ALLmenbynaturedesiretoknow。Anindicationofthisisthe
　　delightwetakeinoursenses；forevenapartfromtheirusefulness
　　theyarelovedforthemselves；andaboveallothersthesenseof
　　sight。Fornotonlywithaviewtoaction，butevenwhenwearenot
　　goingtodoanything，wepreferseeingonemightsaytoeverything
　　else。Thereasonisthatthis，mostofallthesenses，makesusknow
　　andbringstolightmanydifferencesbetweenthings。
　　Bynatureanimalsarebornwiththefacultyofsensation，andfrom
　　sensationmemoryisproducedinsomeofthem，thoughnotinothers。
　　Andthereforetheformeraremoreintelligentandaptatlearningthan
　　thosewhichcannotremember；thosewhichareincapableofhearing
　　soundsareintelligentthoughtheycannotbetaught，e。g。thebee，and
　　anyotherraceofanimalsthatmaybelikeit；andthosewhichbesides
　　memoryhavethissenseofhearingcanbetaught。
　　Theanimalsotherthanmanlivebyappearancesandmemories，and
　　havebutlittleofconnectedexperience；butthehumanracelivesalso
　　byartandreasonings。Nowfrommemoryexperienceisproducedin
　　men；fortheseveralmemoriesofthesamethingproducefinallythe
　　capacityforasingleexperience。Andexperienceseemsprettymuch
　　likescienceandart，butreallyscienceandartcometomenthrough
　　experience；for’experiencemadeart’，asPolussays，’but
　　inexperienceluck。’Nowartariseswhenfrommanynotionsgainedby
　　experienceoneuniversaljudgementaboutaclassofobjectsis
　　produced。FortohaveajudgementthatwhenCalliaswasillofthis
　　diseasethisdidhimgood，andsimilarlyinthecaseofSocratesand
　　inmanyindividualcases，isamatterofexperience；buttojudgethat
　　ithasdonegoodtoallpersonsofacertainconstitution，marked
　　offinoneclass，whentheywereillofthisdisease，e。g。to
　　phlegmaticorbiliouspeoplewhenburningwithfevers-thisisamatter
　　ofart。
　　Withaviewtoactionexperienceseemsinnorespectinferiorto
　　art，andmenofexperiencesucceedevenbetterthanthosewhohave
　　theorywithoutexperience。Thereasonisthatexperienceisknowledge
　　ofindividuals，artofuniversals，andactionsandproductionsareall
　　concernedwiththeindividual；forthephysiciandoesnotcureman，
　　exceptinanincidentalway，butCalliasorSocratesorsomeother
　　calledbysomesuchindividualname，whohappenstobeaman。If，
　　then，amanhasthetheorywithouttheexperience，andrecognizes
　　theuniversalbutdoesnotknowtheindividualincludedinthis，he
　　willoftenfailtocure；foritistheindividualthatistobe
　　cured。Butyetwethinkthatknowledgeandunderstandingbelongto
　　artratherthantoexperience，andwesupposeartiststobewiserthan
　　menofexperiencewhichimpliesthatWisdomdependsinallcases
　　ratheronknowledge；andthisbecausetheformerknowthecause，
　　butthelatterdonot。Formenofexperienceknowthatthethingis
　　so，butdonotknowwhy，whiletheothersknowthe’why’andthe
　　cause。Hencewethinkalsothatthemasterworkersineachcraftare
　　morehonourableandknowinatruersenseandarewiserthanthe
　　manualworkers，becausetheyknowthecausesofthethingsthatare
　　donewethinkthemanualworkersarelikecertainlifelessthings
　　whichactindeed，butactwithoutknowingwhattheydo，asfire
　　burns，-butwhilethelifelessthingsperformeachoftheirfunctions
　　byanaturaltendency，thelabourersperformthemthroughhabit；thus
　　weviewthemasbeingwisernotinvirtueofbeingabletoact，butof
　　havingthetheoryforthemselvesandknowingthecauses。Andin
　　generalitisasignofthemanwhoknowsandofthemanwhodoes
　　notknow，thattheformercanteach，andthereforewethinkartmore
　　trulyknowledgethanexperienceis；forartistscanteach，andmen
　　ofmereexperiencecannot。
　　Again，wedonotregardanyofthesensesasWisdom；yetsurely
　　thesegivethemostauthoritativeknowledgeofparticulars。Butthey
　　donottellusthe’why’ofanything-e。g。whyfireishot；theyonly
　　saythatitishot。
　　Atfirsthewhoinventedanyartwhateverthatwentbeyondthe
　　commonperceptionsofmanwasnaturallyadmiredbymen，notonly
　　becausetherewassomethingusefulintheinventions，butbecausehe
　　wasthoughtwiseandsuperiortotherest。Butasmoreartswere
　　invented，andsomeweredirectedtothenecessitiesoflife，othersto
　　recreation，theinventorsofthelatterwerenaturallyalwaysregarded
　　aswiserthantheinventorsoftheformer，becausetheirbranchesof
　　knowledgedidnotaimatutility。Hencewhenallsuchinventions
　　werealreadyestablished，thescienceswhichdonotaimatgiving
　　pleasureoratthenecessitiesoflifewerediscovered，andfirstin
　　theplaceswheremenfirstbegantohaveleisure。Thisiswhythe
　　mathematicalartswerefoundedinEgypt；fortherethepriestly
　　castewasallowedtobeatleisure。
　　WehavesaidintheEthicswhatthedifferenceisbetweenart
　　andscienceandtheotherkindredfaculties；butthepointofour
　　presentdiscussionisthis，thatallmensupposewhatiscalledWisdom
　　todealwiththefirstcausesandtheprinciplesofthings；sothat，
　　ashasbeensaidbefore，themanofexperienceisthoughttobe
　　wiserthanthepossessorsofanysense-perceptionwhatever，theartist
　　wiserthanthemenofexperience，themasterworkerthanthe
　　mechanic，andthetheoreticalkindsofknowledgetobemoreofthe
　　natureofWisdomthantheproductive。ClearlythenWisdomisknowledge
　　aboutcertainprinciplesandcauses。
　　2
　　Sinceweareseekingthisknowledge，wemustinquireofwhat
　　kindarethecausesandtheprinciples，theknowledgeofwhichis
　　Wisdom。Ifoneweretotakethenotionswehaveaboutthewiseman，
　　thismightperhapsmaketheanswermoreevident。Wesupposefirst，
　　then，thatthewisemanknowsallthings，asfaraspossible，although
　　hehasnotknowledgeofeachofthemindetail；secondly，thathe
　　whocanlearnthingsthataredifficult，andnoteasyformantoknow，
　　iswisesense-perceptioniscommontoall，andthereforeeasyand
　　nomarkofWisdom；again，thathewhoismoreexactandmore
　　capableofteachingthecausesiswiser，ineverybranchofknowledge；
　　andthatofthesciences，also，thatwhichisdesirableonitsown
　　accountandforthesakeofknowingitismoreofthenatureofWisdom
　　thanthatwhichisdesirableonaccountofitsresults，andthe
　　superiorscienceismoreofthenatureofWisdomthantheancillary；
　　forthewisemanmustnotbeorderedbutmustorder，andhemustnot
　　obeyanother，butthelesswisemustobeyhim。
　　Suchandsomanyarethenotions，then，whichwehaveaboutWisdom
　　andthewise。Nowofthesecharacteristicsthatofknowingall
　　thingsmustbelongtohimwhohasinthehighestdegreeuniversal
　　knowledge；forheknowsinasensealltheinstancesthatfallunder
　　theuniversal。Andthesethings，themostuniversal，areonthe
　　wholethehardestformentoknow；fortheyarefarthestfromthe
　　senses。Andthemostexactofthesciencesarethosewhichdealmost
　　withfirstprinciples；forthosewhichinvolvefewerprinciplesare
　　moreexactthanthosewhichinvolveadditionalprinciples，e。g。
　　arithmeticthangeometry。Butthesciencewhichinvestigatescausesis
　　alsoinstructive，inahigherdegree，forthepeoplewhoinstructus
　　arethosewhotellthecausesofeachthing。Andunderstandingand
　　knowledgepursuedfortheirownsakearefoundmostintheknowledge
　　ofthatwhichismostknowableforhewhochoosestoknowforthe
　　sakeofknowingwillchoosemostreadilythatwhichismosttruly
　　knowledge，andsuchistheknowledgeofthatwhichismost
　　knowable；andthefirstprinciplesandthecausesaremost
　　knowable；forbyreasonofthese，andfromthese，allotherthings
　　cometobeknown，andnotthesebymeansofthethingssubordinate
　　tothem。Andthesciencewhichknowstowhatendeachthingmustbe
　　doneisthemostauthoritativeofthesciences，andmoreauthoritative
　　thananyancillaryscience；andthisendisthegoodofthatthing，
　　andingeneralthesupremegoodinthewholeofnature。Judgedby
　　allthetestswehavementioned，then，thenameinquestionfallsto
　　thesamescience；thismustbeasciencethatinvestigatesthefirst
　　principlesandcauses；forthegood，i。e。theend，isoneofthe
　　causes。
　　Thatitisnotascienceofproductionisclearevenfromthe
　　historyoftheearliestphilosophers。Foritisowingtotheir
　　wonderthatmenbothnowbeginandatfirstbegantophilosophize；
　　theywonderedoriginallyattheobviousdifficulties，thenadvanced
　　littlebylittleandstateddifficultiesaboutthegreatermatters，
　　e。g。aboutthephenomenaofthemoonandthoseofthesunandofthe
　　stars，andaboutthegenesisoftheuniverse。Andamanwhoispuzzled
　　andwondersthinkshimselfignorantwhenceeventheloverofmyth
　　isinasensealoverofWisdom，forthemythiscomposedofwonders；
　　thereforesincetheyphilosophizedordertoescapefromignorance，
　　evidentlytheywerepursuingscienceinordertoknow，andnotforany
　　utilitarianend。Andthisisconfirmedbythefacts；foritwaswhen
　　almostallthenecessitiesoflifeandthethingsthatmakefor
　　comfortandrecreationhadbeensecured，thatsuchknowledgebegan
　　tobesought。Evidentlythenwedonotseekitforthesakeofany
　　otheradvantage；butasthemanisfree，wesay，whoexistsforhis
　　ownsakeandnotforanother’s，sowepursuethisastheonlyfree
　　science，foritaloneexistsforitsownsake。
　　Hencealsothepossessionofitmightbejustlyregardedasbeyond
　　humanpower；forinmanywayshumannatureisinbondage，sothat
　　accordingtoSimonides’Godalonecanhavethisprivilege’，andit
　　isunfittingthatmanshouldnotbecontenttoseektheknowledgethat
　　issuitedtohim。If，then，thereissomethinginwhatthepoets
　　say，andjealousyisnaturaltothedivinepower，itwouldprobably
　　occurinthiscaseaboveall，andallwhoexcelledinthisknowledge
　　wouldbeunfortunate。Butthedivinepowercannotbejealousnay，
　　accordingtotheproverb，’bardstellalie’，norshouldanyother
　　sciencebethoughtmorehonourablethanoneofthissort。Forthemost
　　divinescienceisalsomosthonourable；andthissciencealonemust
　　be，intwoways，mostdivine。Forthesciencewhichitwouldbemost
　　meetforGodtohaveisadivinescience，andsoisanysciencethat
　　dealswithdivineobjects；andthissciencealonehasboththese
　　qualities；for1Godisthoughttobeamongthecausesofallthings
　　andtobeafirstprinciple，and2suchascienceeitherGodalone
　　canhave，orGodaboveallothers。Allthesciences，indeed，are
　　morenecessarythanthis，butnoneisbetter。
　　Yettheacquisitionofitmustinasenseendinsomethingwhich
　　istheoppositeofouroriginalinquiries。Forallmenbegin，aswe
　　said，bywonderingthatthingsareastheyare，astheydoabout
　　self-movingmarionettes，oraboutthesolsticesorthe
　　incommensurabilityofthediagonalofasquarewiththeside；forit
　　seemswonderfultoallwhohavenotyetseenthereason，thatthereis
　　athingwhichcannotbemeasuredevenbythesmallestunit。Butwe
　　mustendinthecontraryand，accordingtotheproverb，thebetter
　　state，asisthecaseintheseinstancestoowhenmenlearnthecause；
　　forthereisnothingwhichwouldsurpriseageometersomuchasifthe
　　diagonalturnedouttobecommensurable。
　　Wehavestated，then，whatisthenatureofthescienceweare
　　searchingfor，andwhatisthemarkwhichoursearchandourwhole
　　investigationmustreach。
　　Evidentlywehavetoacquireknowledgeoftheoriginalcausesfor
　　wesayweknoweachthingonlywhenwethinkwerecognizeitsfirst
　　cause，andcausesarespokenofinfoursenses。Inoneofthesewe
　　meanthesubstance，i。e。theessenceforthe’why’isreducible
　　finallytothedefinition，andtheultimate’why’isacauseand
　　principle；inanotherthematterorsubstratum，inathirdthesource
　　ofthechange，andinafourththecauseopposedtothis，the
　　purposeandthegoodforthisistheendofallgenerationand
　　change。Wehavestudiedthesecausessufficientlyinourworkon
　　nature，butyetletuscalltoouraidthosewhohaveattackedthe
　　investigationofbeingandphilosophizedaboutrealitybeforeus。
　　Forobviouslytheytoospeakofcertainprinciplesandcauses；togo
　　overtheirviews，then，willbeofprofittothepresentinquiry，
　　forweshalleitherfindanotherkindofcause，orbemoreconvinced
　　ofthecorrectnessofthosewhichwenowmaintain。
　　Ofthefirstphilosophers，then，mostthoughttheprincipleswhich
　　wereofthenatureofmatterweretheonlyprinciplesofallthings。
　　Thatofwhichallthingsthatareconsist，thefirstfromwhichthey
　　cometobe，thelastintowhichtheyareresolvedthesubstance
　　remaining，butchanginginitsmodifications，thistheysayisthe
　　elementandthistheprincipleofthings，andthereforetheythink
　　nothingiseithergeneratedordestroyed，sincethissortofentityis
　　alwaysconserved，aswesaySocratesneithercomestobeabsolutely
　　whenhecomestobebeautifulormusical，norceasestobewhen
　　losesthesecharacteristics，becausethesubstratum，Socrates
　　himselfremains。justsotheysaynothingelsecomestobeorceases
　　tobe；fortheremustbesomeentity-eitheroneormorethan
　　one-fromwhichallotherthingscometobe，itbeingconserved。
　　Yettheydonotallagreeastothenumberandthenatureofthese
　　principles。Thales，thefounderofthistypeofphilosophy，saysthe
　　principleiswaterforwhichreasonhedeclaredthattheearth
　　restsonwater，gettingthenotionperhapsfromseeingthatthe
　　nutrimentofallthingsismoist，andthatheatitselfisgenerated
　　fromthemoistandkeptalivebyitandthatfromwhichtheycome
　　tobeisaprincipleofallthings。Hegothisnotionfromthisfact，
　　andfromthefactthattheseedsofallthingshaveamoistnature，
　　andthatwateristheoriginofthenatureofmoistthings。