethewagesofdifferentkindsoflabor.
　　[Smith，p.45]Inthedifferentemploymentsofcapital，theordinaryrateofprofitvariesmoreorlesswiththecertaintyoruncertaintyofthereturns;
　　"theordinaryprofitofstock，thoughitriseswiththerisk，doesnotalwaysseemtoriseinproportiontoit."
　　[Smith，pp.99—100]Needlesstosay，profitsalsoriseifthemeansofcirculation（e.g.，papermoney）improveorbecomelessexpensive.
　　3.TheRuleofCapitaloverLaborandtheMotivesoftheCapitalist"Theconsiderationofhisownprivateprofitisthesolemotivewhichdeterminestheownerofanycapitaltoemployiteitherinagriculture，inmanufactures，orinsomeparticularbranchofthewholesaleorretailtrade.Thedifferentquantitiesofproductivelaborwhichmayputitintomotion，andthedifferentvalueswhichitmayaddtotheannualproduceofthelandandlaborofthesociety，accordingasitisemployedinoneorotherofthosedifferentways，neverenterintohisthoughts."
　　[Smith，p.355]
　　"Themostusefulemploymentofcapitalforthecapitalististhatwhich，withthesamedegreeofsecurity，yieldshimthelargestprofit;butthisemploymentisnotalwaysthemostusefulforsocietythemostusefulisthatwhichstimulatestheproductivepowerofitslandandlabor."
　　[Say，II，pp.130—31]
　　"Theplansandprojectsoftheemployersofstockregulateanddirectallthemostimportantoperationsoflabor，andprofitistheendproposedbyallthoseplansandprojects.Buttherateofprofitdoesnot，likerentandwages，risewiththeprosperityandfallwiththedeclensionofthesociety.Onthecontrary，itisnaturallylowinrichandhighinpoorcountries，anditisalwayshighestincountrieswhicharegoingfastesttoruin.Theinterestofthisthirdorder[thosewholivebyprofit]，therefore，hasnotthesameconnectionwiththegeneralinterestofthesocietyasthatoftheothertwoTheinterestofthedealer，however，inanyparticularbranchoftradeormanufactures，isalwaysinsomerespectsdifferentfrom，andevenoppositeto，thatofthepublic.
　　Towidenthemarketandtonarrowthecompetition，isalwaystheinterestofthedealersandorderofmenwhoseinterestisneverexactlythesameasthatofthepublic，whohavegenerallyaninteresttodecisiveandeventooppressthepublic"
　　[SmithI，pp.231—2]4.TheAccumulationofCapitalsandtheCompetitionamongtheCapitalistsTheincreaseofcapitals，whichraiseswages，tendstolowerprofits，asaresultofthecompetitionamongcapitalists.[Smith，p.78]
　　If，forexample，thecapitalwhichisnecessaryforthegrocerytradeofaparticulartown"isdividedbetweentwodifferentgrocers，theircompetitionwilltendtomakebothofthemsellcheaperthanifitwereinthehandsofoneonly;andifitweredividedamong20，theircompetitionwouldbejustsomuchthegreater，andthechanceoftheircombiningtogether，inordertoraisetheprice，justsomuchtheless."
　　[SmithI，p.322]Sincewealreadyknowthatmonopolypricesareashighaspossible，sincetheinterestofthecapitalists，evenfromastraight—forwardlyeconomicpointofview，isopposedtotheinterestofsociety，andsincethegrowthofprofitsactsonthepriceofthecommoditylikecompoundinterest[Smith，pp.87—8]，itfollowsthatthesoledefenseagainstthecapitalistsiscompetition，whichintheviewofpoliticaleconomyhasthebeneficialeffectbothofraisingwagesandcheapeningcommoditiestotheadvantageoftheconsumingpublic.
　　But，competitionispossibleonlyifcapitalsmultiplyandareheldbymanydifferentpeople.Itisonlypossibletogeneratealargenumberofcapitalsasaresultofmultilateralaccumulation，sincecapitalingeneralstemsfromaccumulation.But，multilateralaccumulationinevitablyturnsintounilateralaccumulation.Competitionamongcapitalistsincreasesaccumulationofcapitals.Accumulation——which，undertheruleofprivateproperty，meansconcentrationofcapitalinfewhands——inevitablyensuesifcapitalsareallowedtofollowtheirownnaturalcourse.Itisonlythroughcompetitionthatthisnaturalproclivityofcapitalbeginstotakeshape.