§；1878。Thereisagooddealofloosereasoningonthe
subjectofthe
libertyofthepress，asifitsinviolabilitywereconstitutionallysuch，
that，likethekingofEngland，itcoulddonowrong，andwasfreefrom
everyinquiry，andaffordedaperfectsanctuaryforeveryabuse；that，in
short，itimpliedadespoticsovereigntytodoeverysortofwrong，without
theslightestaccountabilitytoprivateorpublicjustice。Suchanotion
istooextravaganttobeheldbyanysoundconstitutionallawyer，with
regardtotherightsanddutiesbelongingtogovernmentsgenerally，orto
thestategov—
_________________________________
1SeeComyn’sDig。Parliament，G。9。
736CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
ernmentsinparticular。Ifitwereadmittedtobecorrect，itmightbe
justlyaffirmed，thatthelibertyofthepresswasincompatiblewiththe
permanentexistenceofanyfreegovernment。Mr。JusticeBlackstonehas
remarked，thatthelibertyofthepress，properlyunderstood，isessential
tothenatureofafreestate；but，thatthisconsistsinlaying，no
previousrestraintsuponpublications，andnotinfreedomfromcensurefor
criminalmatter，whenpublished。Everyfreemanhasanundoubtedrightto
laywhatsentimentshepleasesbeforethepublic；toforbidthisisto
destroythefreedomofthepress。But，ifhepublisheswhatisimproper，
mischievous，orillegal，hemusttaketheconsequencesofhisowntemerity。
Tosubjectthepresstotherestrictivepowerofalicenser，aswas
formerlydonebefore，andsincetherevolutionof1688，istosubjectall
freedomofsentimenttotheprejudicesofoneman，andmakehimthe
arbitraryandinfalliblejudgeofallcontrovertedpointsinlearning，
religion，andgovernment。Buttopunishanydangerousoroffensive
writings，which，whenpublished，shall，onafairandimpartialtrial，be
adjudgedofapernicioustendency，isnecessaryforthepreservationof
peaceand。goodorder，ofgovernmentandreligion，theonlysolid
foundationsofcivilliberty。Thus，thewillofindividualsisstillleft
free；theabuseonlyofthatfreewillistheobjectoflegalpunishment。
Neitherisanyrestraintherebylaiduponfreedomofthoughtorinquiry；
libertyofprivatesentimentisstillleft；thedisseminating，ormaking
publicofbadsentiments，destructiveoftheendsofsociety，isthecrime，
whichsocietycorrects。Amanmaybeallowedtokeeppoisonsinhis
closet；butnotpubliclytovendthemascordials。Andaftersome
additionalreflections，heconcludeswiththismemorable
CH。XLIV。]LIBERTYOFTHEPRESS。737
sentence："Sotruewillitbefound，thattocensurethelicentiousness，is
tomaintainthelibertyofthepress。"1
§；1879。DeLolmestatesthesameviewofthesubject；and，
indeed，the
libertyofthepress，asunderstoodbyallEngland，istherighttopublish
withoutanypreviousrestraint，orlicense；so，thatneitherthecourtsof
justice，norotherpersons，areauthorizedtotakenoticeofwritings
intendedforthepress；butareconfinedtothose，whichareprinted。And，
insuchcases，iftheircharacterisquestioned，whethertheyarelawful，
orlibellous，istobetriedbyajury，accordingtodueproceedingsat
law。2ThenoblestpatriotsofEngland，andthemostdistinguishedfriends
ofliberty，bothinparliament，andatthebar，havenevercontendedfora
totalexemptionfromresponsibility，buthaveaskedonly，thattheguiltor
innocenceofthepublicationshouldbeascertainedbyatrialbyjury。3
_________________________________
11Black。Comm。152，153；Rexv。Burdett，4Barn。&Ald。R。95。——Mr。
JusticeBestinRexv。Burdett，4Barn。&Ald。R。95，132，said"my
opinionofthelibertyofthepressis，thateverymanoughttobe
permittedtoinstructhisfellowsubjects；thateverymanmayfearlessly
advanceguynewdoctrines，providedhedoessowithproperrespecttothe
religionandgovernmentofthecountry；thathemaypointouterrorsinthe
measuresofpublicmen；but，hemustnotimputecriminalconducttothem。
Thelibertyofthepresscannotbecarriedtothisextent，without
violatinganotherequallysacredright，therightofcharacter。Thisright
canonlybeattackedinacourtofjustice，wherethepartyattacked。hast
fairopportunityofdefendinghimself。Wherevituperationbegins，the
libertyofthepressends。"
2DeLolme，B。2，ch。12，291to297。
3SeealsoRexv。Burdett，4Barn。&Ald。95。——Thecelebratedactof
parliamentofMr。Fox，givingtherighttothejury，intrialsforlibels，
tojudgeofthewholematterofthecharge，andtoreturnageneral
verdict，didnoteffecttogofarther。ThecelebrateddefenceofMr。
Erakine，onthetrialoftheDeanofSt。Asaph，tookthesameground。Even
Junius，withhissevereandbitterassaultsuponestablishedau—
738CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII
§；1880。Itwouldseem，thataverydifferentviewofthesubject
wastaken
byalearnedAmericancommentator，thoughitisnot，perhaps，veryeasyto
ascertaintheexactextentofhisopinions。Inonepartofhis
disquisitions，heseemsbroadlytocontend，thatthesecurityofthe
freedomofthepressrequires，thatitshouldbeexempt，notonlyfrom
previousrestraintbytheexecutive，asinGreatBritain；but，from
legislativerestraintalso；andthatthisexemption，tobeeffectual，must
beanexemption，notonlyfromthepreviousinspectionoflicensers，but
fromthesubsequentpenaltyoflaws。1Inotherplaces，heseemsas
explicitlytoadmit，thatthelibertyofthepressdoesnotincludethe
righttodoinjurytothereputationofanother，ortotakefromhimthe
enjoymentofhisrightsorproperty，ortojustifyslanderandcalumnyupon
him，asaprivateorpublicman。Andyetitisadded，thatevery
individualcertainlyhasarighttospeak，orpublishhissentimentsonthe
measuresofgovernment。Todothiswithoutrestraint，
______________________________
thorityanddoctrines，stoppedhere。"Thelibertyofthepress，"said
he，"isthepalladiumofallthecivil，political，andreligiousrightsof
anEnglishman，andtherightofjuriestoreturnageneralverdictinall
caseswhatsoever，isanessentialpartofourconstitution。""Thelawsof
England，provideaseffectually，asanyhumanlawscando，forthe
protectionofthesubjectinhisreputation，aswellasinhispersonand
property。Ifthecharactersofprivatemenareinsulted，orinjured，a
doubleremedyisopentothem，byactionandbyindictment。"——"With
regardtostricturesuponthecharactersormeninoffice，andthemeasures
ofgovernment，theeaseisalittledifferent。Aconsiderablelatitude
mustbeallowedinthediscussionofpublicaffairs，orthelibertyofthe
presswillbeofnobenefittosociety。"Buthenowherecontendsforthe
righttopublishseditiouslibels；and，onthecontrary，throughhiswhole
reasoningheadmitsthedutytopunishthose，whicharereallyso。
12Tuck。Black。Comm。App。20；1Tuck。Black。Comm。App。298，299。
CH。XLIV。]LIBERTYOFTHEPRESS。739
control，orfearofpunishmentforofdoing，isthatwhichconstitutesthe
genuinefreedomofthepress。1Perhapstheapparentcontrarietyofthese
opinionsmayarisefrommixingup，inthesamedisquisitions，adiscussion
oftherightofthestategovernments，withthatofthenational
government，tointerfereincasesofthissort，whichmaystanduponvery
differentfoundations。Or，perhaps，itismeanttobecontended，thatthe
libertyofthepress，inallcases，excludespublicpunishmentforpublic
wrongs；butnotcivilredressforprivatewrongs，bycalumnyandlibels。
§；1881。Thetruemodeofconsideringthesubjectis，to
examinethecase
withreferencetoastategovernment，whoseconstitution，likethat，for
instance，ofMassachusetts，declares，that"thelibertyofthepressis
essentialtothesecurityoffreedominastate；itoughtnot，therefore，
toberestrainedinthiscommonwealth。"Whatisthetrueinterpretationof
thisclause？Doesitprohibitthelegislaturefrompassinganylaws，which
shallcontrolthelicentiousnessofthepress，oraffordadequate
protectiontoindividuals，whoseprivatecomfort，orgoodreputationsare
assailed，andviolatedbythepress？Doesitstopthelegislaturefrom
passinganylawstopunishlibelsandinflammatorypublications，theobject
ofwhichistoexciteseditionagainstthegovernment，tostirup
resistancetoitslaws，tourgeonconspiraciestodestroyit，tocreate
odiumandindignationagainstvirtuouscitizens，tocompelthemtoyieldup
theirrights，ortomakethemtheobjectsofpopular
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12Tuck。Black。Comm。App。28to30；1Tuck。Black。Comm。App。298，299。
740。CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
vengeance？WouldsuchadeclarationinVirginiaforshehas，onmorethan
oneoccasion，boldlyproclaimed，thatthelibertyofthepressoughtnotto
berestrained，prohibitthelegislaturefrompassinglawstopunishaman，
whoshouldpublish，andcirculatewritings，thedesignofwhichavowedlyis
toexcitetheslavestogeneralinsurrectionagainsttheirmasters，orto
inculcateuponthemthepolicyofsecretlypoisoning，ormurderingthem？
Inshort，isitcontended，thatthelibertyofthepressissomuchmore
valuable，thanallotherrightsinsociety，thatthepublicsafety，naythe
existenceofthegovernmentitselfistoyieldtoit？Isprivateredress
forlibelsandcalumnymoreimportant，ormorevaluable，thanthe
maintenanceofthegoodorder，peace，andsafetyofsociety？Itwouldbe
difficulttoanswerthesequestionsinfavourofthelibertyofthepress，
withoutatthesametimedeclaring，thatsuchalicentiousnessbelonged，
andcouldbelongonlytoadespotism；andwasutterlyincompatiblewiththe
principlesofafreegovernment。
§；1882。Besides：——Whatismeantbyrestraintofthe
press，oran
abridgmentofitsliberty？Iftopublishwithoutcontrol，or
responsibilitybeitsgenuinemeaning；isnotthatequallyviolatedby
allowingaprivatecompensationfordamages，asbyapublicfine？Isnota
manasmuchrestrainedfromdoingathingbythefearofheavydamages，as
bypublicpunishment？Ishenotoftenasseverelypunishedbyone，asby
theother？Surely，itcanmakenodifferenceinthecase，whatisthe
natureorextentoftherestraint，ifallrestraintisprohibited。The
legislativepowerisjustasmuchprohibitedfromonemode，asfrom
another。Anditmaybeasked，whereisthe
CH。XLIV。]LIBERTYOFTHEPRESS。741
groundfordistinguishingbetweenpublicandprivateamesnabilityforthe
wrong？Theprohibitionitselfstatesnodistinction。Itisgeneral；itis
universal。Why，then，isthedistinctionattemptedtobemade？Plainly，
becauseofthemonstrousconsequencesflowingfromsuchadoctrine。It
wouldprostrateallpersonalliberty，allprivatepeace，allenjoymentof
property，andgoodreputation。Thesearethegreatobjects，forwhich
governmentisinstituted；and，ifthelicentiousnessofthepressmust
endanger，notonly。these，butallpublicrightsandpublicliberties，is
itnotasplain，thattherightofgovernmenttopunishtheviolatorsof
themtheonlymodeofredress，whichitcanpursueflowsfromtheprimary
dutyofself—preservation？Noonecandoubttheimportance，inafree
government，ofarighttocanvasstheactsofpublicmen，andthetendency
ofpublicmeasures，tocensureboldlytheconductofrulers，andto
scrutinizecloselythepolicy，andplansofthegovernment。Thisisthe
greatsecurityofafreegovernment。Ifwewouldpreserveit，public
opinionmustbeenlightened；politicalvigilancemustbeinculcated；free，
butnotlicentious，discussionmustbeencouraged。Buttheexerciseofa
rightisessentiallydifferentfromanabuseofit。Theoneisno
legitimateinferencefromtheother。Commonsenseherepromulgatesthe
broaddoctrine，sicuteretuo，utnonalienurnlaedas；soexerciseyourown
freedom，asnottoinfringetherightsofothers，orthepublicpeaceand
safety。
§；1883。ThedoctrinelaiddownbyMr。JusticeBlackstone，
respectingthe
libertyofthepress，hasnotbeenrepudiatedasfarasisknownbyany
solemndecisionofanyofthestatecourts，inrespecttotheirown
municipaljurisprudence。Onthecontrary，
742CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
ithasbeenrepeatedlyaffirmedinseveralorthestates，notwithstanding
theirconstitutions，orlawsrecognize，that"thelibertyorthepress
oughtnottoberestrained，"ormoreemphatically，that"thelibertyofthe
pressshallbeinviolablymaintained。"Thisisespeciallytrueinregardto
Massachusetts，South—Carolina，andLouisiana。1Nay；ithasfartherbeen
held，thatthetruthofthefactsisnotalonesufficienttojustifythe
publication，unlessitisdonefromgoodmotives，andforjustifiable
purposes，or，inotherwords，onanoccasion，asuponthecanvassof
candidatesforpublicoffice，whenpublicduty，orprivaterightrequires
it。2Andtheverycircumstance，that，intheconstitutionsofseveralother
states，provisionismadeforgivingthetruthinevidence，inprosecutions
forlibelsforofficialconduct，whenthematterpublishedisproperfor
publicinformation，isexceedinglystrongtoshow，howthegenerallawis
understood。Theexceptionestablishesinallothercasestheproprietyof
thedoctrine。AndMr。ChancellorKent，uponalargesurveyofthewhole
subject，hasnotscrupledtodeclare，that"ithasbecomeaconstitutional
principleinthiscountry，thateverycitizenmayfreelyspeak，write，and
publishhissentimentsonallsubjects，beingresponsiblefortheabuseof
thatright；and，thatnolawcanrightfullybepassed，torestrain，or
abridgethefreedomofthepress。"3
§；1884。Evenwiththesereasonablelimitations，itisnot
anuncommon
opinionamongEuropeanstates
______________________
1Commonwealthv。Clap，4Mass。R。163；Commonwealthv。Blanding，3Pick。
R。304：TheStatev。Lehre，2Rep。Const。Court，809；2Kent’sComm。Lect。
24，2dedition，p。17to94。
2Ibid。
31Kent’sComm。Lect。94，2dedition，p。17to24。SeealsoRawleon
Const。ch。10，p。123，124。
CH。XLIV。]LIBERTYOFTHEPRESS。743
menofhighcharacterandextensiveattainments，thatthelibertyofthe
pressisincompatiblewiththepermanentexistenceofanyfreegovernment；
nay，ofanygovernmentatall。That，ifitbetrue，thatfreegovernments
cannotexistwithoutit，itisquiteascertain，thattheycannotexist
withit。Inshort，thatthepressisanewelementinmodernsociety；and
likely，inagreatmeasure，tocontrolthepowerofarmies，andthe
sovereigntyofthepeople。Thatitworkswithasilence，acheapness，a
suddenness，andaforce，whichmaybreakup，inaninstant，allthe
foundationsofsociety，and。movepublicopinion，likeamountaintorrent，
toageneraldesolationofeverythingwithinitsreach。
§；1885。Whetherthenationalgovernmentpossessesapower
topassanylaw，
notrestrainingthelibertyofthepress，butpunishingthelicentiousness
ofthepress，isaquestionofaverydifferentnature，uponwhichthe
commentatorabstainsfromexpressinganyopinion。In1798，Congress，
believingthattheypossessedaconstitutionalauthorityforthatpurpose，
passedanact，punishingallunlawfulcombinations，andconspiracies，to
opposethemeasuresofthegovernment，ortoimpedetheoperationofthe
laws，ortointimidateandpreventanyofficeroftheUnitedStatesfrom
undertaking，orexecutinghisduty。Thesameactfurtherprovided，fora
publicpresentation，andpunishmentbyfine，andimprisonment，ofall
persons，whoshouldwrite，print，utter，orpublishanyfalse，scandalous，
andmaliciouswriting，orwritingsagainstthegovernmentoftheUnited
States，orofeitherhouseofcongress，orofthepresident，withanintent
todefamethem，orbringthemintocontempt，ordisrepute，ortoexcite
againstthemthehatredofthegoodpeopleoftheUnitedStates；orto
excitethemtoopposeany
744CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
law，oractofthepresident，inpursuanceoflawofhis。constitutional
powers；ortoresist，oroppose，ordefeatanytaw；ortoaid，encourage，
orabetanyhostiledesignsofanyforeignnationagainsttheUnited
States。Andthesameactauthorizedthetruthtobegiveninevidenceon
anysuchprosecution；andthejury，uponthe。trial，todeterminethelaw
andthefact，asinothercases。1
§；1886。Thisactwasimmediatelyassailed，as
unconstitutional，bothin
thestatelegislatures，andthecourtsoflaw，whereprosecutionswere
pending。Itsconstitutionalitywasdeliberatelyaffirmedbythecourtsof
law；andinareportmadebyacommitteeofcongress。Itwasdeniedbya
considerablenumberofthestates；butaffirmedbyamajority。Itbecame
oneofthemostprominentpointsofattackupontheexisting
administration；andtheappealthusmadewas，probably，moresuccessful
withthepeople，andmoreconsonantwiththefeelingsofthetimes，than
anyothermadeuponthatoccasion。Theact，beinglimitedtoashort
period，expiredbyitsownlimitation，inMarch，1801；andhasneverbeen
renewed。Ithascontinued，downtothisveryday，tobeathemeof
reproachwithmanyofthose，whohavesincesucceededtopower。2
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1Actof14thJuly，1798，ch。91。
2Thelearnedreaderwillfindthesubjectdiscussedatlargeinmanyof
thepamphletsofthatday，andespeciallyintheVirginiaReport。，and。
ResolutionsoftheVirginiaLegislature，inDecember，1798，andJanuary，
1800；intheReportofaCommitteeofcongressontheAlienand，Sedition
laws，onthe25thofFebruary，1799；intheResolutionsofthelegislatures
ofMassachusettsandKentucky，in1799；inBayard’sSpeechontheJudiciary
act，in1802；inAddison’schargestothegrandjury，inPennsylvania，
printedwithhisReports；in2Tucker’sBlack。Comm。App。noteG。p。11to
30。Itissurprising，withwhatfacilitymen
CH。XLIV。]RIGHTOFPETITION。745
§；1886。Theremainingclausesecures"therightofthepeople
peaceablyto
assembleandtopetitionthegovernmentforaredressofgrievances。"
§；1887。Thiswouldseemunnecessarytobeexpressly
providedforina
republicangovernment，sinceitresultsfromtheverynatureofits
structureandinstitutions。Itisimpossible，thatitcouldbepractically
denied，untilthespiritoflibertyhadwhollydisappeared，andthepeople
hadbecomesoservileanddebased，astobeunfittoexerciseanyofthe
privilegesoffreemen。1
§；1888。Theprovisionwasprobablyborrowedfromthe
declarationofrights
inEngland，ontherevolutionof1688，inwhichtherighttopetitionthe
kingforaredressofgrievanceswasinsistedon；andtherighttopetition
parliamentinthelikemannerhasbeenprovidedfor，andguardedby
statutespassedbefore，aswellassincethatperiod。2Mr。Tuckerhas
indulgedhimselfinadisparagingcriticismuponthephraseologyofthis
clause，assavouringtoomuchofthatstyleofcondescension，inwhich
favoursaresupposedtobe
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glideintotheopinion，thatameasureisuniversallydeemed
unconstitutional，becauseitissointheirownopinion，especiallyifit
hasbecomeunpopular。Ithasbeenoftenasserted，bypublicmen，asthe
universalsenseofthenation，thatthisactwasunconstitutional；andthat
opinionhasbeenpromulgatedrecently，withmuchemphasis，bydistinguished
statesmen；aswehavealreadyhadoccasiontonotice。Whatthestateof
publicandprofessionalopiniononthissubjectnowis，itis，perhaps，
difficulttodetermine。Butitiswellknown，thattheopinionsthen
deliberatelygivenbymanyprofessionalmen，andjudges，andlegislature，
infavouroftheconstitutionalityofthelaw，haveneverbeenretracted。
SeeVol。Iii。§；1288，1289，andnote。
lSee2Lloyd’sDebates，197，198，199。
2See1Black。Comm。143；5Cobbett’sParl’y。Hist。p。109，110；Rawleon
Const。ch。10，p。124；3Amer。Museum，420；2Kent’sComm。Lect。24，p。7，
8。
746CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
granted。1Butthisseemstobequiteoverstrained；sinceitspeaksthe
voiceofthepeopleinthelanguageofprohibition，andnotinthatof
affirmanceofaright，supposedtobeunquestionable，andinherent。
§；1889。Thenextamendmentis："Awellregulatedmilitia
beingnecessary
tothesecurityofafreestate，therightofthepeopletokeepandbear
armsshallnotbeinfringed。"
§；1890。Theimportanceofthisarticlewillscarcelybe
doubtedbyany
persons，whohavedulyreflecteduponthesubject。Themilitiaisthe
naturaldefenceofafreecountryagainstsuddenforeigninvasions，
domesticinsurrections，anddomesticusurpationsofpowerbyrulers。Itis
againstsoundpolicyforafreepeopletokeepuplargemilitary
establishmentsandstandingarmiesintimeofpeace，bothfromtheenormous
expenses，withwhichtheyareattended，andthefacilemeans，whichthey
affordtoambitiousandunprincipledrulers，tosubvertthegovernment，or
trampleupontherightsofthepeople。Therightofthecitizenstokeep
andbeararmshasjustlybeenconsidered，asthepalladiumoftheliberties
ofarepublic；sinceitoffersastrongmoralcheckagainsttheusurpation
andarbitrarypowerofrulers；andwillgenerally，eveniftheseare
successfulinthefirstinstance，enablethepeopletoresistandtriumph
overthem。2Andyet，thoughthistruthwouldseemsoclear，andthe
importanceofawellregulatedmilitiawouldseemsoundeniable，itcannot
bedisguised，thatamongtheAmericanpeoplethereisagrowing
indifferencetoanysystemofmilitiadiscipline，andastrongdisposition，
fromasenseofitsburthens，toberid
_______________________________
11Tucker’sBlack。Comm。App。299。
21Tucker’sBlack。Comm。App。300；RawleonConst。ch。10，p。125；2
Lloyd’sDebates，219，220。
CH。XLIV。]QUARTERINGSOLDIERS。747
ofallregulations。Howitispracticabletokeepthepeopledulyarmed
withoutsomeorganization，itisdifficulttosee。Thereiscertainlyno
smalldanger，thatindifferencemayleadtodisgust，anddisgustto
contempt；andthusgraduallyunderminealltheprotectionintendedbythis
clauseofournationalbillofrights。1
§；1891。Asimilarprovisioninfavourofprotestantsfor
tothemitis
confinedistobefoundinthebillofrightsof1688，itbeingdeclared，
"thatthesubjects，whichareprotestants，mayhavearmsfortheirdefence
suitabletotheircondition，andasallowedbylaw。"2Butundervarious
pretencestheeffectofthisprovisionhasbeengreatlynarrowed；anditis
atpresentinEnglandmorenominalthanreal，asadefensiveprivilege。3
§；1892。Thenextamendmentis："Nosoldiershallintimeof
peacebe
quarteredinanyhouse，withouttheconsentoftheowner，norintimeof
war，butinamannertobeprescribedbylaw。"
§；1893。Thisprovisionspeaksforitself。Itsplainobject
istosecure
theperfectenjoymentofthatgreatrightofthecommonlaw，thataman’s
houseshallbehisowncastle，privilegedagainstallcivilandmilitary
intrusion。Thebilletingofsoldiersintimeofpeaceuponthepeoplehas
beenacommonresortofarbitraryprinces，andisfullofinconvenienceand
peril。Inthe
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1ItwouldbewellforAmericanstoreflectuponthepassageinTacitus，
Hist。IV。ch。74："Namnequequiessinearmis，nequearma，sine
stipendiis，nequestipendiasinetributis，haberiqueunt。"Isthereany
escapefromalargestandingarmy，butinawelldisciplinedmilitia？There
ismuchwholesomeinstructiononthissubjectin1Black。Comm。ch。13，p。
408to417。
25Cobbett’sParl。Hist。p。110；1Black。Comm。143，144。
31Tucker’sBlack。Comm。App。300。
748CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
petitionofright4CharlesI。，itWasdeclaredbyparliamenttobea
greatgrievance。1
§；1894。Thenextamendmentis："Therightofthepeopleto
besecurein
theirpersons，houses，papers，andeffectsagainstunreasonablesearches
andseizuresshallnotbeviolated；andnowarrantsshallissue，but。upon
probablecause，supportedbyoathoraffirmation，andparticularly
describingtheplacetobesearched，andthepersonorthings。tobe
seized。"
§；1895。Thisprovisionseemsindispensabletothefull
enjoymentofthe
rightsofpersonalsecurity，personalliberty，andprivateproperty。Itis
littlemore。thantheaffirmanceofagreatconstitutionaldoctrineofthe
commonlaw。Anditsintroductionintotheamendmentswasdoubtless
occasionedbythestrongsensibilityexcited，bothinEnglandandAmerica，
uponthesubjectofgeneralwarrantsalmostupontheeveoftheAmerican
Revolution。Althoughspecialwarrantsuponcomplaintsunderoath，stating
thecrime，andthepartybyname，againstwhomtheaccusationismade，are
theonlylegalwarrants，uponwhichanarrestcanbemadeaccordingtothe
lawofEngland；2yetapracticehadobtainedinthesecretaries’office
eversincetherestoration，groundedonsomeclausesintheactsfor
regulatingthepress，ofissuinggeneralwarrantstotakeup，without
naminganypersonsinparticular，theauthors，printers，andpublishersof
suchobscene，orseditiouslibels，aswereparticularlyspecifiedinthe
warrant。Whentheseactsexpired，in1694，thesamepracticewascontinued
ineveryreign，andundereveryadministration，exceptthefourlastyears
ofQueenAnne’s
____________________________
12Cabbett’sParl。Hist。375；RawleonConst。ch。10，p。126，127；1
Tueker’sBlack。Comm。App。300，301；2Lloyd’sDebates，223。
2AndseeExparteBurford，3Cranch，447；2Lloyd’sDeb。226，227。
CH。XLIV。]GENERALWARRANTS。749
reign，downtotheyear1763。Thegeneralwarrants，soissued，ingeneral
termsauthorizedtheofficerstoapprehendallpersonssuspected，without
naming，ordescribinganypersoninspecial。Intheyear1763，the
legalityofthesegeneralwarrantswasbroughtbeforetheKing’sBenchfor
solemndecision；andtheywereadjudgedtobeillegal，andvoidfor
uncertainty。1
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1Moneyv。Leach，3Burr，1743；4Black。Comm。291，292，andnoteibid。
Seealso15Hansard’sPad。Hist。1398to1418，1764；Bellv。Clapp，10
John。R。263；Saillyv。Smith，11John。R。500；1Tucker’sBlack。Comm。
App。301；RawleonConst。ch。10，p。127。——Itwasonaccountofa
supposedrepugnancetothisarticle，thatavehementoppositionwasmadeto
thealienactof1798，ch。75，whichauthorizedthepresidenttoorderall
suchaliens，asheshouldjudgedangeroustothepeaceandsafetyofthe
UnitedStates，orhavereasonablegroundstosuspectofanytreasonable，or
secretmachinationsagainstthegovernmenttodepartoutoftheUnited
States；andincaseofdisobedience，punishedtherefusalwith
imprisonment。Thatlawhavinglongsincepassedaway，itisnotmydesign
toenteruponthegrounds，uponwhichitsconstitutionalitywasassertedor
denied。Butthelearnedreaderwillfindampleinformationonthesubject
inthereportofacommitteeofcongress，onthepetitionsfortherepeal
ofthealienandseditionlaws，25thofFebruary，1799；thereportand
resolutionsoftheVirginialegislatureof7thofJanuary，1800；Judge
Addison’schargestothegrandjuryintheAppendixtohisreports；and1
Tucker’sBlack。Comm。App。301to304；Id。306。SeealsoVol。III。§；1288，
1289，andnote。
Mr。Jeffersonhasenteredintoanelaboratedefenceoftherightandduty
ofpublicofficerstodisregard，incertaincases，theinjunctionsofthe
law，inaletteraddressedtoMr。Colvinin1810。*Onthatoccasion，he
justifiedaverygrossviolationofthisveryarticlebyGeneralWilkinson，
if，indeed，hedidnotauthorizeit，intheseizureoftwoAmerican
citizensbymilitaryforce，onaccountofsupposedtreasonableconspiracies
againsttheUnitedStates，andtransportingthem，withoutanywarrant，or
orderofanycivilauthority，fromNew—OrleanstoWashingtonfortrial。
TheywerebothdischargedfromcustodyatWashingtonbytheSupremeCourt，
uponafullhearingofthecase。Mr。Jeffersonreasonsoutthewholecase，
andassumes，withouttheslightesthesitation，thepositiveguiltofthe
parties。Hislanguageis："Underthesecircumstances，washeGeneral
Wilkinsonjustifiable1。inseizingnotoriousconspirators？Onthis
therecanbebut
*4Jefferson’sCorresp。149，151。
ExparteBollman&Swartout，4Cranch，75to136。
750CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
Awarrant，andthecomplaint，onwhichthesameisfounded，tobelegal，
mustnotonlystatethenameoftheparty，butalsothetime，andplace，
andnatureoftheoffencewithreasonablecertainty。1
§；1896。Thenextamendmentis："Excessivebailshallnotbe
required；nor
excessivefinesimposed；norcruelandunusualpunishmentsinflicted。"
Thisisanexacttranscriptofaclauseinthebillofrights，framedat
therevolutionof1688。2Theprovisionwouldseemtobewhollyunnecessary
inafreegovernment，sinceitisscarcelypossible，thatanydepartmentof
suchagovernmentshouldauthorize，orjustifysuchatrociousconduct。3It
was，however，adopted，asanadmonitiontoalldepartmentsofthenational
government，towarnthemagainstsuchviolentproceedings，ashadtaken
placeinEnglandinthearbitraryreignsofsomeoftheStuarts。4Inthose
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twoopinions；one，oftheguilty，andtheiraccomplice；theother，thatof
allhonestmen！！2。Insendingthemtotheseatofgovernment，whenthe
writtenlawgavethemarighttotrialbyjury？Thedangeroftheir
rescue，oftheircontinuingtheirmachinations，thetardinessandweakness
ofthelaw，apathyofthejudges，activepatronageofthewholetribeof
lawyers，unknowndispositionofthejuries，anhourlyexpectationofthe
enemy，salvationofthecity，andoftheUnionitself，whichwouldhave
beenconvulsedtoitscentre，hadthatconspiracysucceeded；allthese
constitutedalawofnecessityandself—preservation；andrenderedthe
saluspopulisupremeoverthewrittenlaw！！"Thus，theconstitutionisto
bewhollydisregarded，becauseMr。Jeffersonhasnoconfidenceinjudges，
orjuries，orlaws。Hefirstassumestheguiltoftheparties，andthen
denounceseverypersonconnectedwiththecourtsofjustice，asunworthyof
trust。Withoutanywarrantorlawfulauthority，citizensaredraggedfrom
theirhomesundermilitaryforce，andexposedtotheperilsofalong
voyage，againsttheplainlanguageofthisveryarticle；andyetthree
yearsaftertheyaredischargedbythe。SupremeCourt，Mr。Jeffersonuses
thisstronglanguage。
1SeeExparteBurford，3Cranch，447。
25Cobbett’sParl。Hist。110。
32Elliot’sDebates，845。
4See2Lloyd’sDebates，225，226；3Elliot’sDebates，345。
CH。XLIV。]NON—ENUMERATEDPOWERS。751
times，ademandofexcessivebailwasoftenmadeagainstpersons，whowere
odioustothecourt，anditsfavourites；andonfailingtoprocureit，they
werecommittedtoprison。1Enormousfinesandamercementswerealso
sometimesimposed，andcruelandvindictivepunishmentsinflicted。Upon
thissubjectMr。JusticeBlackstonehaswiselyremarked，thatsanguinary
lawsareabadsymptomofthedistemperofanystate，oratleastofits
weakconstitution。ThelawsoftheRomankings，andthetwelvetablesof
theDecemviri，werefullofcruelpunishments；thePorcianlaw，which
exemptedallcitizensfromsentenceofdeath，silentlyabrogatedthemall。
Inthisperiodtherepublicflourished。Undertheemperorsseverelawswere
revived，andthentheempirefell。2
§；1897。Ithasbeenheldinthestatecourts，andthe
pointdoesnotseem
evertohaveariseninthecourtsoftheUnitedStates，thatthisclause
doesnotapplytopunishmentsinflictedinastatecourtforacrime
againstsuchstate；butthattheprohibitionisaddressedsolelytothe
nationalgovernment，andoperates，asarestrictionuponitspowers。3
§；1898。Thenextamendmentis："Theenumerationinthe
constitutionof
certainrightsshallnotbeconstruedtodeny，ordisparageothersretained
bythepeople。"Thisclausewasmanifestlyintroducedtopreventany
perverse，oringeniousmisapplicationofthewellknownmaxim，thatan
affirmationinparticularcasesimpliesanegationinallothers；ande
converso，that
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1RawleonConst。ch。10，p。130，131。
24Black。Comm。17。SeeDeLolme，B。2，ch。16，p。366，367，368，369。
3SeeBarkerv。ThePeople，3Cowen’sR。686；Jamesv。Commonwealth，12
SergeantandRawle’sR。220。SeeBartonv。MayorofBaltimore，7Peters’s
R。1833。
752CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
anegationinparticularcasesimplies，anaffirmationinallothers。1The
maxim，rightlyunderstood，isperfectlysoundandsafe；butithasoften
beenstrangelyforcedfromitsnaturalmeaningintothesupportofthemost
dangerouspoliticalheresies。Theamendmentwasundoubtedlysuggestedby
thereasoningoftheFederalistonthesubjectofageneralbillof
rights。2
§；1899。Thenextandlastamendmentis："Thepowersnot
delegatedtothe
UnitedStatesbytheconstitution，norprohibitedbyittothestates，are
reservedtothestatesrespectively，ortothepeople。"
§；1900。Thisamendmentisamereaffirmationofwhat，upon
anyjust
reasoning，isanecessaryruleofinterpretingtheconstitution。Beingan
instrumentoflimitedandenumeratedpowers，itfollowsirresistibly，that
whatisnotconferred，iswithheld，andbelongstothestateauthorities，
ifinvestedbytheirconstitutionsofgovernmentrespectivelyinthem；and
ifnotsoinvested，itisretainedBYTHEPEOPLE，asapartoftheir
residuarysovereignty。3Whenthisamendmentwasbeforecongress，a
propositionwasmoved，toinserttheword"expressly"before"delegated，"
soastoread"thepowersnotexpresslydelegatedtotheUnitedStatesby
theconstitution，"&c。Onthatoccasionitwasremarked，thatitis
impossibletoconfineagovernmenttotheexerciseofexpresspowers。
Theremustnecessarilybeadmittedpowersbyimplication，unlessthe
constitutiondescendedtothemostminutedetails。4Itisageneral
principlethatallcorporate
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1Seeante，Vol。I。§；448；TheFederalist，No。83。
2TheFederalist，No。84；ante，Vol。III。§；1852to1857；1Lloyd’s
Debates，433，437；1Tucker’sBlack。Comm。App。307，308。
3See1Tucker’sBlack。Comm。App。307，308，309。
4Mr。Madisonadded，thatherememberedtheword"expressly"hadbeen
movedintheVirginiaConventionbytheopponentstotheratifi—
CH。XLIV。]POWERSNOTDELEGATED。753
bodiespossessallpowersincidenttoacorporatecapacity，withoutbeing
absolutelyexpressed。Themotionwasaccordinglynegatived。1Indeed，one
ofthegreatdefectsoftheconfederationwas，aswehavealreadyseen，
thatitcontainedaclause，prohibitingtheexerciseofanypower，
jurisdiction，orright，notexpresslydelegated。2Theconsequencewas，
thatcongresswerecrippledateverystepoftheirprogress；andwereoften
compelledbytheverynecessitiesofthetimestousurppowers，whichthey
didnotconstitutionallypossess；andthus，ineffecttobreakdownallthe
greatbarriersagainsttyrannyandoppression。3
§；1901。Itisplain，therefore，thatitcouldnothavebeen
theintention
oftheframersofthisamendmenttogiveiteffect，asanabridgmentofany
ofthepowersgrantedundertheconstitution，whethertheyareexpressor
implied，directorincidental。Itssoledesignistoexcludeany
interpretation，bywhichotherpowersshouldbeassumedbeyondthose，which
aregranted。Allthataregrantedintheoriginalinstrument，whether
expressorimplied，whetherdirectorincidental，areleftintheir
originalstate。Allpowersnotdelegated，notallpowersnotexpressly
delegated，andnotprohibited，arereserved。4Theattempts，then，which
havebeenmadefromtimetotime，toforceuponthislanguageanabridging，
orrestrictiveinfluence，areutterlyunfoundedinanyjustrulesof
interpretingthewords，
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cation；andafterafallandfairdiscussion，wasgivenupbythem，andthe
systemallowedtoretainitspresentform。2Lloyd’sDebates，234。
12Lloyd’sDeb。243，244；McCullohv。Maryland，4Wheat。R。407；Martin
v。Hunter，1Wheat。R。325；Houstonv。Moore，5Wheat。R。49；Andersonv。
Dunn，6Wheat。R。225，226。
2Confederation，Article2，anteVol。I。§；230。
3TheFederalist，No。33，38，42，44；anteVol。I。§；269。
4McCullohv。Maryland，4Wheat。R。406，407；anteVoLI。§；433，
754CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU。STATES。[BOOKIII。
orthesenseoftheinstrument。Strippedoftheingeniousdisguises，in
whichtheyareclothed，theyareneithermorenorless，thanattemptsto
foistintothetexttheword"expressly；"toqualify，whatisgeneral，and
obscure，whatisclear，anddefined。Theymakethesenseofthepassage
bendtothewishesandprejudicesoftheinterpreter；andemploycriticism
tosupportatheory，andnottoguideit。Oneshouldsuppose，ifthe
historyofthehumanminddidnotfurnishabundantprooftothecontrary，
thatnoreasonablemanwouldcontendforaninterpretationfoundedneither
intheletter，norinthespiritofaninstrument。Whereiscontroversyto
end，ifwedesertboththeletterandthespirit？Whatistobecomeof
constitutionsofgovernment，iftheyaretorest，notupontheplainimport
oftheirwords，butuponconjecturalenlargementsandrestrictions，tosuit
thetemporarypassionsandinterestsoftheday？Letusneverforget，that
ourconstitutionsofgovernmentaresolemninstruments，addressedtothe
commonsenseofthepeopleanddesignedtofix，andperpetuatetheirrights
andtheirliberties。Theyarenottobefritteredawaytopleasethe
demagoguesoftheday。Theyarenottobeviolatedtogratifytheambition
ofpoliticalleaders。Theyaretospeakinthesamevoicenow，andfor
ever。Theyareofnoman’sprivateinterpretation。Theyareordainedby
thewillofthepeople；andcanbechangedonlybythesovereigncommandof
thepeople。
§；1902。Ithasbeenjustlyremarked，thattheerectionofanew
government，whatevercareorwisdommaydistinguishthework，cannotfail
tooriginatequestionsofintricacyandnicety；andthesemayina
particularmannerbeexpectedtoflowfromtheestablishmentofa
constitution，foundeduponthetotal，or
CH。XLIV。]POWERSNOTDELEGATED。755
partialincorporationofanumberofdistinctsovereignties。Timealone
canmatureandperfectsocompoundasystem；liquidatethemeaningofall
theparts；andadjustthemtoeachotherinaharmoniousandconsistent
whole。1
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1TheFederalist，No。82SeealsoMr。Hume’sEssays，Vol。I。Essayonthe
RiseofArtsandSciences。
JosephStory：CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates：
Book3Chapter45CHAPTERXLV。CONCLUDINGREMARKS。§；1903。WehavenowreviewedalltheprovisionsoftheoriginalconstitutionoftheUnitedStates，andalltheamendments，whichhavebeenincorporatedintoit。And，here，thetaskoriginallyproposedintheseCommentariesisbroughttoaclose。Manyreflectionsnaturallycrowduponthemindatsuchamoment；manygratefulrecollectionsofthepast；andmanyanxiousthoughtsofthefuture。Thepastissecure。Itisunalterable。Thesealofeternityisuponit。Thewisdom，whichithasdisplayed，andtheblessings，whichithasbestowed，cannotbeobscured；
neithercantheybedebasedbyhumanfolly，orhumaninfirmity。Thefutureisthat，whichmaywellawakenthemostearnestsolicitude，bothforthevirtueandthepermanenceofourrepublic。Thefateofotherrepublics，theirrise，theirprogress，theirdecline，andtheirfall，arewrittenbuttoolegiblyonthepagesofhistory，ifindeedtheywerenotcontinuallybeforeusinthestartlingfragmentsoftheirruins。Theyhaveperished；
andperishedbytheirownhands。Prosperityhasenervatedthem，corruptionhasdebasedthem，andavenalpopulacehasconsummatedtheirdestruction。
Alternatelythepreyofmilitarychieftainsathome，andofambitiousinvadersfromabroad，theyhavebeensometimescheatedoutoftheirlibertiesbyserviledemagogues；sometimesbetrayedintoasurrenderofthembyfalsepatriots；andsometimestheyhavewillinglysoldthemforapricetothedespot，whohasbiddenhighestforhisvictims。Theyhavedisregardedthewarningvoiceoftheirbeststatesmen；andhavepersecuted，anddrivenfromofficetheirtruestfriends。Theyhavelistenedtothefawningsycophant，andthebasecalumniatorofthewiseandthegood。Theyhavereverencedpowermoreinitshighabusesandsummarymovements，thaninitscalmandconstitutionalenergy，whenitdispensedblessingswithanunseen，butliberalhand。Theyhavesurrenderedtofaction，whatbelongedtothecountry。
Patronageandparty，thetriumphofaleader，andthediscontentsofaday，haveoutweighedallsolidprinciplesandinstitutionsofgovernment。
Sucharethemelancholylessonsofthepasthistoryofrepublicsdowntoourown。
§；1904。Itisnotmydesigntodetainthereaderbyanyelaboratereflectionsaddressedtohisjudgment，eitherbywayofadmonitionorofencouragement。Butitmaynotbewhollywithoutusetoglanceatoneortwoconsiderations，uponwhichourmeditationscannotbetoofrequentlyindulged。
§；1905。Inthefirstplace，itcannotescapeournotice，howexceedinglydifficultitistosettlethefoundationsofanygovernmentuponprinciples，whichdonotadmitofcontroversyorquestion。The，veryelements，outofwhichitistobebuilt，aresusceptibleofinfinitemodifications；andtheorytoooftendeludesusbytheattractivesimplicityofitsplans，andimaginationbythevisionaryperfectionofitsspeculations。Intheory，agovernmentmaypromisethemostperfectharmonyofoperationsinallitsvariouscombinations。Inpractice，thewholemachinerymaybeperpetuallyretarded，orthrownoutoforderbyaccidentalmal—adjustments。Intheory，agovernmentmayseemdeficientinunityofdesignandsymmetryofparts；andyet，inpractice，itmayworkwithastonishingaccuracyandforceforthegeneralwelfare。Whatever，then，hasbeenfoundtoworkwellinexperience，shouldberarelyhazardeduponconjecturalimprovements。Time，andlongandsteadyoperationareindispensabletotheperfectionofallsocialinstitutions。Tobeofanyvaluetheymustbecomecementedwiththehabits，thefeelings，andthepursuitsofthepeople。Everychangediscomposesforawhilethewholearrangementsofthesystem。Whatissafeisnotalwaysexpedient；whatisnewisoftenpregnantwithunforeseenevils，andimaginarygood。
§；1906。Inthenextplace，theslightestattentiontothehistoryofthenationalconstitutionmustsatisfyeveryreflectingmind，howmanydifficultiesattendeditsformationandadoption，fromrealorimaginarydifferencesofinterests，sectionalfeelings，andlocalinstitutions。Itisanattempttocreateanationalsovereignty，andyettopreservethestatesovereignties；thoughitisimpossibletoassigndefiniteboundariesineverycasetothepowersofeach。Theinfluenceofthedisturbingcauses，which，morethanonceintheconvention，wereonthepointofbreakinguptheUnion，havesinceimmeasurablyincreasedinconcentrationandvigour。Theveryinequalitiesofagovernment，confessedlyfoundedinacompromise，werethenfeltwithastrongsensibility；andeverynewsourceofdiscontent，whetheraccidentalorpermanent，hassinceaddedincreasedactivitytothepainfulsenseoftheseinequalities。TheNorthcannotbutperceive，thatithasyieldedtotheSouthasuperiorityofrepresentatives，alreadyamountingtotwenty—five，beyonditsdueproportion；
andtheSouthimagines，that，withallthispreponderanceinrepresentation，theotherpartsoftheUnionenjoyamoreperfectprotectionoftheirinterests，thanherown。TheWestfeelshergrowingpowerandweightintheUnion；
andtheAtlanticstatesbegintolearn，thatthesceptremustonedaydepartfromthem。If，underthesecircumstances，theUnionshouldoncebebrokenup，itisimpossible，thatanewconstitutionshouldeverbeformed，embracingthewholeTerritory。Weshallbedividedintoseveralnationsorconfederacies，rivalsinpowerandinterest，tooproudtobrookinjury，andtooclosetomakeretaliationdistantorineffectual。Ourveryanimositieswill，likethoseofallotherkindrednations，becomemoredeadly，becauseourlineage，laws，andlanguagearethesame。LetthehistoryoftheGrecianandItalianrepublicswarnusofourdangers。Thenationalconstitutionisourlast，andouronlysecurity。Unitedwestand；dividedwefall。
§；1907。IftheseCommentariesshallbutinspireintherisinggenerationamoreardentloveoftheircountry，anunquenchablethirstforliberty，andaprofoundreverencefortheconstitutionandtheUnion，thentheywillhaveaccomplishedall，thattheirauthoroughttodesire。LettheAmericanyouthneverforget，thattheypossessanobleinheritance，boughtbythetoils，andsufferings，andbloodoftheirancestors；andcapable，ifwiselyimproved，andfaithfullyguarded，oftransmittingtotheirlatestposterityallthesubstantialblessingsoffife，thepeacefulenjoymentofliberty，property，religion，andindependence。
Thestructurehasbeenerectedbyarchitectsofconsummateskillandfidelity；
itsfoundationsaresolid；itscompartmentsarebeautiful，aswellasuseful；
itsarrangementsarefullofwisdomandorder；anditsdefencesareimpregnablefromwithout。Ithasbeenrearedforimmortality，iftheworkofmanmayjustlyaspiretosuchatitle。Itmay，nevertheless，perishinanhourbythefolly，orcorruption，ornegligenceofitsonlykeepers，THE
PEOPLE。Republicsarecreatedbythevirtue，publicspirit，andintelligenceofthecitizens。Theyfall，whenthewisearebanishedfromthepubliccouncils，becausetheydaretobehonest，andtheprofligatearerewarded，becausetheyflatterthepeople，inordertobetraythem。