Sincethatwhichiscompoundedoutofsomethingsothatthe
　　wholeisone，notlikeaheapbutlikeasyllable-nowthesyllable
　　isnotitselements，baisnotthesameasbanda，norisflesh
　　fireandearthforwhentheseareseparatedthewholes，i。e。the
　　fleshandthesyllable，nolongerexist，buttheelementsofthe
　　syllableexist，andsodofireandearth；thesyllable，then，is
　　something-notonlyitselementsthevowelandtheconsonantbutalso
　　somethingelse，andthefleshisnotonlyfireandearthorthehot
　　andthecold，butalsosomethingelse:-if，then，thatsomethingmust
　　itselfbeeitheranelementorcomposedofelements，1ifitisan
　　elementthesameargumentwillagainapply；forfleshwillconsist
　　ofthisandfireandearthandsomethingstillfurther，sothatthe
　　processwillgoontoinfinity。But2ifitisacompound，clearly
　　itwillbeacompoundnotofonebutofmorethanoneorelsethat
　　onewillbethethingitself，sothatagaininthiscasewecanuse
　　thesameargumentasinthecaseoffleshorofthesyllable。Butit
　　wouldseemthatthis’other’issomething，andnotanelement，and
　　thatitisthecausewhichmakesthisthingfleshandthatasyllable。
　　Andsimilarlyinallothercases。Andthisisthesubstanceofeach
　　thingforthisistheprimarycauseofitsbeing；andsince，while
　　somethingsarenotsubstances，asmanyasaresubstancesareformed
　　inaccordancewithanatureoftheirownandbyaprocessofnature，
　　theirsubstancewouldseemtobethiskindof’nature’，whichisnot
　　anelementbutaprinciple。Anelement，ontheotherhand，isthat
　　intowhichathingisdividedandwhichispresentinitasmatter；
　　e。g。aandbaretheelementsofthesyllable。
　　WEmustreckonuptheresultsarisingfromwhathasbeensaid，and
　　computethesumofthem，andputthefinishingtouchtoourinquiry。
　　Wehavesaidthatthecauses，principles，andelementsofsubstances
　　aretheobjectofoursearch。Andsomesubstancesarerecognizedby
　　everyone，butsomehavebeenadvocatedbyparticularschools。Those
　　generallyrecognizedarethenaturalsubstances，i。e。fire，earth，
　　water，air，&c。，thesimplebodies；secondplantsandtheirparts，and
　　animalsandthepartsofanimals；andfinallythephysicaluniverse
　　anditsparts；whilesomeparticularschoolssaythatFormsandthe
　　objectsofmathematicsaresubstances。Butthereareargumentswhich
　　leadtotheconclusionthatthereareothersubstances，theessence
　　andthesubstratum。Again，inanotherwaythegenusseemsmore
　　substantialthanthevariousspccies，andtheuniversalthanthe
　　particulars。AndwiththeuniversalandthegenustheIdeasare
　　connected；itisinvirtueofthesameargumentthattheyare
　　thoughttobesubstances。Andsincetheessenceissubstance，and
　　thedefinitionisaformulaoftheessence，forthisreasonwehave
　　discusseddefinitionandessentialpredication。Sincethedefinition
　　isaformula，andaformulahasparts，wehadtoconsideralsowith
　　respecttothenotionof’part’，whatarepartsofthesubstanceand
　　whatarenot，andwhetherthepartsofthesubstancearealsopartsof
　　thedefinition。Further，too，neithertheuniversalnorthegenusisa
　　substance；wemustinquirelaterintotheIdeasandtheobjectsof
　　mathematics；forsomesaythesearesubstancesaswellasthesensible
　　substances。
　　Butnowletusresumethediscussionofthegenerallyrecognized
　　substances。Thesearethesensiblesubstances，andsensiblesubstances
　　allhavematter。Thesubstratumissubstance，andthisisinonesense
　　thematterandbymatterImeanthatwhich，notbeinga’this’
　　actually，ispotentiallya’this’，andinanothersensetheformula
　　orshapethatwhichbeinga’this’canbeseparatelyformulated，and
　　thirdlythecomplexofthesetwo，whichaloneisgeneratedand
　　destroyed，andis，withoutqualification，capableofseparate
　　existence；forofsubstancescompletelyexpressibleinaformula
　　someareseparableandsomeareseparableandsomearenot。
　　Butclearlymatteralsoissubstance；forinalltheopposite
　　changesthatoccurthereissomethingwhichunderliesthechanges，
　　e。g。inrespectofplacethatwhichisnowhereandagainelsewhere，
　　andinrespectofincreasethatwhichisnowofonesizeandagain
　　lessorgreater，andinrespectofalterationthatwhichisnow
　　healthyandagaindiseased；andsimilarlyinrespectofsubstance
　　thereissomethingthatisnowbeinggeneratedandagainbeing
　　destroyed，andnowunderliestheprocessasa’this’andagain
　　underliesitinrespectofaprivationofpositivecharacter。Andin
　　thischangetheothersareinvolved。Butineitheroneortwoofthe
　　othersthisisnotinvolved；foritisnotnecessaryifathinghas
　　matterforchangeofplacethatitshouldalsohavematterfor
　　generationanddestruction。
　　Thedifferencebetweenbecominginthefullsenseandbecoming
　　inaqualifiedsensehasbeenstatedinourphysicalworks。
　　Sincethesubstancewhichexistsasunderlyingandasmatteris
　　generallyrecognized，andthisthatwhichexistspotentially，it
　　remainsforustosaywhatisthesubstance，inthesenseof
　　actuality，ofsensiblethings。Democritusseemstothinkthereare
　　threekindsofdifferencebetweenthings；theunderlyingbody，the
　　matter，isoneandthesame，buttheydiffereitherinrhythm，i。e。
　　shape，orinturning，i。e。position，orininter-contact，i。e。
　　order。Butevidentlytherearemanydifferences；forinstance，some
　　thingsarecharacterizedbythemodeofcompositionoftheirmatter，
　　e。g。thethingsformedbyblending，suchashoney-water；andothersby
　　beingboundtogether，e。g。bundle；andothersbybeinggluedtogether，
　　e。g。abook；andothersbybeingnailedtogether，e。g。acasket；and
　　othersinmorethanoneoftheseways；andothersbyposition，e。g。
　　thresholdandlintelforthesedifferbybeingplacedinacertain
　　way；andothersbytime，e。g。dinnerandbreakfast；andothersby
　　place，e。g。thewinds；andothersbytheaffectionspropertosensible
　　things，e。g。hardnessandsoftness，densityandrarity，drynessand
　　wetness；andsomethingsbysomeofthesequalities，othersbythem
　　all，andingeneralsomebyexcessandsomebydefect。Clearly，
　　then，theword’is’hasjustasmanymeanings；athingisa
　　thresholdbecauseitliesinsuchandsuchaposition，anditsbeing
　　meansitslyinginthatposition，whilebeingicemeanshavingbeen
　　solidifiedinsuchandsuchaway。Andthebeingofsomethingswill
　　bedefinedbyallthesequalities，becausesomepartsofthemare
　　mixed，othersareblended，othersareboundtogether，othersare
　　solidified，andothersusetheotherdifferentiae；e。g。thehandor
　　thefootrequiressuchcomplexdefinition。Wemustgrasp，then，the
　　kindsofdifferentiaeforthesewillbetheprinciplesofthebeing
　　ofthings，e。g。thethingscharacterizedbythemoreandtheless，or
　　bythedenseandtherare，andbyothersuchqualities；forall
　　theseareformsofexcessanddefect。Andanythingthatis
　　characterizedbyshapeorbysmoothnessandroughnessischaracterized
　　bythestraightandthecurved。Andforotherthingstheirbeing
　　willmeantheirbeingmixed，andtheirnotbeingwillmeanthe
　　opposite。
　　Itisclear，then，fromthesefactsthat，sinceitssubstanceis
　　thecauseofeachthing’sbeing，wemustseekinthesedifferentiae
　　whatisthecauseofthebeingofeachofthesethings。Nownoneof
　　thesedifferentiaeissubstance，evenwhencoupledwithmatter，yetit
　　iswhatisanalogoustosubstanceineachcase；andasinsubstances
　　thatwhichispredicatedofthematteristheactualityitself，inall
　　otherdefinitionsalsoitiswhatmostresemblesfullactuality。
　　E。g。ifwehadtodefineathreshold，weshouldsay’woodorstone
　　insuchandsuchaposition’，andahouseweshoulddefineas
　　’bricksandtimbersinsuchandsuchaposition’，orapurposemay
　　existaswellinsomecases，andifwehadtodefineiceweshould
　　say’waterfrozenorsolidifiedinsuchandsuchaway’，andharmony
　　is’suchandsuchablendingofhighandlow’；andsimilarlyinall
　　othercases。
　　Obviously，then，theactualityortheformulaisdifferentwhen
　　thematterisdifferent；forinsomecasesitisthecomposition，in
　　othersthemixing，andinotherssomeotheroftheattributeswe
　　havenamed。Andso，ofthepeoplewhogoinfordefining，thosewho
　　defineahouseasstones，bricks，andtimbersarespeakingofthe
　　potentialhouse，forthesearethematter；butthosewhopropose’a
　　receptacletoshelterchattelsandlivingbeings’，orsomethingofthe
　　sort，speakoftheactuality。Thosewhocombinebothofthesespeakof
　　thethirdkindofsubstance，whichiscomposedofmatterandformfor
　　theformulathatgivesthedifferentiaeseemstobeanaccountof
　　theformoractuality，whilethatwhichgivesthecomponentsisrather
　　anaccountofthematter；andthesameistrueofthekindof
　　definitionswhichArchytasusedtoaccept；theyareaccountsofthe
　　combinedformandmatter。E。g。whatisstillweather？Absenceof
　　motioninalargeexpanseofair；airisthematter，andabsenceof
　　motionistheactualityandsubstance。Whatisacalm？Smoothnessof
　　sea；thematerialsubstratumisthesea，andtheactualityorshapeis
　　smoothness。Itisobviousthen，fromwhathasbeensaid，whatsensible
　　substanceisandhowitexists-onekindofitasmatter，anotheras
　　formoractuality，whilethethirdkindisthatwhichiscomposedof
　　thesetwo。
　　Wemustnotfailtonoticethatsometimesitisnotclear
　　whetheranamemeansthecompositesubstance，ortheactualityor
　　form，e。g。whether’house’isasignforthecompositething，’a
　　coveringconsistingofbricksandstoneslaidthusandthus’，orfor
　　theactualityorform，’acovering’，andwhetheralineis’twonessin
　　length’or’twoness’，andwhetherananimalissoulinabody’or’a
　　soul’；forsoulisthesubstanceoractualityofsomebody。’Animal’
　　mightevenbeappliedtoboth，notassomethingdefinablebyone
　　formula，butasrelatedtoasinglething。Butthisquestion，while
　　importantforanotherpurpose，isofnoimportancefortheinquiry
　　intosensiblesubstance；fortheessencecertainlyattachestothe
　　formandtheactuality。For’soul’and’tobesoul’arethesame，
　　but’tobeman’and’man’arenotthesame，unlesseventhebare
　　soulistobecalledman；andthusononeinterpretationthething
　　isthesameasitsessence，andonanotheritisnot。
　　Ifweexaminewefindthatthesyllabledoesnotconsistofthe
　　lettersjuxtaposition，noristhehousebricksjuxtaposition。
　　Andthisisright；forthejuxtapositionormixingdoesnotconsistof
　　thosethingsofwhichitisthejuxtapositionormixing。Andthe
　　sameistrueinallothercases；e。g。ifthethresholdis
　　characterizedbyitsposition，thepositionisnotconstitutedby
　　thethreshold，butratherthelatterisconstitutedbytheformer。Nor
　　ismananimalbiped，buttheremustbesomethingbesidesthese，if
　　thesearematter，-somethingwhichisneitheranelementinthewhole
　　noracompound，butisthesubstance；butthispeopleeliminate，and
　　stateonlythematter。If，then，thisisthecauseofthething’s
　　being，andifthecauseofitsbeingisitssubstance，theywillnot
　　bestatingthesubstanceitself。