byGustavSchmollerIneverystateandineveryperiod，classcontrasts，classstruggles，andclassdominationdepend，（1）uponthedegreeofunityorofdiversityinthecitizenbody；thesecitizensareformedintogroupsbyrace，occupation，distributionofincomeandproperty，intellectualandreligiousculture，etc。；（2）uponthetypeofdistinctionandoforganizationpeculiartotheclasses；（3）uponthestrengthandorganizationofthecivicgovernment，whichstandsfortheunityandthepeaceofsociety。Everygreatsocietyexhibitshistoricallyapictureofasocialdifferentiatingprocess。A
counterbalancingprocessalsogoesonbyvirtueoftheforceofcommonheredity，commonlanguage，commonmorality，commonreligion；inshort，theaggregateofculturalfactors，andfinallytheunityoflaw，ofinstitutions，ofthecivicpower。Everyactualsituationisadiagonalofthesetwoopposingseriesoffactors。
Thesmaller，moreprimitive，morerudethesocialbodiesare，theminutertheclasscontrasts。Great，ancient，civilizedpeoplesalwayshaveimportantclasscontrasts。Theygrow，inthefirstplace，withthegreateconomicadvances。Theincreaseofmoneyandentrepreneureconomyhasdonemosttointensifythesecontrastsandtoleadtoclassconflicts。Thedecisivefactorinthislatterdevelopmenthasalwaysbeenthatalongwiththegrowingeconomiccontraststherewasthedissolutionoftheolderpsycho—moralandreligiousunityofthefolk。Intheseperiodstheupperandprogressingclassesonthewholeincreasedmoreinintellectandintechnico—economicabilitythaninsocialandpoliticalvirtues。Thelowerclasseseasilylaggedbehindindevelopmentoftheintellectandofeconomico—technicalqualities。Theylostapartoftheiroldvirtues（fidelity，obedience，temperance）andtheydidnotatoncegainasacompensationincreaseofotherhigherqualities。Therecoveryofunifyingsupremeidealsofmoralityandofsocietaryconstitutionhasbeendifficultinsuchtimesofthedissolutionoftheoldsocietaryconstitutionandofreligiousconceptions。Indeeditwasoftenwhollyimpossible，oftenpossibleonlyafterlongstrugglesandmistakenendeavors。
Accordinglythedegreeofclasscontrasts，ofclassconflicts，ofclassdomination，variesgreatlyindifferentpeoples。Wemustnowgetat，first，anunderstandingofthenatureofclassconflicts；second，ofthenatureofclassdominance；third，oftheopposinglegalandconstitutionaldevelopment，aswellasoftheadjustmentoftheclassconflicts：
a）Wherevertherearedifferentclasses，theyhaveontheonehandvarious，distinct，evencontradictoryinterests；butontheotherhandtheyalsohavecommoninterests。Theformerordivergentinterestsarepredominantlyofanexternal，practical，andeconomicsort；theyaimatimmediateends。
Thelatter，orcommoninterests，areofamoreidealandspiritualsort。
Theyrefertothetotalpurposesofsocietyandstateandtothefuture。
Toaconsiderabledegreetheformerareunorganized，oronlylooselyorganized。
Atanyratetheyhaveacompactorganizationonlyunderparticularcircumstances。
Thelatter，orcommoninterests，havealsoalooseorganizationofcustomsandmorality；butinstateandchurch，inlawandinstitutions，theyhavealwaysacertainfirmlyjointedorganizationofforce，which，tobesure，possessesatdifferenttimesverydifferentdegreesofpower。Themorestronglythecommonfeelingsandthegreatnationalpurposesemerge，thefirmerthecivicorganizationofpowereventuallybecomes，themorewilltheparticularizedclassinterestsintimebeforcedtosubordinate，co—ordinate，andadjustthemselvestooneanother。Inthelargerstates，withpronouncedclassstructure，however，thesespecialinterestsinturnwillalwaysoccasionallyassertthemselves，andrightfully，forprogressresultsonlyfromcertainfrictionsandtrialsofstrength。Fromthesethevictoryofthebetterisatlastgained。Thewholeinteriordevelopmentthusrestsupontherelationsoftension，uponthestrugglesandpeacetreatiesofthesocialclasses，uponthecraftandthecircumspectionofthegovernment，upontheskillandpowerofitsleadingmindsinarrangingtheirpeaceagreementsandinwinningthevictoryforthetotalinterestovertheseparateclassinterests。
Accordinglythehistoryoffolk—economy，ofsociety，andofthestatefallsintoepochsofsocialpeaceandothersofsocialdisturbance。Evenintheformer，classantithesesarenotlacking。Theyare，however，eitherlatent，whollycontrolledbycommonfeelings，interests，andorganizations，oraftercertainstrugglestheyhavewithdrawnfromprominence，becausecertainlegalprinciplesandinstitutionshavefurnishedabasisforsuppressionorconciliation；thatisforarrivingatatolerablepointofequilibrium。
Especiallyintimesoflongindustrialandtechnicalstabilitywillsuchapeacefulconditionoccur。Thefeelingsandrelationshipsofclasseswillhaveadjustedthemselvestoagivendistributionofpower，ofcallingsandofpossessions，andtoacertaincivicandlegalorder。Thesocialfrictionsarereducedtoasmalltotal。Sofarasthereisclassdominanceatall，itismoreorlessrecognizedasrightfulbyall。
Contrastedwiththeseperiodsarethoseofsocialconflict。Theyalwaysoccurifthedivisionofeconomicorotherlaborismodified，ifnewupperclassesareformedinthecourseoftechnical，intellectual，orotherprogress，ifexistingornewlowerormiddleclassesarethreatenedwithdestructionorwithachangefortheworseintheircondition。Thentheremusttakeplageastruggleofclasses，notmerelyofindividuals。Itisanincidentoftheuniversalstriving/orpowerandcontrol。Itisprecipitatedbythenewconditionsoflife。Itmaylastalongerorashortertime。Itmayleadtoreformsorrevolutions。Itmaystartthedestructionofthestatesandthepeoplesconcerned。Oritmayendwithsomesortofequilibrium，withapacifiedsocialcondition。
Thestruggleswillalwayshavereferencetothreepoints：（1）totheconstitutionallaw，tothefillingofcivicoffices，totheappointmentorchoiceofofficials，choiceofgeneralorlocalofficers，。totherightsoforganization，ofassemblyorofthepress，toorganizationofthearmyandofthecourts，tothepositionofchurchandschool，totheremovalofadministrativeabuses；（2）toclassandfamilylawinthestrictsense，toclassprivilegesandtheirabolition，and（3）tothedistributionofincomeasaffectedontheonehandbytheplayoffreeforcesinthemarket，andontheotherhandbylegalmoldingofeconomiclife。Bothofthesefactorsareaffectedbytheexistingdistributionofpower，inconnectionwiththecontemporarymoralityandcustoms。Chiefly，however，itisthelawandthegreatinstitutionswhichfavororembarrassthepositionoftheparticularclassesintheirstruggleforeconomicadvantage，andwhichaidorretardtheiraccesstoprofitandproperty。Theentirelegalboundarybetweencommonandprivateproperty，betweencommonandprivatethrift，isdecisiveforthefavoringoftheupperorthelowerclasses。Thehighereconomicclasseshavealwaysunderstoodmoreorlesshowtodevelopcustomsandlawsintheirfavor，howtherebytoincreasetheirincomesandtheirproperty，howtogivethemselvesanadvantageincommercialintercourse。Themiddleclasseshavetoacertainextentattemptedthesamething，asopposedtotheupperclasses。Theirsuccesshasbeenvariable。Thelowerclasseshavealwaysbeenmostunfavorablysituatedforthatsortofinfluence，butcustomandlawhavesoughttoprotectthem，andeveryintelligentstategovernmenthashadthesamepurpose。
Wherevertheself—consciousnessoftheseclassesawoke，wherevertheircultureandworkingefficiencygrew，wherevertheycouldformorganizations，undersuchcircumstances，likethemiddleclass，。theyhavestrivenforlighteningoftheirburdens，forbettermeansofgettingaliving，foreasierlaborconditions，forhigherwages，orevenforequaldistributionofpropertyandincome。Whatinamoreremotetimeeveryoneheldtobeproperandtolerableinalltheserespectsappearedtoamorerefinedsenseofjusticehardandintolerable。Accordingly，itwasinpartthisactualunequaldistributionofgoods，inpartthegrowingopinionaboutthesame，thateveragain，aftertemporaryrest，summonedthesocialclassesintothelistsforstruggleoverchangeandimprovement。Inearliertimestheissuewasjoineddirectly。Theupperclassesretainedthelion’sshareofconqueredlands，ofcapturedcattle，ofslavesorserfs，withoutstoppingforjustification。Ontheotherhand，thelowerclasses，whentemporarilysuccessful，carriedoutlargeconfiscationsofthepropertyoftherich，newapportionmentsofthesoil，restrictionsuponquantitiesoflandandcattletobeownedbythewell—to—do，releasefromdebtorreductions，giftsoffarmsinthecolonies，orevenfreeentrancetothetheaterortotherepresentativeassembly，distributionofbread，andsimilarmeasures。Themorecomplexafolk—economyis，andthemoreitisnecessarytodealwithverydiverseclasses，withanolddivisionoflaborandclassstructure，thelessisittobeexpectedthatsuchdirectattacks，suchbunglingattemptsatreformationandredistribution，willsucceed。Tobesure，someoftheseradicalattemptshaveoccurredinrecenttimes。Legalemancipationofslavesandserfs，from1500to1860，theabolitionofburdensuponthepeasantry，thecreationofafreepeasantclassandfreelandedproperty，wereextraordinarilyradicalmeasures。Theintroductionofcraftfreedom，indispensableforthenewmoldingoffolk—economy，wasadeepslashintotheexistinglegalorderofindustriallife。Itimmediatelyraisedthehigherclassofentrepreneurs，justasitdepressedtheartisansandthelaboringclass。Thestruggleovertaxesandothercivicburdenshasbeenattheforefrontinallsocialconflicts，andeveryprofoundchange（such，forexample，asanewrapidlyprogressiveincomeandinheritancetax）maygreatlyencourageoneclasswhileitseverelyembarrassesanother。
Onthewhole，however，evenradicalism，therightwingofthesocialdemocracy，hastodaybecomerelativelyreasonable。Itsstandpointisthatnofairlyearnedpropertyrightsshouldbeimpaired，thatmeansofproductionshouldbechangedintocollectivepropertyonlywithpropercompensation。Atthesametimethemoremoderateoftheradicalsnomoredemandequalityofallwagesandincomesthantheydemandabolitionofallprivateproperty。
Gradualreconstruction，workingtowardmoreequitablefutureadjustmentofthesocialorganism，arebecomingmoreandmorethepasswords，evenamongtheradicals。Theviolentrevolutionarymovementisofcoursenotsatisfiedwiththisprogram。Thequestioniswhetheramoreviolentprogramcanberestrained。Weshahreturntothatquestion。
b）Alltheclassconflictsappeartobetheconsequenceofthatwhichweareaccustomedtocall"classdominance。"Theconceptshouldbedefined。
Linguisticusageinthiscaseisoftwosorts，theonelessinclusive，theothermoreinclusive。Intheformercaseweunderstandbyclass—dominancethesocialdependencyrelationswhichresultfromthecustomaryindustrialconnectionsbetweentheupperandthelowerclasses，betweenmastersandslaves，betweenentrepreneursandlaborers，betweencreditorsanddebtors，betweenthestrongmerchantsandtheweakbuyers。Wehavetreatedtheserelationsinthewholeoftheprecedingbook。Theyrestuponthegroundofprivatelaw。Theyhavetheirorigininthespiritual，technical，economiccultureofthepersonsconcerned。Theyexerttheirshareamongthesocialinfluencesofthesituationaccordingasmorality，law，institutions，orcivicconstitutionsaredeveloped。Thehighertheselatterhaveascended，theeasieritwillalwaysbetorestrictortoabolishtheworstabusesincidenttoclassdominance。Inthesecondcaseweunderstandbyclassdominance（andthissecondsenseismorecorrect：wearenowusingthephraseinthisway）thatdependenceoftheweakclassuponthestrongwhichcomesaboutfromthefactthatthelatterinfluencesandcontrolsthecivicpower，thatthestrongclassexploitsnotmerelyitseconomicsuperiority，butthepoliticalpower，thesovereignrightsofthestate，themachineryofgovernment，foritsspecialpurposes，foritseconomicadvantage。Whereveranythingofthissortisthecasetheabove—picturedabusesofprivaterightswillbethemoreexcessive。Inthissensealsoweareconcerned，undertheconceptofclassdominance，withthemoreextensive，themoresignificant，thequasi—constitutional，conceptofclassdominance。Thisoccursnotmerelyasaquasi—natural，neverentirelyalterable，phenomenon，butalwaysatthesametimeasadegeneration，asafacttobefoughtwithallthemeansavailable。Foritisapartoftheessentialideaofthesovereignpowerthatitistobeusedintheinterestofthewholesociety，notinthespecialinterestofaclass。
Toapproachananswertothequestion，Whenandwherehasaclassdominanceinthissenseoccurred，andwhatgradationsmayithave？wemustreferbacktoourdiscussioninVol。I，§；101（"TheOriginandNatureoftheDifferentRegionalCorporateBodies"）andtotheintroductiontothepresentchapter（§；245，RelationsbetweenStateandSocialClassesinGeneral）。
Ifwedisregardveryminutecommunities，consistingofmemberswhoarealmostentirelyequal，andwhichconsequentlyareabletogovernthemselvesdemocraticallybymeansofrotatingpresidingofficers，andanassemblyofallthecitizens，notcallingintorequisitionacompulsoryforceormachinery；withtheseexceptionsallstatesofanysizehavedevelopedadominatingcivicpowerwithfar—reachingsovereignrights，withstrongcompulsoryforce，becausepowerisessentialtothenatureofthestate，becausethedomesticgovernmentofthestatecannotpossiblybeonahighlevelwithoutparamountpowerinthehandsoftheauthorities，becausethestatecannotbestrongagainstexternalenemieswithoutthispower。
Thispowercanneverrestmerelyuponindividualpersons，andnomorecanitbeexerciseddirectlybythetotalityofthousandsandmillionsofcitizens。
Inordertobecapableofdecisionandactionitneedsanorganizationoffunctionaries，ofrulersandsubjects，controllersandcontrolled。Theremustbegroupsoffighters，ofpriests，ofnoblefamilies，ofofficials。
Thecompactorganizationoftheseunderacentralheadisthesecretoftheexistenceofthepowerofthestate。Withachieforkingsupportedbyanaristocracy，asenate，wehavethebeginningsofallthehighercivicconstitutionsofancienttimes。Themassofthefolk，originallyparticipatinginthenationalassemblies，sinkmoreandmore，evenwhileretainingcertainrights，totheconditionofmostlypassivemembersofthecivicbody。Slavesandserfs，moreover，havenovoiceatall。Thekings，whoseexcessesandabuses’weremuchmoreinevidencethantheirsalutaryfunctions，were，aswehaveseen，setasidebythearistocracyinGreeceandRome。Thearistocracy，freedfromcontrolbyasuperiorauthority，easilyfelleventuallyintothesameabuses，andclassdominanceinthestrictsensebegan。Theattemptwasmadetoreformtheabusesbyextensionofcivilfightstolargernumbers——asinRomebytheadmissionoftheruralplebeians。Therewassuccessalongthislinewhen，asinthatcase，theofficialandgovernmentallawsweredefiniteandcomprehensive，andwhentheenfranchisedhadgonethroughaspecialdisciplineinthedischargeofpublicduties。Ifthiswasnotthecase，therewasdangerthatthemasseswouldprevailwithselfish，short—sighted，impossibledemandsdictatedbyclassinterests。Revolutionanddestructionfollowed。Adictatorshipthenbecametheonlyrecourse。
Thishasbeentheterminationofalmostallthegreatsocialrevolutionsandcivilwars。
c）Accordinglythehistoryofsocialclassesandofconstitutionsinthelargerandmorecomplexstatesseemstorunthroughthefollowingstages：
（1）Establishmentofadefinitecivicpower，whichrestsexclusivelyupontheprerogativesofgivenmonarchicaloraristocraticgroups。Thesenarrowgroupsatfirstgovernwellandjustify。Intime，however，theyfallintoabusesofpower，andclassdominancebegins。（2）Theattemptismadetoadmitwidergroupstopower，electoralandlegislativesuffrage，andeligibilitytooffice。Atlastthewholedemocraticmassisthusequalized。Atfirst，ifitisdonewiselyandtemperately，thisleadstogoodresults，particularlysolongastheadministrationremainsinthehandsofafirm，stronggovernment。
Ifthemovementgoestoofar，ifpoliticalincompetentsgaintoogreatinfluence，ifthedemocraticmassesacquiremerelymomentaryadvantageandprofit，therefollows，insteadoftheolderaristocraticclasscontrol，thestillworsedemocraticclasscontrol。Allfirm，securecivicleadershipthenceasesandwithitalljustgovernment。（3）Thiscanbepreventedonlyifimprovementandstrengtheningofthecivicapparatuskeepspaceinfreestateswiththeincreasinginfluencesofegoisticclassinterests。
Itisnecessaryalsothatthecivicpowershallremainincleanhandsandshallcontinuetobestrongerthanthepowerandinfluenceoftheclasses。
Thisispossiblethroughprogressivedevelopmentofamoreandmorepreciseandjustconstitutionalandadministrativelaw，bytheeducationofcivicofficialsofanon—partisantypeinpositionssuperiortoclasscontrol，andwhofromhighesttolowestgovernstateandsocietyinharmoniousco—operation。
Wearethusinthepresenceoftheperceptionthatontheonehandtherehasbeennofolkofhighcivilizationwithoutcertainonsetsandinclinationstowardclasscontrol；indeed，thatallextensionsofcivilrightsinthefirstinstanceincreasethedangersofsuchclasscontrol；that，ontheotherhand，everyfolkofhighcivilizationintheconstitutionalstatehassoughtandtoacertaindegreehasfoundinthedevelopmentofthesenseoflawandoflegalcontrolacounterbalanceagainstclassdominanceandabuseofcivicpower。
Theevolutionofthemoralandlegaljudgmentofcountlessgenerationsworkedtowardtheendthatcertainprinciplesoflawbecamethesupremepowerintheworld。Themostbarbarouschiefwhoadministeredlaw，orwhoprofessedtodojustice，tannedtoactintheinterestofall。Itbecamemoreandmorenecessaryforallrulerstoconsiderthetotalinterests，andtorestraintheirclassegoism。Inspiteofallretrogressions，ofallnewclassabuses，historyexhibitsprogress，whichrestsontheonehandupongrowinginsightintopoliticalandsocialinterdependences，uponincreasingdevelopmentofmorerefinedsenseofjusticeintherulingandtheruledclasses，andontheotherhanduponthedevelopmentofthelegalinstitutionsandtheconstitutionalformswhichhinderclassabuses，and，inspiteofthosewhichcannotbeprevented，makejustgovernmenteasierthanformerly，andwhichconsequentlytendtoassuretoallclassestheirlegitimateinfluence，whileturningthemasteryovertonosingleclass。
Ofcoursethisgoalwillneverbefullyreached。Thegreatpoliticalmovementshoweverareincessantlymakinginthatdirection。
TheGreekidealsofthestate，theRomanadministrativelawinthetimeofthefreestate，thesevereimperiumoftheCaesars，thelawoftheMiddleAgeshumanizedbyChristianity，themediaevalchurchwithitsinstitutions，theincipientmoderncivicpower，enlighteneddespotism，withitsstrugglesagainstthecontrolofsocietybyfeudallystratifiedclasses，withitsendeavorstoestablishagoodjudicialsystem，tomaintainuprightadministration，thelaterconstitutionalorganizations，withtheirguarantiesofrights，theattemptsofmoderndemocraciestoassureamorefavorablepositionforthelowerclasses——allthesearestationsalongthedifficult，thornypathofhumanityinitsprogresstowardagreatandfirmgovernment，withitsminimumofclassabuses。
Itwasthehistoricalro1eofCaesarismandofhereditarymonarchytoestablishthestrong，immovablecivicauthoritiessupportedbypolicepower，civilofficials，andthemilitaryorganization。Itwasthero1eoftheconstitutionalanddemocratico—republicanmovementstofightdownagaintheabusesofthesepowers。Inthedegreeinwhichitprovespossibletohavefirm，permanentcivicauthoritiesalsoinaistocraticanddemocraticrepublics，andparticularlysuchauthoritieswithoutclassdomination，monarchyasaformofthestatewillperhapsretire。Uptothepresenttimethisdoesnotseemprobable。Thegreatrepublicsoftoday，andtheweakmonarchieswhichareclosetorepublicsinessentials，manifesteitherplutocraticorfeudalclassdominance，oracivicformwhichinclinestowardanautocracyofpopularstatesmenanddictators。TheEuropeanstates，accordingly，whichcombinewithasecurehereditarymonarchyafreeconstitutionappearforthetimebeingstilltoaffordthebestguarantyagainsttoogreatabusesbyclasses。
Thetaskofsuchmodernmonarchieswillbelightenedprincipallybythefollowingcircumstances：（1）bythepoliticaldivisionoflabor，whichhascreatedparticularstrataandclasses，whichdevotetheworkoftheirlivestotheserviceofthestateandtopublicinterests；（3）bytheincreasingpowerofpublicopinion；（3）bythefactthatthesocialclassesoftoday，whilemorestronglyorganizedandinconflictsmoreselfishthanformerly，andinthegreatEuropeanstatesmorewidelydividedthanever，stillarerestrainedbythelawfromirresponsibleconduct，andtheyholdoneanotherreciprocallyincheck。
Evenintheecclesiasticalstatestherelativelygoodgovernmentresteduponthefactofaspecialtrainingofitsrulersfortheirfunctions。
Toacertainextentthiswasalsothecaseinthemilitaryaristocracy。
Plato’sideaofagovernmentbyphilosophersspringsfromthesamethought。
Thisthoughthasbeenthusfarveryimperfectlycarriedoutunderthemonarchicalregimeintheconstructionofthecivilservice。ItwasonlyinrecentcenturiesthatinthemajorityofEuropeanstatesagroupofjurists，civilofficials，militaryofficers，clergy，scholarshasbeencreated，drawnoftenfromallstrataofsociety，yetallaliketrainedattheuniversities，securedintheireconomicpositionspartlybytheirownproperty，partlybysalaries，anddevotinglifeentirelytopublicaffairs。Sometimestheseverygroupshavedegeneratedintonarrowlyselfishandself—centeredclasses。
ThiswasespeciallythecasewherethepublicpowerandtheparticipationoftheothercitizensinpublicHiedidnotpreventtheabusesofthebureaucracy。
Butonthewholethissortofdivisionoflabor，thistrainingoftherulers，withthetraditionsandstandardsofproprietywhichincidentallydeveloped，havegiventothecivicmachineryastrengthandacompactorganizationwhichtheyhaveneverhadbefore，andontheotherhandhavemadethemabulwarkagainstclassdominationsuchasneverexistedinancientormediaevalstates。
Thesegroupsarethebearersofanidealconceptionofthestateandofitseconomics。Evensofarastheyareoffeudalaristocraticorofbourgeoisorigin，theirhorizonisnolongerthatoftheireconomicclass。
Theyunderstandtheinterestsofthemiddleandlowerclasseswithwhomtheycomeintodailycontactintransactingthebusinessoftheirrespectivepositions。Inthisrespecttheyaremuchbroaderthantheupperstrataofbusinessmen。Togetherwiththelawyers，physicians，artists，journalists，theyconstituteasortofneutralzone，incontrastwiththereallystrugglingclasses。Besidesallthiswehavetodaythepublicopinion，insofarasitisfree，notboughtupbytherulingclasses。
Alongwiththeentirephenomenonofthecleavageofclassesandofpassionateagitationforclassinterests，ourmodernliteratureandthepress，muchastheyhavealsoincertaincasesservedclassinterestsfirstandforemost，havestillbeenfactorsindevelopingasoundpublicopinion，thecardinalfunctionofwhichistobeanemotionalreactionagainstgovernmentalandclassabuses。Oftenaspublicopinionispettyandshortsightedandobstructiveofreasonablereforms，yetatlastitalwaysflowsintostrongaccordwiththenobleandthegood，withrightandtruth。Everyefficientandwisegovernmenthasatlastthesupportofpublicopinion，wheneveritopposesclassegoismandclassabuses。
Governmentcandothistheeasiertodaybecausemodernsocietyingreatstatesisneverdividedmerelyintotwoclasses，acontrollingandacontrolled，butintoawholeseriesofclasseswithverydifferentinterests。Tobesure，eveninthosesimpleconditionsinwhichonlytwoclasseswereinquestion，aprincelyauthoritythatwassureofitsaimshastimeandagainmadecommoncausewiththefolkagainstanaristocracyhostiletothemonarchy，andhasstrengtheneditspositionbythepolicy。Inancienttimesallkinglypowerrestedonthisbasis，asinlatertimestheenlighteneddespotismsortheCaesarismofCromwellandofNapoleon。Particularlywasandisthistrueofthepolicy"divideandconquer，"whereveraruraloranurbanclassofproperty—owners，orland—ownersandmanufacturersheldeachotherincheck，whereverinadditiontotheseanaristocracyofmoneyoperatorspursuedindependentinterests，whereveraninfluentialstratumofliberalcallingshadbeenformed，which，withlittleornoproperty，constitutedacardinalfactorofgovernmentandofpublicopinion，andwhichvotednowwiththehigherpropertiedclasses，nowwiththelowerandnon—propertied。
Bythesideofthearistocraticinfluentialclassesthereistodayinmostcountriesalargemiddleclassofpeasants，farmers，smallartisans，andtraders，readytoantagonizetheclassegoismoftheupperandlowerclasses。
Allsortsofleaguesoflaborerswithlandedproprietors，withthebourgeoisie，withthemiddleclass，occurtoday。Thetalentedrepresentativeofapurelysocialisticconceptionofthehistoryofclasses，Loria，admitsthis；andhemakesittheexplanationofmostofthesocialadvancesthathavethusfaroccurred。IftheEnglishTorieswerethedecisivefactorsincarryingthroughtheEnglishlegislationforprotectionoflaborers，andi/BismarcktradedwithLassalle，andoffereduniversalsuffrageashisplayagainstthebourgeoisie，thesethingsareweightyevidencesoftheeffectivenessofsuchcombinationsofdifferentclassinterestsandoftheirpowertoovercomeopposingclassinterests。
d）Webelievethatwemaythusprovethatnecessaryinternalcausesofcivicdevelopmentcanandwillprogressivelylimitclassdominance。
Wehavenottherewithprovedthatclassstruggleswilldisappear。Wemayhopeneverthelessthatthetypesoftheirmanifestationandthewaysinwhichtheywillbesettledwillbecomebetter，fairer，andmorereasonable。
Themoreinchoatelawandstatewereearlier，themoreeasilydidsocialconflictsleadatoncetoextremes，touprising，torevolution，toviolence，towholesaleexecutions，togreatconfiscations。Inantiquitywholecenturieswerefilledwithsuchoccurrences。Inmodernhistorytheyhaveatleastbeenlessfrequent。Itisworthwhiletoaddaremarkaboutthecauseswhichledtothedecisionintherespectiveclassconflictsandaboutthewayinwhichtheadjustmentwasmade，whetherbyrevolutionorbyreform。
Ofcoursethemostimportantmatterisalwaysthestrengthandpowerofthegovernment，thedegreeofitsinsightandjustice；thenthestrengthandorganizationofthoseclasseswhichdefendtheoldandofthosewhichpromotethenew。Inthisviewtheforegroundisoccupiedbythelegalsituationwithrespecttotheorganizationofclasses，andbythepossibilityofthepsychicaldevelopmentofastrongclassconsciousness（cf。Vol。I，§；§；135—36）。Ashasbeenpointedout，inancienttimestheupperclassesaloneeasilyformedcompactorganizations，whiletodaythelowerclassesareoftenmorestronglyorganized。Alongwiththetypeandstrengthoftheorganizationofclassesandparties，muchdependsalsoupontheentirepubliclawsituation，uponitsrigidityorflexibility，uponthedegreesofpermittedpublicdiscussionofabuses，uponthepossibilityofwinningovertothesideofreformsthecivicorgans，theresponsiblepopularassembliesorparliaments。Themoreflexiblepublicopinionhasbecomebymeansofmodernconstitutions，themoreisitpossibletoavoidexplosions。
Yetthesehavealwaysoccasionallyoccurred。Stillmorefrequentlyhavetheybeenstampedout。Usurpershavealsosucceededbymeansofbloodshed。
Bynomeanswastheunsuccessfulpartyalwayswrong，northesuccessfulpartyalwaysright。0nlytooeasilyhaveaccidentalcircumstances，lackofjudgmentandoftactonthegovernmentalside，clevernessorunscrupulousnessintherevolutionaryleaderstheinterventionofforeignpowers，giventoclassatemporaryvictory，whichaffordednoguarantyofpermanence。
Consequentlytherefollowedtheeasysequenceofreactionafterrevolution，asforexampleinGreece，Rome，andthemediaevalcities。Theoutcomemayeasilybeachainofupheavals，alongsequenceoftroubledperiods。Undersuchcircumstancesthelowerclassesverylikelyfallintoworseconditionsthanbefore。Government，eventhemostarbitrary，isbetterthanperpetualanarchy。Hence，inearliertimes，andoccasionallyevennow，foreigndominationandmilitarydictatorshipsareamongtheoutcomeofclassconflicts。
Allreasonablepeoplehavethereforeconstantlydemandedreforms，buthavecondemnedrevolutions。Antiquityhadsuccessfulsocialreforms，likethatofSolon，andthoseofRomebetweenthefifthandthethirdcenturiesbeforeChrist。Butthepassionsofthemasses，thepressureofsocialwrong，haveeverandagainledtorevolutionaryprogramssupportedeitherbytheupperorthelowerclasses。Thisisinspiteofthefactthatrevolutionisalwaysthemostprecariousofallgamesofchance。Withallourcondemnationofrevolution，andwithalloureffortstopreventit，wemaynotforgetthis，viz。，thattheformallawisoftendubious；frequentlytherealissueisbetweenahigherreallawandaworm—eatenformallaw。Evensuccessfulrevolutionsmayoperateuponsubsequenttimesanduponotherstatesassalutary。influences。Andincasefar—sightedandableleaderssucceedearlyincheckingthedisorderandinestablishingbetterconditions，thelaterworldhasalwaysacclaimedthem。Thenewcannotalwayssucceedbythevictoriesofpeace。
Nevertheless，wemayhopetoday，andatalleventsweshouldwish，thatfreediscussion——publicity——willsufficetoaccomplishinapeacefulwayeventhegreatreforms；thatitwillnotbelefttoviolenceandterrorismtoachievethem；thataresponsiblegovernmentwillbewonovertothem，willestablishthembylegalmeans，andwillthusgivethemtheguarantyofpermanence。Inthiswayaloneisittobehopedthatchangeswhicharegenuinelysocialwillgainaplaceinourinstitutions，changeswhichcorrespondwiththepersonal，psycho—moralqualitiesofthedifferentclasses，andnewandbetterrightswhichshowthatonlythoseclasseswillgainnewandbetterrightswhichshowthemselvestobethethemselvestobethebearersofprogress，theriseofwhichcoincideswiththetotalinterestofthestate。
Wemaysaythateveninthepastnoclasswaspermanentlyelevatedwhichdidnotonthewholebenefitatthesametimestateandfolkthrift；
noclassfelltoalowerplaneunlessitforgotitsdutytowardthewhole，andretrogradedinqualitiesandcapacities，inpoliticaloreconomicvirtues。
Wheneveramiddleisthreatened，itwillmaintainitselfonlywhenitregeneratesitselfeconomicallyandspiritually，whenitsexistenceandactivityarestillsalutaryforthegeneraldevelopment。Nolowerclasscanpermanentlyraiseitssociallevelbymerelyusingclubs，bymerelystirringuphatredandsuspiciontowardtheupperclasses，bymerelychasingunattainableUtopias。Itcanwingreaterpoliticalrightsandgreaterincomeonlywhenitadvancestechnically，economically，andmorally，whenitprovesitselftobeabearerofthetotalprogress，whenitdevelopswithinitselfobedienceanddisciplineandsubordinatesitselftocompetent，temperateleaders，andnotmerelytodemagogueswhoareinstigatorsofrevolution。
Classabusesandclassdominancewillneverwhollydisappear。RenanoncesaidthattheJewishspirithasworkedinuniversalhistoryasthebearerofsocialjustice，butiteverywhereseekstodestroyeveryfixedpowerfulgovernment，because，takinghumanbeingsastheyare，suchagovernmentisunthinkablewithoutcertainsocialabuses。Thereisatruthin。this。
Thespiritofsocialjusticehastoarrangecompromiseswithpowerfulgovernments，andinthelastresortitdoesthisinsuchawaythatextremedemocracyendsatlastwithtyrantsandCaesarism。
Forpeoplesinourstageofcivilizationtheimmediateconcernisthehopethatgreatstatesmen，whoarecapableofgoverningand。elevatingtheirstates，willatthesametimetakeinhandsocialreform，andcarryitthroughwithastronghandbutinapeacefulway。WhileHardenburgwasmakingsuchanattemptNiebuhroncewrotetohim："Youaretreadingthetreacherouspathalongwhichyouwillbeattackedbybothreactionandrevolutionaryradicalism。"Tobesure，everysuchpathofsocialreformisthreatenedinthisway。Thegreaterthemeritifitleadstothegoal。
Itmaycomeaboutwithoutviolence，neverwithoutstrengthandboldness。
Thestrengthmaytodaybegainedbypopularityanddemocratictendencies，butmoreprobablyamongusGermansbyattachmenttothegreattraditionsofthemonarchy。