NurhagatSantaBarbaraSardinia。
TheoriginoftheNURHAGSisasuncertainastheiruse。DiodorusSiculusconsideredthemveryancient，andonefacthascometolightinourdaywhichenablesustoarriveatasomewhatmoreexactdecision。TheislandofSardiniawastakenbytheRomansfromtheCarthaginiansin238B。C。，andanaqueduct，theruinsofwhichcanstillbeseen，wasbuiltbytheconquerorsonthefoundationsofanancientNURHAG，sothatthelattermustbelongtoanearlierlatethanthethirdcenturybeforeourera。Fergusson，whospeakswithauthorityoneverythingrelatingtothemonumentsoftheStoneage，assignstheNURHAGStothemystictimesoftheTrojanWar。Inallprobabilitytheywerebuiltbyaninvadingpeople。LaMarmorathinkstheseinvadersweretheLibyans；M。deRougemont，inhishistoryoftheBronzeage，saysthatthecurvedvaultisthecharacteristicfeatureofPelasgianarchitecture，whichisoftenconfoundedwiththatofthePhoenicians。Althoughanyfinalconclusionwouldbepremature，weourselvesthinkthatthebuildersoftheNURHAGSbelongedtothegreatstreamofemigrationfromtheEast，thecourseofwhichismarkedbymegalithicmonumentsinsomanypartsoftheworld。Insomeinstances，NURHAGSweresurroundedbycromlechs，ofwhichmostofthestoneshavenowbeenthrowndown。Someofthesestonesboreprominencesresemblingthebreastsofawoman。
TheaccumulationsofearthandrubbishabouttheNURHAGSare，someofthem，fromsixtotenfeethigh。Inthelowerdepositshavebeenfoundcoarsepottery，withnoattemptatornamentation，fragmentsofflint，andobsidianhatchetsofblackbasalt，orporphyryofthePalaeolithictype，arrow-head，flintknives，stonesusedinslings，andnumerousshells；whilstintheupperdepositswerepickedupblackpotteryandfragmentsofbronzebelongingtothetransitionperiodbetweentheStoneandMetalages。
AllovertheislandofSardinia，sidebysidewiththeNURHAGS，risetombstowhichhavebeengiventhenameofSEPOLTUREDEIGIGANTI。Theyarefromthirty-twotothirty-ninefeetlongbyanearlyequalwidth，andarebuilt，。someofhugeslabsofstone，someofstonesofsmallersize。Theyareineverycasesurmountedbyapediment，formedofasingleblock，andoftencoveredwithsculpturesdatingfromdifferentepochs。ThesesepulchresarecertainlyoflaterdatethantheNURHAGS，andinthemhavebeenfoundnumerousimplementsofbronze，butnoneofstone。
“Talayoti“atTrepucoMinorca。
TheTALAYOTI，ofwhichonehundredandfiftyarestillstandingintheislandofMinorca，arecircularorellipticaltruncatedcones，builtofhugeunhewnstones，laidoneontheotherwithoutcementFig。54。Themostremarkableofallofthem，thatatTorello，nearMahon，isthirty-threefeethigh。Inmanycasestherearetwostone，oneplacedupright，theotheracrossit，infrontoftheTALAYOTI。Themeaningofthesebilithsisunknown。
YetanotherseriesofcyclopeanmonumentsareknownunderthenameofNANETAS，andarenotunlikeoverturnedboats。SevensuchNANETAS
arestilltobeseenintheBalearicIsles。Theonewhichisbestpreservedconsistsoflargeunhewnstonesofrectangularshape，enclosinganinnerchamberaboutsixfeetinwidth。Theroofhavingfallenin，itsheightcannotbeexactlydetermined；weonlyknowthatthelateralwallsaresomeforty-fivefeethigh。
InAlgeriaalsohavebeenpreservedsometowersbuiltofstoneswithoutcement。SomeofthemaresquareBASINAandsurmountedbyasmalldolmen，othersareroundCHOUCHETandclosedatthetopbyalargeslabofstone，asintheNURHAGSwehavejustdescribed。
ItisdifficulttobringthisaccounttoaclosewithoutmentioningtheTRUDDHIandtheSPECCHIEofOtranto。[134]ATRUDDHIisamassiveconicaltowerconsistingofaheapofscarcelyhewnstonespiledupwithoutcementandwithanexteriorfacing。Insideisaroundroom，theroofofwhichisformedbyaseriesofcircularcoursesofstoneprojectingonebeyondtheother。Sometimesasecondchamberrisesabovethefirst，whichISreachedbystepscutinthefacing，whichstepsalsoleadtotheplatformonthetopofthetower。ThousandsofTRUDDHIaretobeseeninItaly；theydatefromeveryepoch，andthepeopleofLecceandBaricontinuetoerectthemasdidtheirfathersbeforethem。SidebysidewiththeTRUDDHIrisetheSPECCHIE，whichareconicalmassesofstone，ofgreaterheightandprobablyofmoreancientdatethanthetowers。Lenormantthinkstheywereusedtolivein；buthisopinionhasbeenmuchquestioned，anditisnecessarytospeakonthispointwithgreatreserve。
TheCASTELLIERIofIstria，whichtheSlavonianpeasantscallSTARIGRAD，areasyetbutlittleknown。DoubtlessanexaminationofthemwillbringouttheirresemblancetotheNURHAGSandTALAYOTI。Theyare，however，morethanmeretowers，formingregularENCEINTESbetweenwallsformedoftwofacingsofdrystones，thespacebetweenwhichisfilledinwithsmallerstones。TherearefifteenoftheseCASTELLIERIinthedistrictofAlbona，alittletownonthesoutheastofTrieste。TheywereatfirstattributedtotheRomanepoch，butlaterresearchesrelegatethemrathertoprehistorictimes，andthediscoverynearthemofnumerousstoneimplementsrathertendstosupportthislatteropinion，butitmustnotbeconsideredconclusive。
PerhapsweoughtalsotoconnectwiththeearliestagesofhumanitythestationsrecentlydiscoveredinSpainbyMM。Siret。[135]Thesewereevidentlycentresofpopulation，surroundedbywallsofaveryprimitivedescription。Weshallhavetoreferagaintothesediscoveries；wewillonlyaddnowthatintheblackearthformingthesoilwerefoundworkedflints，polisheddioritehatchets，piercedshells，withvariouspiecesofpottery，andmillsforgrindingcorn。Sofar，howeverthoughmanyofthestationshavebeenexplored，notracehasbeenfoundoftheuseofmetals。
Avastperiodoftime，countlesscenturies，indeed，havepassedawaysincethecloseofthePaleolithicepoch。Theburghs，NURHAGS，andCASTELLIERIshowtheprogressofcivilization，andatthesametimeprovethatthisprogressextendedthroughoutEurope，andthatatatimenotsoveryfarremovedfromourown。ThecloseresemblancebetweenbuildingsofdifferentdatesenablesustospeakwithcertaintyoftheconnectionbetweentheraceswhichsucceededeachotherinEurope。Theimportanceoftheseconclusionsisverygreat，andwillbebroughtoutstillmoreinourstudyofmegalithicmonuments。
Megalithicmonumentsareperhapsthemostinterestingofallthewitnessesoftheremotepast，intothehistoryofwhichwearenowinquiring，andofwhichsolittleisknown。FromtheshoresoftheAtlantictotheUralMountains，fromthefrontiersofRussiatothePacificOcean，fromthesteppesofSiberiatotheplainsofHindustan，weseerisingbeforeusmonumentsofthesamecharacteristicform，builtinthesamemanner。Thisisaveryimportantfactinthehistoryofhumanity，andofwhichitisdifficulttoexaggeratetheimportance。
Whatistheageofallthesemonuments？Weretheyallerectedbyonerace，whichhasthuscarriedonitstraditionsfrontonegenerationtoanother？Weretheythetemplesofthegodsofthisrace，orthetombsoftheirancestors？DidthepeoplewhosetthemupcomefromtheEast，ordidtheycomefromtheNorth，ontheirwaytothewarmerregionsoftheSouth？Theseandmanyotherquestionsareeagerlydiscussed，butinthepresentstateofourknowledgenotoneofthemcallbeansweredinaperfectlysatisfactorymanner。SCIREIGNORAREMAGNA
SCIENTIA，saidanancientphilosopher，andthisisatruthwhichwemustoftenrepeatwhenwearedealingwithprehistorictimes。
DolmenofCastleWellanIreland。
UnderthenameofmegalithicmonumentsweincludeTUMULI，DOLMENS，CROMLECHS，MENHIRS，andCOVEREDAVENUES。Itmayatfirstsightappearstrangetoincludetumuliamongststonemonuments，buttheyalmostalwaysencloseadolmen，acist，oracryptcommunicatingwiththeoutsidebyacoveredpassage。TheexcavationofmorethanfourhundredtumuliinEnglandhasbroughttolightnow，astonecoffermadeofanumberofstonessetedgewaysandcalledaKISTVAEN：nowofa，tombhollowedoutbeneaththesurfaceoftheground，andenclosedbyhugeblocksofstone。[136]MoundsareasnumerousinPortugalastumuliinEngland，andthefactthattheyareoflowheighthasledtotheirbeingcalledMAMOASorMAMINHAS，whichsignifieslittlemounds。InPoland，tumuliconsistofpilesofmassivestones；beneatheachisacistmadeoffourlargeslabs，andcontainingasmanyaseightortenurnsfullofcalcinedbones。TheexcavationofatumulusintheplainofTarbesbroughttolightanenormousblockofgraniterestingonblocksofquartz。Thespacesbetweentheseblockswerefilledinwithrubblemadeofsmallstonescementedintoonemasswithclay。Edwin-HarnessMound，nearLibertyOhio，is160feetlongbyeightyorninetywide，andthirteentoeighteenhighinthemiddle。Itcontainedadozensepulchralchambers。
ThelargedolmenofCoreoro，nearPlouharnel。
Morerarelytumuliaremerelyartificialmoundsofearth，sometimesrisingtoagreatheight。ThoseofNorthAmericaarethemostremarkableknown。ThatofCahokiaisnowninety-onefeethigh，[137]
andwasformerlysurmountedbyalowpyramid，nowdestroyed。Itsbasemeasures560feetby720，theplatformatthetopis146feetby310
feetwide，andithasbeenestimatedthattwenty-fivemillioncubicfeetofearthwereusedinitsconstruction。MajorPearsementionsatumulusnearNagpore，whichis3，900feetincircumference，and174
feethigh。AnotherbetweenTyreandSarepta，is130feethighby650
indiameter。Ithasneverbeenexcavated。[138]
DolmenofArrayolosPortugal。
Thedolmentypeofmonumentisarectangleofuhewnuprightstonescoveredoverwithaslablaidacrossthem；thisslabbeingthelargestblockofstonethatcouldbefoundintheneighborhoodorobtainedbythebuilders。
Dolmensaregenerallyfoundeitheronthetopofanaturaloranartificialmound，inthemiddleofaplain，oronthebanksofawatercourse。Wemustmention，amongstothers，thoseinPersia，whicharesome7，000feethighandfromtwenty-onetotwenty-sixfeetlongbysixwide；thatnearMykenae，thatofAumede-Bas，excavatedbyDr。Prunieres；thatofNewGrange，inIreland，surmountedbyacromlechofstonesofconsiderablesize，manyofthembroughtfromadistance；thatofHellstone，nearDorchester，consistingofnineuprightstonessupportingatablemorethantwenty-sevenandahalffeetincircumference，sevenfeetwideandtwoandahalfthick。ThedolmensnearSaturnia，oneofthemostancientEtruscantowns，includeaquadrangularroom，sunksomefeetintotheearth，andhavingwallsmadeofblocksofstoneandaroofofacoupleoflargeslabs，slopedslightlytolettherainrunoff。WegiveillustrationsofthedolmensofCastleWellaninIrelandFig。55，ofCoreoronearPlouharnelMorbihanFig。56，ofArrayolosinPortugalFig。57，andAcorainPeruFig。58，whichwillenablethereadertojudgeofthedifferentmodesofconstructionemployedinbuildingthesemegalithicmonuments。
FIGURE58
MegalithicsepulchreatAcoraPeru。
Insomecasesthedolmen，whichaloneisvisiblefromwithout，isplaceduponamound，coveringahiddensepulchralchamber，whilstinothersthecryptisreplacedbyasimplestonecist，generallyofrectangularshape。WemaymentioninthisconnectionthedolmenofBekour-NozatSt。PierreQuiberon，whichisremarkableforitsgreatsize，andrisesfromthemidstofacemeteryinwhichagreatmanycoffinshavebeenfound。Thebonestheycontainedwereunfortunatelydispersedatthetimeoftheirdiscovery。
DolmensarescatteredaboutingreatnumbersintheKoubanbasinandallalongthecoastsoftheBlackSeaoccupiedbytheTcherkesses。Thesecuriousvestigesofanunknowncivilizationarestillanunsolvedenigmatous，asarethoseofWesternEurope；theyaregenerallyformedoffouruprightslabssurmountedbyafifthlaidhorizontally，andoneofthesupportingslabsisnearlyalwayspiercedwithasmallroundorovalopening。Excavationshavebroughttolightarrow-heads，rings，andbronzespirals，butChantre，anauthorityofconsiderableweight，andwhohasmoreoverhadtheadvantageofactuallyseeingthesemegalithicmonumentsofthesouthofRussia，attributestheobjectsfoundbeneaththemtosecondaryinterments，anddoesnothesitateinassigningthemoreancientmonumentsthemselvestotheStoneage。WemustnotomittomentionthedolmensfoundinthesouthernportionoftheislandofYezoJapan，[139]northatdescribedbyDarwinatPuertoDeseadoPatagonia。TheyarebothverysimilartothoseofEurope。
Toresume，dolmens，calledHUNENGRABERinGermany，STAZZONAinCorsica，ANTASinPortugal，andSTENDOSinSweden，haveallalikeonelargeflathorizontalslabplacedontwoormoreuprightunhewnstones。Thisistheonefixedrule；localcircumstances，perhapseventhecapriceofthebuilders，decidedthepositionandthemodeoferection。Often，asIhavealreadyremarked，dolmensareburiedbeneathtumuli，butexceptionstothisarenumerous。GeneralFaidherbe，afterhavingexaminedmorethansixthousanddolmensinAlgeria，affirmsthatthegreaternumberhaveneverbeencoveredwithearth。[140]IntheOrkneyIslandstherearemorethanonehundreddolmenswithouttumuli，andMartinetfailedtofindanytraceofmoundsinBerry。InScotlandandBrittanywefinddolmensburied，notbeneathmoundsofearth，butunderaccumulationsofpebbles，calledCAIRNSinScotlandandGALGALSinBrittany。Howeverminordetailsmayvary，andtheydovaryinfinitely，onemainideaeverywheredominatedthebuilders，andthatwasthedesiretoprotectfromallprofanationtheresting-placeofwhathadoncebeenahumanbeing。
Cromlechsarecirclesofuprightstonesoftensurroundingdolmensortumuli。Sometimestheyformsinglecircles，andatotherstwo，three，orevensevenseparateenclosures。TheyarecommoninAlgeria，Sweden，andDenmark，andinthelast-namedcountrytwokindsaredistinguished：
theLANGDYSSERS，whichformanellipse，andtheRUNDYSSERSwhichformaperfectcircle。Inothercountriescromlechsareslotsonumerous；therearebutfewinFrance，ofwhichwemaynamethoseofKergomanMorbihan，LestridioninPlomeur，andLandaondecinCrozonFinistere。Thelast-named，knownitsLETEMPLEDESFAUXDIEUX，isclosedbyadoublerowofsmallmenhirs。InItaly，theonlycromlechsknownarethoseofSesto-CalendeandthoseoftheplateauofMallevallenearTicino。Oneofthelatterstillretainsintheiroriginalpositionfifty-ninehugegraniteblocks，formingacircularenceinte，asemicircle，andanentranceavenue。AfewleaguesfromtheancientTyrecanstillbeseenacircleofuprightstones。OuseleydescribesanotheratDarab，inPersia；amissionaryspeaksofthreelargecirclesatKhabb，inArabia，whichcircleshecompareswiththoseatStonehenge；andDr。BarthtellsusofacromlechbetweenMourzoukandGhat。