Butafterallqualificationshavebeenmade，thefactstillisapparentthattheeverydaylifeofthoseclasseswhichareengagedinbusinessdiffersmateriallyintherespectcitedfromthelifeoftheclassesengagedinindustryproper。Thereisanappreciableandwideningdifferencebetweenthehabitsoflifeofthetwoclasses；andthiscarrieswithitawideningdifferenceinthedisciplinetowhichthetwoclassesaresubjected。Itinducesadifferenceinthehabitsofthoughtandthehabitualgroundsandmethodsofreasoningresortedtobyeachclass。Thereresultsadifferenceinthepointofview，inthefactsdweltupon，inthemethodsofargument，inthegroundsofvalidityappealedto；andthisdifferencegainsinmagnitudeandconsistencyasthedifferentiationofoccupationsgoeson。Sothatthetwoclassescometohaveanincreasingdifficultyinunderstandingoneanotherandappreciatingoneanother’sconvictions，ideals，capacities，andshortcomings。
　　Theultimategroundofvalidityforthethinkingofthebusinessclassesisthenatural-rightsgroundofproperty，-aconventional，anthropomorphicfacthavinganinstitutionalvalidity，ratherthanamatter-of-factvaliditysuchascanbeformulatedintermsofmaterialcauseandeffect；whiletheclassesengagedinthemachineindustryarehabituallyoccupiedwithmattersofcausalsequence，whichdonotlendthemselvestostatementinanthropomorphictermsofnaturalrightsandwhichaffordnoguidanceinquestionsofinstitutionalrightandwrong，orofconventionalreasonandconsequence。Argumentswhichproceedonmaterialcauseandeffectcannotbemetwithargumentsfromconventionalprecedentordialecticallysufficientreason，andconversely。
　　Thethinkingrequiredbythepecuniaryoccupationsproceedsongroundsofconventionality，whereasthatinvolvedintheindustrialoccupationsruns，inthemain，ongroundsofmechanicalsequenceorcausation，totheneglectofconventionality。Theinstitutionhabitofthoughtofownershiporpropertyisaconventionalfact；andthelogicofpecuniarythinking-thatistosay，ofthinkingonmattersofownership-
　　isaworkingoutoftheimplicationsofthispostulate，thisconceptofownershiporproperty。Thecharacteristichabitsofthoughtgivenbysuchworkarehabitsofrecoursetoconventionalgroundsoffinalityorvalidity，toanthropomorphism，toexplanationsofphenomenaintermsofhumanrelation，discretion，authenticity，andchoice。Thefinalgroundofcertaintyininquiriesonthisnatural-rightsplaneisalwaysagroundofauthenticity，ofprecedent，oraccepteddecision。Theargumentisanargumentdejure，notdefacto，andthetraininggivenlendsfacilityandcertaintyinthepursuitofdejuredistinctionsandgeneralizations，ratherthaninthepursuitortheassimilationofadefactoknowledgeofimpersonalphenomena。Theendofsuchreasoningistheinterpretationofnewfactsintermsofaccreditedprecedents，ratherthanarevisionoftheknowledgedrawnfrompastexperienceinthematter-of-factlightofnewphenomena。Theendeavoristomakefactsconformtolaw，nottomakethelaworgeneralruleconformtofacts。Thebentsogivenfavorstheacceptanceofthegeneral，abstract，custom-maderuleassomethingrealwitharealitysuperiortotherealityofimpersonal，non-conventionalfacts。Suchtraininggivesreachandsubtletyinmetaphysicalargumentandinwhatisknownasthe“practical“managementofaffairs；itgivesexecutiveoradministrativeefficiency，so-called，asdistinguishedfrommechanicalwork。“Practical“efficiencymeanstheabilitytoturnfactstoaccountforthepurposesoftheacceptedconventions，togivealargeeffecttothesituationintermsofthepecuniaryconventionsinforce。11*
　　Thespiritualattitudegivenbythistraininginreasoningdejure，frompecuniarypremisestopecuniaryconclusions，isnecessarilyconservative。Thisspeciesofreasoningassumesthevalidityoftheconventionallyestablishedpostulates，andisconsequentlyunabletotakeascepticalattitudetowardthesepostulatesortowardtheinstitutionsinwhichthesepostulatesareembodied。Itmayleadtoscepticismtouchingother，older，institutionsthatareatvariancewithitsownnatural-rights
　　postulates，butitsscepticismcannottouchthenatural-rightsgroundonwhichitrestsitsowncase。Inthesamemanner，ofcourse，thethinkingwhichrunsinmaterialcausalsequencecannottakeascepticalattitudetowarditsfundamentalpostulate，thelawofcauseandeffect；butsincereasoningonthismaterialisticbasisdoesnotvisiblygotoupholdthereceivedinstitutions，theattitudegivenbythedisciplineofthemachinetechnologycannot，forthepresent，becalledaconservativeattitude。
　　Thebusinessclassesareconservative，onthewhole，butsuchaconservativebentis，ofcourse，notpeculiartothem。Theseoccupationsarenottheonlyoneswhosereasoningprevailinglymovesonaconventionalplane。Indeed，theintellectualactivityofotherclasses，suchassoldiers，politicians，theclergy，andmenoffashion，movesonaplaneofstillolderconventions；sothatifthetraininggivenbybusinessemploymentsistobecharacterizedasconservative，thatgivenbytheseother，morearchaicemploymentsshouldbecalledreactionary。12*Extremeconventionalizationmeansextremeconservatism。Conservatismmeansthemaintenanceofconventionsalreadyinforce。Onthishead，therefore，thedisciplineofmodernbusinesslifemaybesaidsimplytoretainsomethingofthecomplexionwhichmarksthelifeofthehigherbarbarianculture，atthesametimethatithasnotretainedthedisciplinaryforceofthebarbariancultureinsohighastateofpreservationassomeoftheotheroccupationsjustnamed。
　　Thedisciplineofthemodernindustrialemploymentsisrelativelyfreefromthebiasofconventionality，butthedifferencebetweenthemechanicalandthebusinessoccupationsinthisrespectisadifferenceofdegree。Itisnotsimplythatconventionalstandardsofcertaintyfallintoabeyanceforlackofexercise，amongtheindustrialclasses。Thepositivedisciplineexercisedbytheirworkingoodpartrunscountertothehabitofthinkinginconventional，anthropomorphicterms，whethertheconventionalityisthatofnaturalrightsoranyother。Andinrespectofthispositivetrainingawayfromconventionalnorms，thereisalargedivergencebetweentheseverallinesofindustrialemployment。Inproportionasagivenlineofemploymenthasmoreofthecharacterofamachineprocessandlessofthecharacterofhandicraft，thematter-of-facttrainingwhichitgivesismorepronounced。Inasensemoreintimatethantheinventorsofthephraseseemtohaveappreciated，themachinehasbecomethemasterofthemanwhoworkswithitandanarbiterintheculturalfortunesofthecommunityintowhoselifeithasentered。
　　Theintellectualandspiritualtrainingofthemachineinmodernlife，therefore，isveryfar-reaching。Itleavesbutasmallproportionofthecommunityuntouched；butwhileitsconstraintisramifiedthroughoutthebodyofthepopulation，andconstrainsvirtuallyallclassesatsomepointsintheirdailylife，itfallswiththemostdirect，intimate，andunmitigatedimpactupontheskilledmechanicalclasses，forthesehavenorespitefromitsmastery，whethertheyareatworkoratplay。
　　Theubiquitouspresenceofthemachine，withitsspiritualconcomitant-workdayidealsandscepticismofwhatisonlyconventionallyvalidistheunequivocalmarkoftheWesterncultureofto-dayascontrastedwiththecultureofothertimesandplaces。Itpervadesallclassesandstratainavaryingdegree，butonanaverageinagreaterdegreethanatanytimeinthepast，andmostpotentlyintheadvancedindustrialcommunitiesandintheclassesimmediatelyincontactwiththemechanicaloccupations。13*Asthecomprehensivemechanicalorganizationofthematerialsideoflifehasgoneon，aheighteningofthisculturaleffectthroughoutthecommunityhasalsosupervened，andwithafartherandfastermovementinthesamedirectionafartheraccentuationofthis“modern“complexionofcultureisfairlytobelookedfor，unlesssomeremedybefound。Andastheconcomitantdifferentiationandspecializationofoccupationsgoeson，astillmoreunmitigateddisciplinefallsuponeverwideningclassesofthepopulation，resultinginaneverweakeningsenseofconviction，allegiance，orpietytowardthereceivedinstitutions。
　　Itisamatterofcommonnotorietythatthemodernindustrialpopulationsareimprovidentinahighdegreeandareapparentlyincapableoftakingcareofthepecuniarydetailsoftheirownlife。Thisapplies，notonlytofactoryhands，butalsotothegeneralclassofhighlyskilledmechanics，inventors，technologicalexperts。Theruledoesnotholdinanyhardandfastway，butitholdswithsuchgeneralityasmayfairlybelookedfor。Thepresentfactorypopulationmaybecomparedinthisrespectwiththeclassofhandicraftsmenwhomtheyhavedisplaced，asalsowiththefarmingpopulationofthepresenttime，especiallytheclassofsmallproprietaryfarmers。Thefailureofthemodernindustrialclassesonthisheadisnotduetoscantieropportunitiesforsaving，whethertheyarecomparedwiththeearlierhandicraftsmenorwiththemodernfarmerorpeasant；norisitduetoalackofgeneralintelligence，foracomparisoninpointofintelligencefallsoutinfavorofthemodernindustrialworkmen。Thisimprovidenceiscommonlydiscussedintermsofdeprecation，andthereismuchpreachingofthriftandsteadyhabits。Butthepreachinghasnoappreciableeffect。Thetroubleseemstobeofthenatureofhabitratherthanofreasonedconviction。Othercausesmaypartiallyexplainthisimprovidence，buttheinquiryisatleastpertinenthowfartheabsenceofpropertyandthriftamongthemmaybetraceabletotherelativeabsenceofpecuniarytrainingandtothepresenceofadisciplinewhichisatvariancewithhabitsofthrift。
　　Mereexemptionfrompecuniarytrainingisnotcompetentalonetoexplainthepatentthriftlessnessofmodernworkmen；themoresosincethisexemptionisbutpartialandrelative。Also，thethriftlessclassescommonlyhaveanenviousappreciationofpecuniaryadvantages。Itisratherthecompositeeffectofexemptionfrompecuniarytrainingandcertainpositiverequirementsofmodernlife。Amongthesepositiverequirementsiswhathasbeencalledthecanonofconspicuouswaste。Undermodernconditionsafreeexpenditureinconsumablegoodsisaconditionrequisitetogoodrepute。14*Thisconducestoimmediateconsumptionratherthantosaving。Whatisperhapsstillmoredecisiveagainstthriftonthepartofworkmenisthefactthatthemodernlargeorganizationofindustryrequiresahighdegreeofmobilityonthepartofemployees。Itrequires，infact，thatthelaborforceandthelaborunitsbemobile，interchangeable，distributable，afterthesameimpersonalfashionasthemechanicalcontrivancesengagedaremovableanddistributable。
　　Theworkingpopulationisrequiredtobestandardized，movable，andinterchangeableinmuchthesameimpersonalmannerastheraworhalfwroughtmaterialsofindustry。Fromwhichitfollowsthatthemodernworkmancannotadvantageouslyownahome。Byforceofthislatterfeatureofthecaseheisdiscouragedfrominvestinghissavingsinrealproperty，or，indeed，inanyoftheimpedimentsofliving。Andthesavings-bankaccount，itmaybeadded，offersnoadequatesubstitute，asanincentivetothrift，intheplaceofsuchpropertyasadwelling-place，whichistangiblyandusefullyundertheowner’shandandpersistentlyrequiresmaintenanceandimprovement。
　　Theconditionsoflifeimposedupontheworkingpopulationbythemachineindustrydiscouragethrift。Butafterallowancehasbeenmadeforthisalmostphysicalrestraintupontheaquisitionofpropertybytheworkingclasses，somethingisapparentlyleftover，tobeascribedtothemoraleffectofthemachinetechnology。Theindustrialclassesappeartobelosingtheinstinctofindividualownership。Theacquisitionofpropertyisceasingtoappealtothemasanatural，self-evidentsourceofcomfortandstrength。Thenaturalrightofpropertynolongermeanssomuchtothemasitoncedid。
　　Alikeweakeningofthenatural-rightsanimusisvisibleatanotherpointinthecurrentframeofmindoftheseclasses。Thegrowthoftrade-unionismandofwhatiscalledthetrade-unionspiritisaconcomitantofindustryorganizedafterthemannerofamachineprocess。Historicallythisgrowthbegins，virtually，withtheindustrialrevolution，cominginsporadically，loosely，tentatively，withnopreciseassignabledate，verymuchastherevolutiondoes。Englandisthelandofitsgenesis，its“areaofcharacterization，“andtheplacewhereithasreacheditsfullestdegreeofspecificationanditslargestforce；justasEnglandisthecountryinwhichthemodernmachineindustrytookitsriseandinwhichithashadthelongestandmostconsistentlifeandgrowth。InthismatterothercountriesarefollowersoftheBritishleadandapparentlyborrowersofBritishprecedentsandworkingconcepts。Still，thehistoryofthetrade-unionmovementinothercountriesseemstosaythattheworkingclasseselsewherehavenotadvisedlyborrowedidealsandmethodsoforganizationfromtheirBritishcongenerssomuchastheyhavebeenpushedintothesamegeneralattitudeandlineofconductbythesamegenerallineofexigenciesandexperiences。