Inviewofthesedistinctionsitisobviousthattheone-sided
　　theorieswhichsomepeopleexpressaboutallthingscannotbevalid-on
　　theonehandthetheorythatnothingistruefor，saythey，there
　　isnothingtopreventeverystatementfrombeinglikethestatement
　　’thediagonalofasquareiscommensuratewiththeside’，onthe
　　otherhandthetheorythateverythingistrue。Theseviewsare
　　practicallythesameasthatofHeraclitus；forhewhosaysthatall
　　thingsaretrueandallarefalsealsomakeseachofthese
　　statementsseparately，sothatsincetheyareimpossible，thedouble
　　statementmustbeimpossibletoo-Again，thereareobviously
　　contradictorieswhichcannotbeatthesametimetrue-norontheother
　　handcanallstatementsbefalse；yetthiswouldseemmorepossiblein
　　thelightofwhathasbeensaid-Butagainstallsuchviewswemust
　　postulate，aswesaidabove，’notthatsomethingisorisnot，but
　　thatsomethinghasameaning，sothatwemustarguefromadefinition，
　　viz。byassumingwhatfalsityortruthmeans。Ifthatwhichitistrue
　　toaffirmisnothingotherthanthatwhichitisfalsetodeny，it
　　isimpossiblethatallstatementsshouldbefalse；foronesideofthe
　　contradictionmustbetrue。Again，ifitisnecessarywithregardto
　　everythingeithertoassertortodenyit，itisimpossiblethat
　　bothshouldbefalse；foritisonesideofthecontradictionthat
　　isfalse-Thereforeallsuchviewsarealsoexposedtotheoften
　　expressedobjection，thattheydestroythemselves。Forhewhosays
　　thateverythingistruemakeseventhestatementcontrarytohisown
　　true，andthereforehisownnottrueforthecontrarystatement
　　deniesthatitistrue，whilehewhosayseverythingisfalsemakes
　　himselfalsofalse-Andiftheformerpersonexceptsthecontrary
　　statement，sayingitaloneisnottrue，whilethelatterexceptshis
　　ownasbeingnotfalse，nonethelesstheyaredriventopostulatethe
　　truthorfalsityofaninfinitenumberofstatements；forthatwhich
　　saysthetruestatementistrueistrue，andthisprocesswillgoon
　　toinfinity。
　　Evidently，again，thosewhosayallthingsareatrestarenot
　　right，norarethosewhosayallthingsareinmovement。Forifall
　　thingsareatrest，thesamestatementswillalwaysbetrueandthe
　　samealwaysfalse，-butthisobviouslychanges；forhewhomakesa
　　statement，himselfatonetimewasnotandagainwillnotbe。Andif
　　allthingsareinmotion，nothingwillbetrue；everythingtherefore
　　willbefalse。Butithasbeenshownthatthisisimpossible。Again，
　　itmustbethatwhichisthatchanges；forchangeisfromsomethingto
　　something。Butagainitisnotthecasethatallthingsareatrestor
　　inmotionsometimes，andnothingforever；forthereissomething
　　whichalwaysmovesthethingsthatareinmotion，andthefirst
　　moverisitselfunmoved。
　　’BEGINNING’means1thatpartofathingfromwhichonewould
　　startfirst，e。galineoraroadhasabeginningineitherofthe
　　contrarydirections。2Thatfromwhicheachthingwouldbestbe
　　originated，e。g。eveninlearningwemustsometimesbeginnotfromthe
　　firstpointandthebeginningofthesubject，butfromthepoint
　　fromwhichweshouldlearnmosteasily。4Thatfromwhich，asan
　　immanentpart，athingfirstcomestobe，e，g，asthekeelofaship
　　andthefoundationofahouse，whileinanimalssomesupposethe
　　heart，othersthebrain，otherssomeotherpart，tobeofthisnature。
　　4Thatfromwhich，notasanimmanentpart，athingfirstcomesto
　　be，andfromwhichthemovementorthechangenaturallyfirst
　　begins，asachildcomesfromitsfatheranditsmother，andafight
　　fromabusivelanguage。5Thatatwhosewillthatwhichismovedis
　　movedandthatwhichchangeschanges，e。g。themagistraciesincities，
　　andoligarchiesandmonarchiesandtyrannies，arecalledarhchai，
　　andsoarethearts，andoftheseespeciallythearchitectonicarts。
　　6Thatfromwhichathingcanfirstbeknown，-thisalsoiscalled
　　thebeginningofthething，e。g。thehypothesesarethebeginnings
　　ofdemonstrations。Causesarespokenofinanequalnumberofsenses；
　　forallcausesarebeginnings。Itiscommon，then，toall
　　beginningstobethefirstpointfromwhichathingeitherisorcomes
　　tobeorisknown；butofthesesomeareimmanentinthethingand
　　othersareoutside。Hencethenatureofathingisabeginning，andso
　　istheelementofathing，andthoughtandwill，andessence，and
　　thefinalcause-forthegoodandthebeautifularethebeginning
　　bothoftheknowledgeandofthemovementofmanythings。
　　2
　　’Cause’means1thatfromwhich，asimmanentmaterial，athing
　　comesintobeing，e。g。thebronzeisthecauseofthestatueandthe
　　silverofthesaucer，andsoaretheclasseswhichincludethese。
　　Theformorpattern，i。e。thedefinitionoftheessence，andthe
　　classeswhichincludethise。g。theratio2:1andnumberingeneral
　　arecausesoftheoctave，andthepartsincludedinthedefinition。
　　Thatfromwhichthechangeortherestingfromchangefirst
　　begins；e。g。theadviserisacauseoftheaction，andthefathera
　　causeofthechild，andingeneralthemakeracauseofthethingmade
　　andthechange-producingofthechanging。4Theend，i。e。thatfor
　　thesakeofwhichathingis；e。g。healthisthecauseofwalking。For
　　’Whydoesonewalk？’wesay；’thatonemaybehealthy’；andin
　　speakingthuswethinkwehavegiventhecause。Thesameistrueof
　　allthemeansthatintervenebeforetheend，whensomethingelsehas
　　puttheprocessinmotion，ase。g。thinningorpurgingordrugsor
　　instrumentsintervenebeforehealthisreached；foralltheseare
　　forthesakeoftheend，thoughtheydifferfromoneanotherinthat
　　someareinstrumentsandothersareactions。
　　These，then，arepracticallyallthesensesinwhichcausesare
　　spokenof，andastheyarespokenofinseveralsensesitfollowsboth
　　thatthereareseveralcausesofthesamething，andinno
　　accidentalsensee。g。boththeartofsculptureandthebronzeare
　　causesofthestatuenotinrespectofanythingelsebutquastatue；
　　not，however，inthesameway，buttheoneasmatterandtheother
　　assourceofthemovement，andthatthingscanbecausesofone
　　anothere。g。exerciseofgoodcondition，andthelatterof
　　exercise；not，however，inthesameway，buttheoneasendandthe
　　otherassourceofmovement-Again，thesamethingisthecauseof
　　contraries；forthatwhichwhenpresentcausesaparticularthing，
　　wesometimescharge，whenabsent，withthecontrary，e。g。weimpute
　　theshipwrecktotheabsenceofthesteersman，whosepresencewas
　　thecauseofsafety；andboth-thepresenceandtheprivation-are
　　causesassourcesofmovement。
　　Allthecausesnowmentionedfallunderfoursenseswhichare
　　themostobvious。Forthelettersarethecauseofsyllables，and
　　thematerialisthecauseofmanufacturedthings，andfireandearth
　　andallsuchthingsarethecausesofbodies，andthepartsarecauses
　　ofthewhole，andthehypothesesarecausesoftheconclusion，in
　　thesensethattheyarethatoutofwhichtheserespectivelyaremade；
　　butofthesesomearecauseasthesubstratume。g。theparts，others
　　astheessencethewhole，thesynthesis，andtheform。Thesemen，
　　thephysician，theadviser，andingeneraltheagent，areall
　　sourcesofchangeorofrest。Theremainderarecausesastheend
　　andthegoodoftheotherthings；forthatforthesakeofwhichother
　　thingsaretendstobethebestandtheendoftheotherthings；let
　　ustakeitasmakingnodifferencewhetherwecallitgoodorapparent
　　good。
　　These，then，arethecauses，andthisisthenumberoftheir
　　kinds，butthevarietiesofcausesaremanyinnumber，thoughwhen
　　summarizedthesealsoarecomparativelyfew。Causesarespokenofin
　　manysenses，andevenofthosewhichareofthesamekindsomeare
　　causesinapriorandothersinaposteriorsense，e。g。both’the
　　physician’and’theprofessionalman’arecausesofhealth，andboth
　　’theratio2:1’and’number’arecausesoftheoctave，andtheclasses
　　thatincludeanyparticularcausearealwayscausesofthe
　　particulareffect。Again，thereareaccidentalcausesandthe
　　classeswhichincludethese；e。g。whileinonesense’thesculptor’
　　causesthestatue，inanothersense’Polyclitus’causesit，because
　　thesculptorhappenstobePolyclitus；andtheclassesthatinclude
　　theaccidentalcausearealsocauses，e。g。’man’-oringeneral
　　’animal’-isthecauseofthestatue，becausePolyclitusisaman，
　　andmanisananimal。Ofaccidentalcausesalsosomearemoreremote
　　ornearerthanothers，as，forinstance，if’thewhite’and’the
　　musical’werecalledcausesofthestatue，andnotonly’Polyclitus’
　　or’man’。Butbesidesallthesevarietiesofcauses，whetherproperor
　　accidental，somearecalledcausesasbeingabletoact，othersas
　　acting；e。g。thecauseofthehouse’sbeingbuiltisabuilder，ora
　　builderwhoisbuilding-Thesamevarietyoflanguagewillbefound
　　withregardtotheeffectsofcauses；e。g。athingmaybecalledthe
　　causeofthisstatueorofastatueoringeneralofanimage，and
　　ofthisbronzeorofbronzeorofmatteringeneral；andsimilarly
　　inthecaseofaccidentaleffects。Again，bothaccidentalandproper
　　causesmaybespokenofincombination；e。g。wemaysaynot
　　’Polyclitus’nor’thesculptor’but’Polyclitusthesculptor’。Yetall
　　thesearebutsixinnumber，whileeachisspokenofintwoways；
　　forAtheyarecauseseitherastheindividual，orasthegenus，
　　orastheaccidental，orasthegenusthatincludestheaccidental，
　　andtheseeitherascombined，orastakensimply；andBallmaybe
　　takenasactingorashavingacapacity。Buttheydifferinasmuchas
　　theactingcauses，i。e。theindividuals，exist，ordonotexist，
　　simultaneouslywiththethingsofwhichtheyarecauses，e。g。this
　　particularmanwhoishealing，withthisparticularmanwhois
　　recoveringhealth，andthisparticularbuilderwiththisparticular
　　thingthatisbeingbuilt；butthepotentialcausesarenotalways
　　inthiscase；forthehousedoesnotperishatthesametimeasthe
　　builder。
　　’Element’means1theprimarycomponentimmanentinathing，and
　　indivisibleinkindintootherkinds；e。g。theelementsofspeech
　　arethepartsofwhichspeechconsistsandintowhichitisultimately
　　divided，whiletheyarenolongerdividedintootherformsofspeech
　　differentinkindfromthem。Iftheyaredivided，theirpartsareof
　　thesamekind，asapartofwateriswaterwhileapartofthe
　　syllableisnotasyllable。Similarlythosewhospeakoftheelements
　　ofbodiesmeanthethingsintowhichbodiesareultimatelydivided，
　　whiletheyarenolongerdividedintootherthingsdifferingin
　　kind；andwhetherthethingsofthissortareoneormore，theycall
　　theseelements。Theso-calledelementsofgeometricalproofs，andin
　　generaltheelementsofdemonstrations，haveasimilarcharacter；
　　fortheprimarydemonstrations，eachofwhichisimpliedinmany
　　demonstrations，arecalledelementsofdemonstrations；andtheprimary
　　syllogisms，whichhavethreetermsandproceedbymeansofonemiddle，
　　areofthisnature。
　　2Peoplealsotransfertheword’element’fromthismeaning
　　andapplyittothatwhich，beingoneandsmall，isusefulformany
　　purposes；forwhichreasonwhatissmallandsimpleandindivisibleis
　　calledanelement。Hencecomethefactsthatthemostuniversalthings
　　areelementsbecauseeachofthembeingoneandsimpleispresent
　　inapluralityofthings，eitherinallorinasmanyaspossible，
　　andthatunityandthepointarethoughtbysometobefirst
　　principles。Now，sincetheso-calledgeneraareuniversaland
　　indivisibleforthereisnodefinitionofthem，somesaythe
　　generaareelements，andmoresothanthedifferentia，becausethe
　　genusismoreuniversal；forwherethedifferentiaispresent，the
　　genusaccompaniesit，butwherethegenusispresent，the
　　differentiaisnotalwaysso。Itiscommontoallthemeaningsthat
　　theelementofeachthingisthefirstcomponentimmanentineach。