Itisalwaysmortifyingnottobebelieved，anditisdoublysowhenwesuspectthatitisbecausewearesupposedtobeunworthyofbeliefandcapableofseriouslyandwilfullydeceiving。Totellamanthathelies，isofallaffrontsthemostmortal。Butwhoeverseriouslyandwilfullydeceivesisnecessarilyconscioustohimselfthathemeritsthisaffront，thathedoesnotdeservetobebelieved，andthatheforfeitsalltitletothatsortofcreditfromwhichalonehecanderiveanysortofease，comfort，orsatisfactioninthesocietyofhisequals。Themanwhohadthemisfortunetoimaginethatnobodybelievedasinglewordhesaid，wouldfeelhimselftheoutcastofhumansociety，woulddreadtheverythoughtofgoingintoit，orofpresentinghimselfbeforeit，andcouldscarcefail，Ithink，todieofdespair。Itisprobable，however，thatnomaneverhadjustreasontoentertainthishumiliatingopinionofhimself。Themostnotoriousliar，Iamdisposedtobelieve，tellsthefairtruthatleasttwentytimesforoncethatheseriouslyanddeliberatelylies；and，asinthemostcautiousthedispositiontobelieveisapttoprevailoverthattodoubtanddistrust；sointhosewhoarethemostregardlessoftruth，thenaturaldispositiontotellitprevailsuponmostoccasionsoverthattodeceive，orinanyrespecttoalterordisguiseit。
　　Wearemortifiedwhenwehappentodeceiveotherpeople，thoughunintentionally，andfromhavingbeenourselvesdeceived。
　　Thoughthisinvoluntaryfalsehoodmayfrequentlybenomarkofanywantofveracity，ofanywantofthemostperfectloveoftruth，itisalwaysinsomedegreeamarkofwantofjudgment，ofwantofmemory，ofimpropercredulity，ofsomedegreeofprecipitancyandrashness。Italwaysdiminishesourauthoritytopersuade，andalwaysbringssomedegreeofsuspicionuponourfitnesstoleadanddirect。Themanwhosometimesmisleadsfrommistake，however，iswidelydifferentfromhimwhoiscapableofwilfullydeceiving。Theformermaysafelybetrusteduponmanyoccasions；thelatterveryseldomuponany。
　　Franknessandopennessconciliateconfidence。Wetrustthemanwhoseemswillingtotrustus。Weseeclearly，wethink，theroadbywhichhemeanstoconductus，andweabandonourselveswithpleasuretohisguidanceanddirection。Reserveandconcealment，onthecontrary，callforthdiffidence。Weareafraidtofollowthemanwhoisgoingwedonotknowwhere。Thegreatpleasureofconversationandsociety，besides，arisesfromacertaincorrespondenceofsentimentsandopinions，fromacertainharmonyofminds，whichlikesomanymusicalinstrumentscoincideandkeeptimewithoneanother。Butthismostdelightfulharmonycannotbeobtainedunlessthereisafreecommunicationofsentimentsandopinions。Wealldesire，uponthisaccount，tofeelhoweachotherisaffected，topenetrateintoeachother’sbosoms，andtoobservethesentimentsandaffectionswhichreallysubsistthere。Themanwhoindulgesusinthisnaturalpassion，whoinvitesusintohisheart，who，asitwere，setsopenthegatesofhisbreasttous，seemstoexerciseaspeciesofhospitalitymoredelightfulthananyother。Noman，whoisinordinarygoodtemper，canfailofpleasing，ifhehasthecouragetoutterhisrealsentimentsashefeelsthem，andbecausehefeelsthem。Itisthisunreservedsinceritywhichrenderseventheprattleofachildagreeable。Howweakandimperfectsoevertheviewsoftheopen-hearted，wetakepleasuretoenterintothem，andendeavour，asmuchaswecan，tobringdownourownunderstandingtotheleveloftheircapacities，andtoregardeverysubjectintheparticularlightinwhichtheyappeartohaveconsideredit。Thispassiontodiscovertherealsentimentsofothersisnaturallysostrong，thatitoftendegeneratesintoatroublesomeandimpertinentcuriositytopryintothosesecretsofourneighbourswhichtheyhaveveryjustifiablereasonsforconcealing；and，uponmanyoccasions，itrequiresprudenceandastrongsenseofproprietytogovernthis，aswellasalltheotherpassionsofhumannature，andtoreduceittothatpitchwhichanyimpartialspectatorcanapproveof。Todisappointthiscuriosity，however，whenitiskeptwithinproperbounds，andaimsatnothingwhichtherecanbeanyjustreasonforconcealing，isequallydisagreeableinitsturn。Themanwhoeludesourmostinnocentquestions，whogivesnosatisfactiontoourmostinoffensiveinquiries，whoplainlywrapshimselfupinimpenetrableobscurity，seems，asitwere，tobuildawallabouthisbreast。Werunforwardtogetwithinit，withalltheeagernessofharmlesscuriosity；andfeelourselvesallatoncepushedbackwiththerudestandmostoffensiveviolence。
　　Themanofreserveandconcealment，thoughseldomaveryamiablecharacter，isnotdisrespectedordespised。Heseemstofeelcoldlytowardsus，andwefeelascoldlytowardshim。Heisnotmuchpraisedorbeloved，butheisaslittlehatedorblamed。
　　Heveryseldom，however，hasoccasiontorepentofhiscaution，andisgenerallydisposedrathertovaluehimselfupontheprudenceofhisreserve。Thoughhisconduct，therefore，mayhavebeenveryfaulty，andsometimesevenhurtful，hecanveryseldombedisposedtolayhiscasebeforethecasuists，ortofancythathehasanyoccasionfortheiracquittalorapprobation。
　　Itisnotalwayssowiththeman，who，fromfalseinformation，frominadvertency，fromprecipitancyandrashness，hasinvoluntarilydeceived。Thoughitshouldbeinamatteroflittleconsequence，intellingapieceofcommonnews，forexample，ifheisarealloveroftruth，heisashamedofhisowncarelessness，andneverfailstoembracethefirstopportunityofmakingthefullestacknowledgments。Ifitisinamatterofsomeconsequence，hiscontritionisstillgreater；andifanyunluckyorfatalconsequencehasfollowedfromhismisinformation，hecanscarceeverforgivehimself。Thoughnotguilty，hefeelshimselftobeinthehighestdegree，whattheancientscalled，piacular，andisanxiousandeagertomakeeverysortofatonementinhispower。Suchapersonmightfrequentlybedisposedtolayhiscasebeforethecasuists，whohaveingeneralbeenveryfavourabletohim，andthoughtheyhavesometimesjustlycondemnedhimforrashness，theyhaveuniversallyacquittedhimoftheignominyoffalsehood。
　　Butthemanwhohadthemostfrequentoccasiontoconsultthem，wasthemanofequivocationandmentalreservation，themanwhoseriouslyanddeliberatelymeanttodeceive，butwho，atthesametime，wishedtoflatterhimselfthathehadreallytoldthetruth。Withhimtheyhavedealtvariously。Whentheyapprovedverymuchofthemotivesofhisdeceit，theyhavesometimesacquittedhim，though，todothemjustice，theyhaveingeneralandmuchmorefrequentlycondemnedhim。
　　Thechiefsubjectsoftheworksofthecasuists，therefore，weretheconscientiousregardthatisduetotherulesofjustice；howfarweoughttorespectthelifeandpropertyofourneighbour；thedutyofrestitution；thelawsofchastityandmodesty，andwhereinconsistedwhat，intheirlanguage，arecalledthesinsofconcupiscence；therulesofveracity，andtheobligationofoaths，promises，andcontractsofallkinds。
　　Itmaybesaidingeneraloftheworksofthecasuiststhattheyattempted，tonopurpose，todirectbypreciseruleswhatitbelongstofeelingandsentimentonlytojudgeof。Howisitpossibletoascertainbyrulestheexactpointatwhich，ineverycase，adelicatesenseofjusticebeginstorunintoafrivolousandweakscrupulosityofconscience？Whenitisthatsecrecyandreservebegintogrowintodissimulation？Howfaranagreeableironymaybecarried，andatwhatprecisepointitbeginstodegenerateintoadetest。ablelie？Whatisthehighestpitchoffreedomandeaseofbehaviourwhichcanberegardedasgracefulandbecoming，andwhenitisthatitfirstbeginstorunintoanegligentandthoughtlesslicentiousness？Withregardtoallsuchmatters，whatwouldholdgoodinanyonecasewouldscarcedosoexactlyinanyother，andwhatconstitutestheproprietyandhappinessofbehaviourvariesineverycasewiththesmallestvarietyofsituation。Booksofcasuistry，therefore，aregenerallyasuselessastheyarecommonlytiresome。Theycouldbeoflittleusetoonewhoshouldconsultthemuponoccasion，evensupposingtheirdecisionstobejust；because，notwithstandingthemultitudeofcasescollectedinthem，yetuponaccountofthestillgreatervarietyofpossiblecircumstances，itisachance，ifamongallthosecasestherebefoundoneexactlyparalleltothatunderconsideration。One，whoisreallyanxioustodohisduty，mustbeveryweak，ifhecanimaginethathehasmuchoccasionforthem；andwithregardtoonewhoisnegligentofit，thestyleofthosewritingsisnotsuchasislikelytoawakenhimtomoreattention。Noneofthemtendtoanimateustowhatisgenerousandnoble。Noneofthemtendtosoftenustowhatisgentleandhumane。Manyofthem，onthecontrary，tendrathertoteachustochicanewithourownconsciences，andbytheirvainsubtiltiesservetoauthoriseinnumerableevasiverefinementswithregardtothemostessentialarticlesofourduty。Thatfrivolousaccuracywhichtheyattemptedtointroduceintosubjectswhichdonotadmitofit，almostnecessarilybetrayedthemintothosedangerouserrors，andatthesametimerenderedtheirworksdryanddisagreeable，aboundinginabtruseandmetaphysicaldistinctions，butincapableofexcitingintheheartanyofthoseemotionswhichitistheprincipaluseofbooksofmoralitytoexcite。
　　Thetwousefulpartsofmoralphilosophy，therefore，areEthicsandJurisprudence:casuistryoughttoberejectedaltogether；andtheancientmoralistsappeartohavejudgedmuchbetter，who，intreatingofthesamesubjects，didnotaffectanysuchniceexactness，butcontentedthemselveswithdescribing，inageneralmanner，whatisthesentimentuponwhichjustice，modesty，andveracityarefounded，andwhatistheordinarywayofactingtowhichthosevirtueswouldcommonlypromptus。
　　Something，indeed，notunlikethedoctrineofthecasuists，seemstohavebeenattemptedbyseveralphilosophers。ThereissomethingofthiskindinthethirdbookofCicero’sOffices，whereheendeavourslikeacasuisttogiverulesforourconductinmanynicecases，inwhichitisdifficulttodeterminewhereaboutsthepointofproprietymaylie。Itappearstoo，frommanypassagesinthesamebook，thatseveralotherphilosophershadattemptedsomethingofthesamekindbeforehim。Neitherhenorthey，however，appeartohaveaimedatgivingacompletesystemofthissort，butonlymeanttoshowhowsituationsmayoccur，inwhichitisdoubtful，whetherthehighestproprietyofconductconsistsinobservingorinrecedingfromwhat，inordinarycases，aretherulesofduty。
　　Everysystemofpositivelawmayberegardedasamoreorlessimperfectattempttowardsasystemofnaturaljurisprudence，ortowardsanenumerationoftheparticularrulesofjustice。Astheviolationofjusticeiswhatmenwillneversubmittofromoneanother，thepublicmagistrateisunderanecessityofemployingthepowerofthecommonwealthtoenforcethepracticeofthisvirtue。Withoutthisprecaution，civilsocietywouldbecomeasceneofbloodshedanddisorder，everymanrevenginghimselfathisownhandwheneverhefanciedhewasinjured。Topreventtheconfusionwhichwouldattenduponeveryman’sdoingjusticetohimself，themagistrate，inallgovernmentsthathaveacquiredanyconsiderableauthority，undertakestodojusticetoall，andpromisestohearandtoredresseverycomplaintofinjury。Inallwell-governedstatestoo，notonlyjudgesareappointedfordeterminingthecontroversiesofindividuals，butrulesareprescribedforregulatingthedecisionsofthosejudges；andtheserulesare，ingeneral，intendedtocoincidewiththoseofnaturaljustice。Itdoesnot，indeed，alwayshappenthattheydosoineveryinstance。Sometimeswhatiscalledtheconstitutionofthestate，thatis，theinterestofthegovernment；sometimestheinterestofparticularordersofmenwhotyrannizethegovernment，warpthepositivelawsofthecountryfromwhatnaturaljusticewouldprescribe。Insomecountries，therudenessandbarbarismofthepeoplehinderthenaturalsentimentsofjusticefromarrivingatthataccuracyandprecisionwhich，inmorecivilizednations，theynaturallyattainto。Theirlawsare，liketheirmanners，grossandrudeandundistinguishing。Inothercountriestheunfortunateconstitutionoftheircourtsofjudicaturehindersanyregularsystemofjurisprudencefromeverestablishingitselfamongthem，thoughtheimprovedmannersofthepeoplemaybesuchaswouldadmitofthemostaccurate。Innocountrydothedecisionsofpositivelawcoincideexactly，ineverycase，withtheruleswhichthenaturalsenseofjusticewoulddictate。Systemsofpositivelaw，therefore，thoughtheydeservethegreatestauthority，astherecordsofthesentimentsofmankindindifferentagesandnations，yetcanneverberegardedasaccuratesystemsoftherulesofnaturaljustice。
　　Itmighthavebeenexpectedthatthereasoningsoflawyers，uponthedifferentimperfectionsandimprovementsofthelawsofdifferentcountries，shouldhavegivenoccasiontoaninquiryintowhatwerethenaturalrulesofjusticeindependentofallpositiveinstitution。Itmighthavebeenexpectedthatthesereasoningsshouldhaveledthemtoaimatestablishingasystemofwhatmightproperlybecallednaturaljurisprudence，oratheoryofthegeneralprincipleswhichoughttorunthroughandbethefoundationofthelawsofallnations。Butthoughthereasoningsoflawyersdidproducesomethingofthiskind，andthoughnomanhastreatedsystematicallyofthelawsofanyparticularcountry，withoutintermixinginhisworkmanyobservationsofthissort；itwasverylateintheworldbeforeanysuchgeneralsystemwasthoughtof，orbeforethephilosophyoflawwastreatedofbyitself，andwithoutregardtotheparticularinstitutionsofanyonenation。Innoneoftheancientmoralists，dowefindanyattempttowardsaparticularenumerationoftherulesofjustice。CiceroinhisOffices，andAristotleinhisEthics，treatofjusticeinthesamegeneralmannerinwhichtheytreatofalltheothervirtues。InthelawsofCiceroandPlato，wherewemightnaturallyhaveexpectedsomeattemptstowardsanenumerationofthoserulesofnaturalequity，whichoughttobeenforcedbythepositivelawsofeverycountry，thereis，however，nothingofthiskind。Theirlawsarelawsofpolice，notofjustice。Grotiusseemstohavebeenthefirstwhoattemptedtogivetheworldanythinglikeasystemofthoseprincipleswhichoughttoruinthrough，andbethefoundationofthelawsofallnations:andhistreatiseofthelawsofwarandpeace，withallitsimperfections，isperhapsatthisdaythemostcompleteworkthathasyetbeengivenuponthissubject。I
　　shallinanotherdiscourseendeavourtogiveanaccountofthegeneralprinciplesoflawandgovernment，andofthedifferentrevolutionstheyhaveundergoneinthedifferentagesandperiodsofsociety，notonlyinwhatconcernsjustice，butinwhatconcernspolice，revenue，andarms，andwhateverelseistheobjectoflaw。Ishallnot，therefore，atpresententerintoanyfurtherdetailconcerningthehistoryofjurisprudence。
　　TheEnd