Letusproceed，then，toconsiderhowfarthesocialsanctioninsuchcasessuppliesthedefectsofthelegal。Nodoubtthehopeofpraiseandlikingandservicesfromone’sfellow-men，andthefearofforfeitingtheseandincurringinsteadaversion，refusalofaid，andsocialexclusion，areconsiderationsoftenimportantenoughtodeterminetherationalegoisttolaw-observance，evenindefaultofadequatelegalpenalties。Stillthesesanctionsareliabletofailjustwherethelegalpenaltiesaredefective；socialnolessthanlegalpenaltiesareevadedbysecretcrimes；andincasesofcriminalrevolutionaryviolence，theefficacyofthesocialsanctionisapttobeseriouslyimpairedbythepartyspiritenlistedonthesideofthecriminal。Forithastobeobservedthattheforceofthesocialsanctiondiminishesveryrapidly，inproportiontothenumberofdissidentsfromthecommonopinionthatawardsit。Disapprobationthatisatonceintenseandquiteuniversalwouldbesosevereapenaltyasperhapstooutweighanyimaginableadvantages；
　　sinceitseemsimpossibleforahumanbeingtolivehappily，whateverothergoodshemayenjoy，withoutthekindlyregardsofsomeofhisfellows:
　　andso，incontemplatingtheconventionalportraitofthetyrant，whoisrepresentedasnecessarilysuspiciousofthosenearesthim，evenofthemembersofhisownfamily，wefeelpreparedtoadmitthatsuchalifemustinvolvetheextremeofunhappiness。Butwhenweturntocontemplatetheactualtyrannicalusurpers，wickedstatesmen，successfulleadersofunwarrantedrebellion，and，speakinggenerally，thegreatcriminalswhosepositionraisesthemoutofthereachoflegalpenalties，itdoesnotappearthatthemoralodiumunderwhichtheyliemustnecessarilycountformuchinanegoisticcalculationofthegainandlossresultingfromtheirconduct。
　　Forthisdisesteemisonlyexpressedbyaportionofthecommunity:anditsutteranceisoftendrownedintheloud-voicedapplauseofthemultitudewhoseadmirationislargelyindependentofmoralconsiderations。Noraretherewantingphilosophersandhistorianswhosejudgmentmanifestsasimilarindependence。
　　Itseems，then，impossibletoaffirmthattheexternalsanctionsofmen’slegaldutieswillalwaysbesufficienttoidentifydutywithinterest。AndacorrespondingassertionwouldbestillmoreunwarrantedinrespectofmoraldutiesnotincludedwithinthesphereofLaw。Insayingthis，IamfullysensibleoftheforceofwhatmaybecalledthePrincipleofReciprocity，bywhichcertainutilitarianshaveendeavouredtoprovethecoincidenceofanyindividual’sinterestwithhissocialduties。Virtuestheysayarequalitieseitherusefulordirectlyagreeabletoothers:
　　thustheyeitherincreasethemarketvalueofthevirtuousman’sservices，andcauseotherstopurchasethematahigherrateandtoallottohimmoredignifiedandinterestingfunctions；ortheydisposementopleasehim，bothoutofgratitudeandinordertoenjoythepleasuresofhissocietyinreturn:andagain——sincemanisanimitativeanimal——theexhibitionofthesequalitiesisnaturallyrewardedbyareciprocalmanifestationofthemonthepartofothers，throughthemereinfluenceofexample。I
　　donotdoubtthattheprospectoftheseadvantagesisanadequatemotiveforcultivatingmanyvirtuesandavoidingmuchvice。Thusonsuchgroundsarationalegoistwillgenerallybestrictandpunctualinthefulfilmentofallhisengagements，andtruthfulinhisassertions，inordertowintheconfidenceofothermen；andhewillbezealousandindustriousinhiswork，inordertoobtaingraduallymoreimportantandthereforemorehonourableandlucrativeemployment；andhewillcontrolsuchofhispassionsandappetitesasarelikelytointerferewithhisefficiency；andwillnotexhibitviolentangeroruseunnecessaryharshnesseventowardsservantsandsubordinates；andtowardshisequalsandsuperiorsinrankliewillbegenerallypoliteandcomplaisantandgood-humoured，andprompttoshowthemallsuchkindnessascostsbutlittleinproportiontothepleasureitgives。Still，reflectionseemstoshowthattheconductrecommendedbythislineofreasoningdoesnotreallycoincidewithmoralduty。For，first，whatonerequiresforsocialsuccessisthatoneshouldappear，ratherthanbe，usefultoothers:andhencethismotivewillnotrestrainonefromdoingsecretharmtoothers，orevenfromactingopenlyinawaythatisreallyharmful，thoughnotperceivedtobeso。Andagain，amanisnotusefultoothersbyhisvirtueonly，butsometimesratherbyhisvice；ormoreoftenbyacertainadmixtureofunscrupulousnesswithhisgoodandusefulqualities。Andfurther，moralityprescribestheperformanceofdutiesequallytowardsall，andthatweshouldabstainasfaraspossiblefromharminganybutontheprincipleofReciprocityweshouldexhibitourusefulqualitieschieflytowardstherichandpowerful，andabstainfrominjuringthosewhocanretaliate；whilewemayreasonablyomitourdutiestothepoorandfeeble，ifwefindamaterialadvantageinsodoing，unlesstheyareabletoexcitethesympathyofpersonswhocanharmus。
　　Moreover，somevicesasforexample，manykindsofsensualityandextravagantluxurydonotinflictanyimmediateorobviousinjuryonanyindividual，thoughtheytendinthelong-runtoimpairthegeneralhappiness:hencefewpersonsfindthemselvesstronglymovedtocheckorpunishthiskindofmischief。
　　Doubtlessinthelast-mentionedcasesthemeredisreputeinevitablyattachingtoopenimmoralityisanimportantconsideration。
　　ButIdonotthinkthatthiswillbeseriouslymaintainedtobesufficientalwaystoturnthescalesofprudenceagainstvice——atleastbyanyonewhohasdulyanalysedtheturbidandfluctuatingstreamsofsocialopinionuponwhichthegoodorillreputeofindividualsmainlydepends，andconsideredtheconflictinganddivergentelementsthattheycontain。ManymoralistshavenoticedthediscrepancyinmodernEuropebetweentheLawofHonourorthemoreimportantrulesmaintainedbythesocialsanctionofpolitepersonsandthemoralityprofessedinsocietyatlarge。Thisis，however，bynomeanstheonlyinstanceofaspecialcode，divergentincertainpointsfromthemoralrulesgenerallyacceptedinthecommunitywhereitexists。
　　Mostreligioussectsandparties，andprobablythemajorityoftradesandprofessions，exhibitthisphenomenoninsomedegree。Idonotmeanmerelythatspecialrulesofbehaviourareimposeduponmembersofeachprofession，correspondingtotheirspecialsocialfunctionsandrelations:Imeanthatapeculiarmoralopinionisapttogrowup，conflictingtoacertainextentwiththeopinionofthegeneralpublic。Themoststrikingpartofthisdivergenceconsistsgenerallyintheapprovalorexcusalofpracticesdisapprovedbythecurrentmorality:ase。g。licenceamongsoldiers，briberyamongpoliticiansincertainagesandcountries，unveracityofvariousdegreesamongpriestsandadvocates，fraudindifferentformsamongtradesmen。
　　Insuchcasestherearegenerallystrongnaturalinducementstodisobeythestricterruleinfactitwouldseemtobetothecontinualpressureoftheseinducementsthattherelaxationoftherulehasbeendue:whileatthesametimethesocialsanctionisweakenedtosuchanextentthatitissometimeshardtosaywhetheritoutweighsasimilarforceontheotherside。Foramanwho，underthesecircumstances，conformstothestricterrule，ifhedoesnotactuallymeetwithcontemptandaversionfromthoseofhiscalling，isatleastliabletobecalledeccentricandfantastic:
　　andthisisstillmorethecaseifbysuchconformityheforegoesadvantagesnotonlytohimselfbuttohisrelativesorfriendsorparty。Veryoftenthisprofessionalorsectarianexcusalofimmoralityofwhichwearespeakingisnotsoclearandexplicitastoamounttotheestablishmentofarule，conflictingwiththegenerallyreceivedrule:butisstillsufficienttoweakenindefinitelythesocialsanctioninfavourofthelatter。And，apartfromthesespecialdivergences，wemaysaygenerallythatinmostcivilisedsocietiestherearetwodifferentdegreesofpositivemorality，bothmaintainedinsomesortbycommonconsent；astrictercodebeingpubliclytaughtandavowed，whilealaxersetofrulesisprivatelyadmittedastheonlycodewhichcanbesupportedbysocialsanctionsofanygreatforce。Byrefusingtoconformtothestrictercodeamanisoftennotliabletoincurexclusionfromsocialintercourse，oranymaterialhindrancetoprofessionaladvancement，orevenseriousdislikeonthepartofanyofthepersonswhosesocietyhewillmostnaturallyseek；andundersuchcircumstancesthemerelossofacertainamountofreputationisnotlikelytobefeltasaverygraveevil，exceptbypersonspeculiarlysensitivetothepleasuresandpainsofreputation。Andtherewouldseemtobemanymenwhosehappinessdoesnotdependontheapprobationordisapprobationofthemoralist——andofmankindingeneralinsofarastheysupportthemoralist——tosuchanextentastomakeitprudentforthemtopurchasethispraisebyanygreatsacrificeofothergoods。
　　Wemustconclude，then，thatiftheconductprescribedtotheindividualbytheavowedlyacceptedmoralityofthecommunityofwhichheisamember，canbeshowntocoincidewiththattowhichRationalSelf-lovewouldprompt，itmustbe，inmanycases，solelyorchieflyonthescoreoftheinternalsanctions。Inconsideringtheforceofthesesanctions，Ishalleliminatethosepleasuresandpainswhichlieintheanticipationofrewardsandpunishmentsinafuturelife:foraswearenowsupposingthecalculationsofRationalEgoismtobeperformedwithouttakingintoaccountanyfeelingsthatarebeyondtherangeofexperience，itwillbemoreconsistenttoexcludealsothepleasurableorpainfulanticipationsofsuchfeelings。
　　Letus，then，contemplatebyitselfthesatisfactionthatattendstheperformanceofdutyassuchwithouttakingintoconsiderationanyulteriorconsequences，andthepainthatfollowsonitsviolation。AfterthediscussionsofthetwoprecedingchaptersIshallnotofcourseattempttoweighexactlythesepleasuresandpainsagainstothers；butIseenoempiricalgroundsforbelievingthatsuchfeelingsarealwayssufficientlyintensetoturnthebalanceofprospectivehappinessinfavourofmorality。Thiswillhardlybedeniedifthequestionisraisedinrespectofisolatedactsofduty。
　　Letustakeanextremecase，whichisyetquitewithinthelimitsofexperience。
　　Thecallofdutyhasoftenimpelledasoldierorotherpublicservant，ortheadherentofapersecutedreligion，tofacecertainandpainfuldeath，undercircumstanceswhereitmightbeavoidedwithlittleornolossevenofreputation。Toprovesuchconductalwaysreasonablefromanegoisticpointofview，wehavetoassumethat，inallcaseswheresuchadutycouldexistandberecognised，themerepainthatwouldfollowonevasionofdutywouldbesogreatastorenderthewholeremainderoflifehedonisticallyworthless。Surelysuchallassumptionwouldbeparadoxicalandextravagant。
　　Nothingthatweknowofthemajorityofpersonsinanysocietywouldleadustoconcludethattheirmoralfeelingstakenaloneformsopreponderantailelementoftheirhappiness。Andasimilarconclusionseemsirresistibleeveninmoreordinarycases，whereamaniscalledontogiveup，forvirtue’ssake，notlife，butaconsiderableshareoftheordinarysourcesofhumanhappiness。Canwesaythatall，orevenmost，menaresoconstitutedthatthesatisfactionsofagoodconsciencearecertaintorepaythemforsuchsacrifices，orthatthepainandlossinvolvedinthemwouldcertainlybeoutweighedbytheremorsethatwouldfollowtherefusaltomakethem？
　　Perhaps，however，somuchasthishasscarcelyeverbeenexpresslymaintained。WhatPlatoinhisRepublicandotherwritersonthesamesidehaverathertriedtoprove，isnotthatatanyparticularmomentdutywillbe，toeveryoneonwhomitmaydevolve，productiveofmorehappinessthananyothercourseofconduct；butratherthatitiseveryone’sinterestonthewholetochoosethelifeofthevirtuousman。Buteventhisitisverydifficulteventorenderprobable:aswillappear，Ithink，ifweexaminethelinesofreasoningbywhichitiscommonlysupported。
　　TobeginwithPlato’sargument。Herepresentsthesoulofthevirtuousmanasawell-orderedpolityofimpulses，inwhicheverypassionandappetiteisdulyobedienttotherightfulsovereigntyofreason，andoperatesonlywithinthelimitslaiddownbythelatter。
　　Hethencontraststhetranquilpeaceofsuchamindwiththedisorderofonewhereasuccessionofbaserimpulses，orsomerulingpassion，lordsitoverreason:andaskswhichisthehappiest，evenapartfromexternalrewardsandpunishments。ButwemaygrantallthatPlatoclaims，andyetbenofurtheradvancedtowardsthesolutionofthequestionbeforeus。
　　ForheretheissuedoesnotliebetweenReasonandPassion，butrather——inButler’slanguage——betweenRationalSelf-loveandConscience。WearesupposingtheEgoisttohaveallhisimpulsesundercontrol，andareonlyaskinghowthiscontrolistobeexercised。Nowwehaveseenthattheregulationandorganisationoflifebestcalculatedtoattaintheendofself-interestappearsprimafaciedivergentatcertainpointsfromthattowhichmeningeneralarepromptedbyasenseofduty。InordertomaintainPlato’spositionithastobeshownthatthisappearanceisfalse；andthatasystemofself-government，whichundercertaincircumstancesleadsustopain，loss，anddeath，isstillthatwhichself-interestrequires。Itcanscarcelybesaidthatournatureissuchthatonlythisanti-egoistickindofregulationispossible；thatthechoiceliesbetweenthisandnoneatall。Itiseasytoimaginearationalegoist，strictlycontrollingeachofhispassionsandimpulses——includinghissocialsentiments——withinsuchlimitsthatitsindulgenceshouldnotinvolvethesacrificeofsomegreatergratification: