Thejustmanwhodisdainseithertotakeortogiveanyadvantage，butwhowouldthinkitlessdishonourabletogivethantotakeone；themanwho，inallprivatetransactions，wouldbethemostbelovedandthemostesteemed；inthosepublictransactionsisregardedasafoolandanidiot，whodoesnotunderstandhisbusiness；andheincursalwaysthecontempt，andsometimeseventhedetestationofhisfellow-citizens。Inwar，notonlywhatarecalledthelawsofnations，arefrequentlyviolated，withoutbringingamonghisownfellow-citizens，whosejudgmentsheonlyregardsanyconsiderabledishonourupontheviolator；butthoselawsthemselvesare，thegreaterpartofthem，laiddownwithverylittleregardtotheplainestandmostobviousrulesofjustice。Thattheinnocent，thoughtheymayhavesomeconnexionordependencyupontheguiltywhich，perhaps，theythemselvescannothelp，shouldnot，uponthataccount，sufferorbepunishedfortheguilty，isoneoftheplainestandmostobviousrulesofjustice。Inthemostunjustwar，however，itiscommonlythesovereignortherulersonlywhoareguilty。
　　Thesubjectsarealmostalwaysperfectlyinnocent。Wheneveritsuitstheconveniencyofapublicenemy，however，thegoodsofthepeaceablecitizensareseizedbothatlandandatsea；theirlandsarelaidwaste，theirhousesareburnt，andtheythemselves，iftheypresumetomakeanyresistance，aremurderedorledintocaptivity；andallthisinthemostperfectconformitytowhatarecalledthelawsofnations。
　　Theanimosityofhostilefactions，whethercivilorecclesiastical，isoftenstillmorefuriousthanthatofhostilenations；andtheirconducttowardsoneanotherisoftenstillmoreatrocious。Whatmaybecalledthelawsoffactionhaveoftenbeenlaiddownbygraveauthorswithstilllessregardtotherulesofjusticethanwhatarecalledthelawsofnations。Themostferociouspatriotneverstateditasaseriousquestion，Whetherfaithoughttobekeptwithpublicenemies？——Whetherfaithoughttobekeptwithrebels？Whetherfaithoughttobekeptwithheretics？arequestionswhichhavebeenoftenfuriouslyagitatedbycelebrateddoctorsbothcivilandecclesiastical。Itisneedlesstoobserve，Ipresume，thatbothrebelsandhereticsarethoseunluckypersons，who，whenthingshavecometoacertaindegreeofviolence，havethemisfortunetobeoftheweakerparty。Inanationdistractedbyfaction，thereare，nodoubt，alwaysafew，thoughcommonlybutaveryfew，whopreservetheirjudgmentuntaintedbythegeneralcontagion。Theyseldomamounttomorethan，hereandthere，asolitaryindividual，withoutanyinfluence，excluded，byhisowncandour，fromtheconfidenceofeitherparty，andwho，thoughhemaybeoneofthewisest，isnecessarily，uponthatveryaccount，oneofthemostinsignificantmeninthesociety。Allsuchpeopleareheldincontemptandderision，frequentlyindetestation，bythefuriouszealotsofbothparties。Atrueparty-manhatesanddespisescandour；and，inreality，thereisnovicewhichcouldsoeffectuallydisqualifyhimforthetradeofaparty-manasthatsinglevirtue。Thereal，revered，andimpartialspectator，therefore，is，uponnooccasion，atagreaterdistancethanamidsttheviolenceandrageofcontendingparties。Tothem，itmaybesaid，thatsuchaspectatorscarceexistsanywhereintheuniverse。EventothegreatJudgeoftheuniverse，theyimputealltheirownprejudices，andoftenviewthatDivineBeingasanimatedbyalltheirownvindictiveandimplacablepassions。Ofallthecorruptersofmoralsentiments，therefore，factionandfanaticismhavealwaysbeenbyfarthegreatest。
　　Concerningthesubjectofself-command，Ishallonlyobservefurther，thatouradmirationforthemanwho，undertheheaviestandmostunexpectedmisfortunes，continuestobehavewithfortitudeandfirmness，alwayssupposesthathissensibilitytothosemisfortunesisverygreat，andsuchasitrequiresaverygreatefforttoconquerorcommand。Themanwhowasaltogetherinsensibletobodilypain，coulddeservenoapplausefromenduringthetorturewiththemostperfectpatienceandequanimity。Themanwhohadbeencreatedwithoutthenaturalfearofdeath，couldclaimnomeritfrompreservinghiscoolnessandpresenceofmindinthemidstofthemostdreadfuldangers。ItisoneoftheextravaganciesofSeneca，thattheStoicalwisemanwas，inthisrespect，superioreventoaGod；thatthesecurityoftheGodwasaltogetherthebenefitofnature，whichhadexemptedhimfromsuffering；butthatthesecurityofthewisemanwashisownbenefit，andderivedaltogetherfromhimselfandfromhisownexertions。
　　Thesensibilityofsomemen，however，tosomeoftheobjectswhichimmediatelyaffectthemselves，issometimessostrongastorenderallself-commandimpossible。Nosenseofhonourcancontrolthefearsofthemanwhoisweakenoughtofaint，ortofallintoconvulsions，upontheapproachofdanger。Whethersuchweaknessofnerves，asithasbeencalled，maynot，bygradualexerciseandproperdiscipline，admitofsomecure，may，perhaps，bedoubtful。Itseemscertainthatitoughtnevertobetrustedoremployed。
　　Chap。IV
　　OftheNatureofSelf-deceit，andoftheOriginandUseofgeneralRulesInordertoperverttherectitudeofourownjudgmentsconcerningtheproprietyofourownconduct，itisnotalwaysnecessarythattherealandimpartialspectatorshouldbeatagreatdistance。Whenheisathand，whenheispresent，theviolenceandinjusticeofourownselfishpassionsaresometimessufficienttoinducethemanwithinthebreasttomakeareportverydifferentfromwhattherealcircumstancesofthecasearecapableofauthorising。
　　Therearetwodifferentoccasionsuponwhichweexamineourownconduct，andendeavourtoviewitinthelightinwhichtheimpartialspectatorwouldviewit:first，whenweareabouttoact；andsecondly，afterwehaveacted。Ourviewsareapttobeverypartialinbothcases；buttheyareapttobemostpartialwhenitisofmostimportancethattheyshouldbeotherwise。
　　Whenweareabouttoact，theeagernessofpassionwillseldomallowustoconsiderwhatwearedoing，withthecandourofanindifferentperson。Theviolentemotionswhichatthattimeagitateus，discolourourviewsofthings；evenwhenweareendeavouringtoplaceourselvesinthesituationofanother，andtoregardtheobjectsthatinterestusinthelightinwhichtheywillnaturallyappeartohim，thefuryofourownpassionsconstantlycallsusbacktoourownplace，whereeverythingappearsmagnifiedandmisrepresentedbyself-love。Ofthemannerinwhichthoseobjectswouldappeartoanother，oftheviewwhichhewouldtakeofthem，wecanobtain，ifImaysayso，butinstantaneousglimpses，whichvanishinamoment，andwhich，evenwhiletheylast，arenotaltogetherjust。Wecannotevenforthatmomentdivestourselvesentirelyoftheheatandkeennesswithwhichourpeculiarsituationinspiresus，norconsiderwhatweareabouttodowiththecompleteimpartialityofanequitablejudge。Thepassions，uponthisaccount，asfatherMalebranchesays，alljustifythemselves，andseemreasonableandproportionedtotheirobjects，aslongaswecontinuetofeelthem。
　　Whentheactionisover，indeed，andthepassionswhichpromptedithavesubsided，wecanentermorecoollyintothesentimentsoftheindifferentspectator。Whatbeforeinterestedusisnowbecomealmostasindifferenttousasitalwayswastohim，andwecannowexamineourownconductwithhiscandourandimpartiality。Themanofto-dayisnolongeragitatedbythesamepassionswhichdistractedthemanofyesterday:andwhentheparoxysmofemotion，inthesamemanneraswhentheparoxysmofdistress，isfairlyover，wecanidentifyourselves，asitwere，withtheidealmanwithinthebreast，and，inourowncharacter，view，asintheonecase，ourownsituation，sointheother，ourownconduct，withthesevereeVesofthemostimpartialspectator。Butourjudgmentsnowareoftenoflittleimportanceincomparisonofwhattheywerebefore；andcanfrequentlyproducenothingbutvainregretandunavailingrepentance；
　　withoutalwayssecuringusfromthelikeerrorsintimetocome。
　　Itisseldom，however，thattheyarequitecandideveninthiscase。Theopinionwhichweentertainofourowncharacterdependsentirelyonourjudgmentsconcerningourpastconduct。Itissodisagreeabletothinkillofourselves，thatweoftenpurposelyturnawayourviewfromthosecircumstanceswhichmightrenderthatjudgmentunfavourable。Heisaboldsurgeon，theysay，whosehanddoesnottremblewhenheperformsanoperationuponhisownperson；andheisoftenequallyboldwhodoesnothesitatetopulloffthemysteriousveilofself-delusion，whichcoversfromhisviewthedeformitiesofhisownconduct。Ratherthanseeourownbehaviourundersodisagreeableanaspect，wetoooften，foolishlyandweakly，endeavourtoexasperateanewthoseunjustpassionswhichhadformerlymisledus；weendeavourbyartificetoawakenouroldhatreds，andirritateafreshouralmostforgottenresentments:weevenexertourselvesforthismiserablepurpose，andthuspersevereininjustice，merelybecauseweoncewereunjust，andbecauseweareashamedandafraidtoseethatwewereso。
　　Sopartialaretheviewsofmankindwithregardtotheproprietyoftheirownconduct，bothatthetimeofactionandafterit；andsodifficultisitforthemtoviewitinthelightinwhichanyindifferentspectatorwouldconsiderit。Butifitwasbyapeculiarfaculty，suchasthemoralsenseissupposedtobe，thattheyjudgedoftheirownconduct，iftheywereenduedwithaparticularpowerofperception，whichdistinguishedthebeautyordeformityofpassionsandaffections；astheirownpassionswouldbemoreimmeDiatelyexposedtotheviewofthisfaculty，itwouldjudgewithmoreaccuracyconcerningthem，thanconcerningthoseofothermen，ofwhichithadonlyamoredistantprospect。
　　Thisself-deceit，thisfatalweaknessofmankind，isthesourceofhalfthedisordersofhumanlife。Ifwesawourselvesinthelightinwhichothersseeus，orinwhichtheywouldseeusiftheyknewall，areformationwouldgenerallybeunavoidable。Wecouldnototherwiseendurethesight。
　　Nature，however，hasnotleftthisweakness，whichisofsomuchimportance，altogetherwithoutaremedy；norhassheabandonedusentirelytothedelusionsofself-love。Ourcontinualobservationsupontheconductofothers，insensiblyleadustoformtoourselvescertaingeneralrulesconcerningwhatisfitandpropereithertobedoneortobeavoided。Someoftheiractionsshockallournaturalsentiments。Weheareverybodyaboutusexpressthelikedetestationagainstthem。Thisstillfurtherconfirms，andevenexasperatesournaturalsenseoftheirdeformity。Itsatisfiesusthatweviewthemintheproperlight，whenweseeotherpeopleviewtheminthesamelight。Weresolvenevertobeguiltyofthelike，norever，uponanyaccount，torenderourselvesinthismannertheobjectsofuniversaldisapprobation。Wethusnaturallylaydowntoourselvesageneralrule，thatallsuchactionsaretobeavoided，astendingtorenderusodious，contemptible，orpunishable，theobjectsofallthosesentimentsforwhichwehavethegreatestdreadandaversion。Otheractions，onthecontrary，callforthourapprobation，andweheareverybodyaroundusexpressthesamefavourableopinionconcerningthem。Everybodyiseagertohonourandrewardthem。Theyexciteallthosesentimentsforwhichwehavebynaturethestrongestdesire；thelove，thegratitude，theadmirationofmankind。Webecomeambitiousofperformingthelike；andthusnaturallylaydowntoourselvesaruleofanotherkind，thateveryopportunityofactinginthismanneriscarefullytobesoughtafter。
　　Itisthusthatthegeneralrulesofmoralityareformed。
　　Theyareultimatelyfoundeduponexperienceofwhat，inparticularinstances，ourmoralfaculties，ournaturalsenseofmeritandpropriety，approve，ordisapproveof。Wedonotoriginallyapproveorcondemnparticularactions；because，uponexamination，theyappeartobeagreeableorinconsistentwithacertaingeneralrule。Thegeneralrule，onthecontrary，isformed，byfindingfromexperience，thatallactionsofacertainkind，orcircumstancedinacertainmanner，areapprovedordisapprovedof。Tothemanwhofirstsawaninhumanmurder，committedfromavarice，envy，orunjustresentment，andupononetoothatlovedandtrustedthemurderer，whobeheldthelastagoniesofthedyingperson，whoheardhim，withhisexpiringbreath，complainmoreoftheperfidyandingratitudeofhisfalsefriend，thanoftheviolencewhichhadbeendonetohim，therecouldbenooccasion，inordertoconceivehowhorriblesuchanactionwas，thatheshouldreflect，thatoneofthemostsacredrulesofconductwaswhatprohibitedthetakingawaythelifeofaninnocentperson，thatthiswasaplainviolationofthatrule，andconsequentlyaveryblamableaction。Hisdetestationofthiscrime，itisevident，wouldariseinstantaneouslyandantecedenttohishavingformedtohimselfanysuchgeneralrule。Thegeneralrule，onthecontrary，whichhemightafterwardsform，wouldbefoundeduponthedetestationwhichhefeltnecessarilyariseinhisownbreast，atthethoughtofthis，andeveryotherparticularactionofthesamekind。