"Sir，Icanperceivebytheirmanner，thatsomegentlemenobjecttothe
latitudeofthisdescription；becauseinthesoutherncoloniesthechurch
ofEnglandformsalargebody，andhasaregularestablishment。Itis
certainlytrue。Thereishoweverncircumstanceattendingthesecolonies，
which，inmyopinion，fullycounterbalancesthisdifference，andmakesthe
spiritoflibertystillmorehighandhaughtythaninthoseofthe
northward。ItisthatinVirginiaandtheCarolinas，theyhaveavast
multitudeofslaves。Wherethisisthecaseinanypartoftheworld，
those，whoarefree，arebyfarthemostproudandjealousoftheir
freedom。Freedomistothemnotonlyanenjoyment，butahindofrankand
privilege。Notseeingthere，thatfreedom，asincountrieswhereitisa
commonblessing，andasbroadandgeneralastheair，maybeunitedwith
muchabjecttoil，withgreatmisery，withalltheexteriorofservitude，
libertylooks，amongstthem，likesomethingthatismorenobleandliberal。
Idonotmean，Sir，tocommendthesuperiormoralityofthissentiment，
whichhasatleastasmuchprideasvirtueinit；butIcannotalterthe
natureofman。Thefactisso；andthesepeopleofthesoutherncolonies
aremuchmorestrongly，andwithanhigherandmorestubbornspirit，
attachedtoliberty，thanthosetothenorthward。Suchwereallthe
ancientcommonwealths；suchwereourGothicancestors；suchinourdays
werethePoles；andsuchwillbeallmastersofslaves，whoarenotslaves
themselves。Insuchnpeoplethehaughtinessofdominationcombineswith
thespiritoffreedom，fortifiesit，andrendersitinvincible。
"Permitme，Sir，toaddanothercircumstanceinourcolonies，which
contributesnomeanparttowardsthegrowthandeffectofthisuntractable
spirit。Imeantheireducation。Innocountryperhapsintheworldisthe
lawsogeneralastudy。Theprofessionitselfisnumerousandpowerful；
andinmostprovincesittakesthelead。Thegreaternumberofthe
deputiessenttothecongresswerelawyers。Butallwhoread，andmostdo
read，endeavourtoobtainsomesmattering，inthatscience。Ihavebeen
toldbyaneminentbookseller，thatinnobranchofhisbusiness，after
tractsofpopulardevotion，weresomanybooksasthoseonthelawexported
totheplantations。Thecolonistshavenowfallenintothewayofprinting
themfortheirownuse。Ihearthattheyhavesoldnearlyasmanyof
BlackstonesCommentariesinAmerica，asinEngland。GeneralGagemarksout
thisdispositionveryparticularlyinaletteronyourtable。Hestates，
thatallthepeopleinhisgovernmentarelawyers，orsmatterersinlaw；
andthatinBostonthey
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。157
ortaxonthecolonies，exceptfortheregulationofcommerce；andthatthe
netproduceofsuchduty，ortax，shouldbeappliedtotheuseofthe
colony，inwhichit
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havebeenenabled，bysuccessfulchicane，whollytoevademanypartsofone
ofyourcapitalpenalconstitutions。Thesmartnessofdebatewillsay，
thatthisknowledgeoughttoteachthemmoreclearlytherightsof
legislature，theirobligationstoobedience，andthepenaltiesof
rebellion。Allthisismightywell。Butmyhonourableandlearnedfriend*
onthefloor，whocondescendstomarkwhatIsayforanimadversion，will
disdainthatground。Hehasheard，aswellasI，thatwhengreathonours
andgreatemolumentsdonotwinoverthisknowledgetotheserviceofthe
state，itisaformidableadversarytogovernment。Ifthespiritbenot
tamedandbrokenbythesehappymethods，itisstubbornandlitigious。
Abeuntstudiainmores。Thisstudyrendersmenacute，inquisitive，
dexterous，promptinattack，readyindefence，fullofresources。Inother
countries，thepeople，moresimpleandofalessmercurialcast，judgeof
anillprincipleingovernmentonlybyanactualgrievance；herethey
anticipatetheevil，andjudgeofthepressureofthegrievancebythe
badnessoftheprinciple。Theyaugurmisgovernmentatndistance；and
snufftheapproachoftyrannyineverytaintedbreeze。
"Thelastcauseofthisdisobedientspiritinthecoloniesishardlyless
powerfulthantherest，asitisnotmerelymoral，butlaiddeepinthe
naturalconstitutionofthings。Threethousandmilesofoceanliebetween
youandthem。Nocontrivancecanpreventtheeffectofthisdistance，in
weakeninggovernment。Seasroll，andmonthspass，betweentheorderand
theexecution；andthewantofaspeedyexplanationofasinglepoint，is
enoughtodefeatawholesystem。Youhave，indeed，wingedministersof
vengeance，whocarryyourboltsintheirpouncestotheremotestvergeof
thesea。Butthereapowerstepsin，thatlimitsthearroganceofraging，
passionsandfuriouselements，andsays，’Sofarshaltthougo，andno
farther。’Whoareyou，thatshouldfretandrage，andbitethechainsof
nature？Nothingworsehappenstoyou，thandoestoallnations，whohave
extensiveempire；andithappensinalltheforms，intowhichempirecanbe
thrown。Inlargebodiesthecirculationofpowermostbelessvigorousat
theextremities。Naturehassaidit。TheTurkcannotgovernEgypt，and
Arabia，andCurdistan，ashegovernsThrace；norhashethesamedominion
inCrimenandAlgiers，whichhehasatBrusaandSmyrna。Despotismitself
isobligedtotruckandhuckster。TheSultnngetssuchobedienceashe
can。Hegovernswithalooserein，thathemaygovernatall；andthe
wholeoftheforceandvigourofhisauthorityinhiscentre，isderived
*TheAttorneyGeneral。
158HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
waslevied。Butitfailedofitsobject。Thespiritofresistancehad
thenbecomestubbornanduncontrollable。Thecolonistswereawaketoa
fullsenseofalltheirrights；andhabithadmadethemfirm，andcommon
sufferingshadmadethemacute，aswellasindignantinthevindicationof
theirprivileges。Andthusthestrugglewasmaintainedoneachsidewith
unabatedzeal，untiltheAmericanRevolution。TheDeclarationof
Independenceembodiedinapermanentformadenialofsuchparliamentary
authority，treatingitasagrossandunconstitutionalusurpation。
§；171。Thecoloniallegislatures，withtherestrictions
necessarily
arisingfromtheirdependencyonGreatBritain，weresovereignwithinthe
limitsoftheirrespectiveterritories。Buttherewasthisdifference
amongthem，thatinMaryland，Connecticut，andRhode—Island，thelawswere
notrequiredtobesenttothekingforhisapproval；whereas，inallthe
othercolonies，thekingpossessedapowerofabrogatingthem，andthey
werenotfinalintheirauthorityuntiltheyhadpassedunderhisreview。1
Inrespecttothemodeofenactinglaws，thereweresomedif—
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fromaprudentrelaxationinallhisborders。Spain，inherprovinces，is，
perhaps，notsowellobeyed，asyouareinyours。Shecompliestoo；she
submits；shewatchestimes。Thisistheimmutablecondition；theeternal
law，ofextensiveanddetachedempire。
"Then，Sir，fromthesesixcapitalsources；ofdescent；offormof
government；ofreligioninthenorthernprovines；ofmannersinthe
southern；ofeducation；oftheremotenessofsituationfromthefirstmover
ofgovernment；fromallthesecausesafiercespiritoflibertyhasgrown
up。Ithasgrownwiththegrowthofthepeopleinyourcolonies，and
increasedwiththeincreaseoftheirwealth；aspirit，thatunhappily
meetingwithanexerciseofpowerinEngland，which，howeverlawful，isnot
reconcilabletoanyideasofliberty，muchlesswiththeirs，haskindled
thisflame，thatisreadytoconsumeus。"2Burke’sWorks，38—45。
1Chalmers’sAnnals，203，295；1Doug。Summ。207，208。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。159
ferencesintheorganizationofthecolonialgovernments。1InConnecticut
andRhode—Islandthegovernorhadnonegativeuponthelaws；in
Pennsylvaniathecouncilhadnonegative，butwasmerelyadvisorytothe
executive；inMassachusetts，thecouncilwaschosenbythelegislature，and
notbythecrown；butthegovernorhadanegativeonthechoice。
§；172。3。Inallthecolonies，thelandswithintheir
limitswereby
theverytermsoftheiroriginalgrantsandcharterstobeholdenofthe
crowninfreeandcommonsoccage，andnotincapiteorbyknightsservice。
Theywereallholdeneither，asofthemanorofEastGreenwichinKent，or
ofthemanorofHamptonCourtinMiddlesex，orofthecastleofWindsorin
Berkshire。2Alltheslavishandmilitarypartoftheancientfeudal
tenureswerethuseffectuallypreventedfromtakingrootintheAmerican
soil；andthecolonistsescapedfromtheoppressiveburdens，whichfora
longtimeaffectedtheparentcountry，andwerenotabolisheduntilafter
therestorationofCharlestheSecond。3Ourtenuresthusacquireda
universalsimplicity；anditisbelieved，thatnonebutfreeholdtenuresin
soccageeverwereinuseamongus。Notracesaretobefoundofcopyhold，
orgavelkind，orburgagetenures。Inshort，formostpurposes，ourlands
maybedeemedtobeperfectlyallodial，orheldofnosuperioratall；
thoughmanyofthedistinctionsofthefeudallawhavenecessarily
insinuatedthemselvesintothemodesofacquiring，transferring，and
transmittingrealestates。Oneofthemostremarkablecircumstancesinour
colonialhistoryisthealmost
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11Doug。Summ。215。
21Grahame’sHist。43，44。
3Stat。12Car。2，ch。24。
160HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
totalabsenceofleaseholdestates。Theerectionofmanorswithalltheir
attendantprivileges，was，indeed，providedforinseveralofthecharters。
Butitwassolittlecongenialwiththefeelings，thewants，orthe
interestsofthepeople，thataftertheirerectiontheygraduallyfellinto
desuetude；andthefewremaininginourdayarebutshadowsofthepast，
therelicsoffadedgrandeurinthelaststepsofdecay，enjoyingno
privileges，andconferringnopower。
§；173。Infact，partlyfromthecheapnessofland，andpartly
froman
innateloveofindependence，fewagriculturalestatesinthewholecountry
haveatanytimebeenheldonleaseforastipulatedrent。Thetenantsand
occupiersarealmostuniversallytheproprietorsofthesoilinfeesimple。
Thefewestatesofamorelimiteddurationareprincipallythosearising
fromtheactsofthelaw，suchasestatesindower，andincurtesy。
Strictlyspeaking，therefore，therehasneverbeeninthiscountrya
dependentpeasantry。Theyeomanryareabsoluteownersofthesoil，on
whichtheytread；andtheircharacterhasfromthiscircumstancebeen
markedbyamorejealouswatchfulnessoftheirrights，andbyamoresteady
spiritofresistanceagainsteveryencroachment，thancanbefoundamong
anyotherpeople，whosehabitsandpursuitsarelesshomogeneousand
independent，lessinfluencedbypersonalchoice，andmorecontrolledby
politicalcircumstances。
§；174。4。Connectedwiththisstateofthings，and，indeed，asa
naturalconsequenceflowingfromit，isthesimplicityofthesystemof
conveyances，bywhichthetitlestoestatesarepassed，andthenotoriety
ofthetransfersmade。Fromaveryearlyperiodoftheirsettlementthe
coloniesadoptedan
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。161
almostuniformmodeofconveyanceofland，atoncesimpleandpracticable
andsafe。Thedifferencesaresoslight，thattheybecamealmost
evanescent。Alllandswereconveyedbyadeed，commonlyintheformofa
feoffment，orabargainandsale，oraleaseandrelease，attestedbyone
ormorewitnesses，acknowledgedorprovedbeforesomecourtormagistrate，
andthenregisteredinsomepublicregistry。Whensoexecuted，
acknowledged，andrecorded，theyhadfulleffecttoconveytheestate
withoutanyliveryofseisin，oranyotheractorceremonywhatsoever。
Thismodeofconveyanceprevailed，ifnotinall，innearlyallthe
coloniesfromaveryearlyperiod；andithasnowbecomeabsolutely
universal。Itishardlypossibletomeasurethebeneficialinfluencesupon
ourtitlesarisingfromthissource，inpointofsecurity，facilityof
transfer，andmarketablevalue。
§；175。5。Allthecoloniesconsideredthemselves，notas
parcelofthe
realmofGreatBritain，butasdependenciesoftheBritishcrown，andowing
allegiancethereto，thekingbeingtheirsupremeandsovereignlord。1In
virtueofitsgeneralsuperintendencythecrownconstantlyclaimed，and
exercisedtherightofentertainingappealsfromthecourtsofthelast
resortinthecolonies；andtheseappealswereheardandfinallyadjudged
bythekingincouncil。2Thisrightofappealwassecuredbyexpress
reservationinmostofthecolonialcharters。Itwasexpresslyprovided
forbyanearlyprovinciallawinNew—Hampshire，whenthematterin
differenceexceededthetruevalueorsumof300sterling。So，alike
coloniallawofRhode—Islandwasenactedbyits
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11Vez。444；VaughanR。300，400；Shower。Parl。Cases，30，31，32，33；
Mass。StatePapers，359。
21Black。Comm。231，232；ChittyonPrerog。29，31。
162HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
locallegislaturein1719。1Itwastreatedbythecrown，asaninherent
rightofthesubject，independentofanysuchreservation。2Andsoin
diverscasesitwasheldbythecourtsofEngland。Thereasonsgivenfor
theopinion，thatwritsoferror[andappeals]lietoallthedominions
belongingtoEnglandupontheultimateJudgmentsgiventhere，are，1。
That，otherwise，thelawappointed，orpermittedtosuchinferiordominion
mightbeconsiderably，changedwithouttheassentofthesuperiordominion；
2。Judgmentsmightbegiventothedisadvantageorlesseningofthe
superiority，ortomakethesuperiorityofthekingonly，andnot—ofthe
crownofEngland；and3。Thatthepracticehasbeenaccordingly。3
§；176。Notwithstandingtheclearness，withwhichthisappellate
jurisdictionwasasserted，andupheldbytheprinciplesofthecommonlaw，
theexerciseofitwasnotgenerallyassumeduntilabout1680；anditwas
notthenconceded，asamatterofrightinallthecolonies。4Onthe
contrary，Massachusettsresisteditunderherfirstcharter；therightof
appealwasexpresslyreservedinthatof1691；andRhode—Islandand
Connecticutatfirstdeniedit，asinconsistentwith，orratherasnot
providedforintheirs。5RhodeIslandsoon
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1New—HampshireProv。Laws，edit。1771，P。7，Actof11Will。3，ch4；
Rhode—IslandLaws，edit。1744。P。78。
21P。Will。323；ChittyonPrerog。ch。3。
3Vaughan’sRep。290，402；Show。Parl。Cases，30，31，32，33；1Vez。
444；Stokes’sColom。26，222，231；2Ld。Raym。1447，1448；1Chalm。
Annals，139，304，671，678，684；Christianv。Corver，1P。Will。R。
329；
Att。Gen。v。Stewart，2MerivaleR143，156；ResV。Cowle，2Burr。
834，
855，854，856；Fabrigasv。Mostym，Cowp。174；1Doug。Summ。216；3
Wilson’sWorks，230；2Chalm。Opin。177，222。
4ChittyonPrerog。ch。3，P。28，29；1Chalm。Opin。222；1Pitk。
Hist。121，123，124，125，126；1Chalm。Annals，139，140，678；5Mass。
Hist。Coll。139。
51Chalm。Annals，277，280，297，304，411，446，462；2Doug。Summ。
174；3Hutch。Coll。330，418，529；2HutchHist。539。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。163
afterwardssurrenderedheropposition。1ButConnecticutcontinuedittoa
laterperiod。2Inapracticalsense，however，theappellatejurisdiction
ofthekingincouncilwasinfullandundisturbedexercisethroughoutthe
coloniesatthetimeoftheAmericanRevolution；andwasdeemedrathera
protection，thanagrievance。3
§；177。6。Thoughthecolonieshadacommonorigin，andowed
acommon
allegiance，andtheinhabitantsofeachwereBritishsubjects，theyhadno
directpoliticalconnexionwitheachother。Eachwasindependentofall
theothers；each，inalimitedsense，wassovereignwithinitsown
territory。Therewasneitheralliancenorconfederacybetweenthem。The
assemblyofoneprovincecouldnotmakelawsforanother；norconfer
privileges，whichweretobeenjoyedorexercisedinanother，fartherthan
theycouldbeinanyindependentforeignstate。Ascolonies，theywere
alsoexcludedfromallconnexionswithforeignstates。Theywereknown
onlyasdependencies；andtheyfollowedthefateoftheparentcountryboth
inpeaceandwar，withouthavingassignedtothem，intheintercourseor
diplomacyofnations，anydistinctorindependentexistence。4
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12Doug。Summ。97；3Hutch。Coll。412，413。
22Doug。Summ。194；1Pitk。Hist123to125。
3IhaveinmypossessionaprintedcaseThomasForskyv。Waddel
Cunningham，broughtbeforethegovernorandcouncilofNew—Yorkfromthe
supremecourtofthatprovincebyappealin1764。Thegreatquestionwas，
whetheranappealorwritoferrorlay；andthejudgesofthesupreme
court，andthecouncilheld，thatnoappeallay，forthatwouldbeto
re—examinefactssettledbytheverdictofajury。Thelieutenantgovernor
dissented。Itwasagreedonallsides，thatanappealinmatteroflawby
wayofwritoferrorlaytothekingincouncilfromalljudgmentsinthe
colonies；butnotastomattersoffactinsuitsatcommonlaw。Itwas
alsoheld，thatinallthecoloniesthesubjectscarrywiththemthelaws
ofEngland，endthereforeaswellthose，whichtookplaceafter，asthose，
whichwereinforcebeforeMagnaCharta。
41Chalm。Annals，686，689，690。
164HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
Theydidnotpossessthepowerofforminganyleagueortreatyamong
themselves，whichshouldacquireanobligatoryforcewithouttheassentof
theparentstate。Andthoughtheirmutualwantsandnecessitiesoften
inducedthemtoassociateforcommonpurposesofdefence，these
confederacieswereofacasualandtemporarynature，andwereallowedasan
indulgence，ratherthanasaright。Theymadeseveraleffortstoprocure
theestablishmentofsomegeneralsuperintendinggovernmentoverthemall；
buttheirowndifferencesofopinion，aswellasthejealousyofthecrown，
madetheseeffortsabortive。1Theseefforts，however，preparedtheirminds
forthegradualreconciliationoftheirlocalinterests，andforthe
gradualdevelopmentoftheprinciples，uponwhichaunionoughttorest，
ratherthanbroughtonanimmediatesenseOrthenecessity，orthe
blessingsofsuchageneralgovernment。
§；178。Butalthoughthecolonieswereindependentofeachotherin
respecttotheirdomesticconcerns，theywerenotwhollyalientoeach
other。Onthecontrary，theywerefellowsubjects，andformanypurposes
onepeople。Everycolonisthadarighttoinhabit，ifhepleased，inany
othercolony；andasaBritishsubject，hewascapableofinheritinglands
bydescentineveryothercolony。Thecommercialintercourseofthe
colonies，too，wasregulatedbythegenerallawsoftheBritishempire；and
couldnotberestrained，orobstructedbycoloniallegislation。The
remarksofMr。ChiefJusticeJayonthissubjectareequallyjustand
striking。"Allthepeopleofthiscountrywerethensubjectsoftheking
ofGreatBritain，andowedallegiancetohim；andall
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11Pitk。Hist。50，141，142，143，144，145，146，429；
2Haz。Coll。；1Marsh。Colon。ch。10，p。284；
3Hutch。Hist。21，22，23。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。165
thecivilauthoritythenexisting，orexercisedhere，flowedfromthehead
oftheBritishempire。Theywere，inastrictsense，fellowsubjects，and
inavarietyofrespectsonepeople。WhentheRevolutioncommenced，the
patriotsdidnotassert，thatonlythesameaffinityandsocialconnexion
subsistedbetweenthepeopleofthecolonies，whichsubsistedbetweenthe
peopleofGaul，Britain，andSpain，whileRomanprovinces，towit，only
thataffinityandsocialconnexion，whichresultfromthemerecircumstance
ofbeinggovernedbythesameprince。"Differentideasprevailed，andgave
occasiontotheCongressof1774and1775。1
§；179。Havingconsideredsomeoftheparticulars，inwhich
thepolitical
organization，andpublicrights，andjuridicalpolicyofthecolonieswere
nearlysimilar，itremainstonoticeafew，inwhichtherewereimportant
differences。
1。Astothecourseofdescentsanddistributionofintestate
estates。
And，here，thepolicyofdifferentcolonieswasinagreatmeasure
determinedbythenatureoftheiroriginalgovernmentsandlocalpositions。
Allthesoutherncolonies，includingVirginia，adheredtothecourseof
descentsatthecommonlawaswehavehadoccasiontoseedowntothe
AmericanRevolution。Asanaturalconsequence，realpropertywasinthese
coloniesgenerallyheldinlargemassesbythefamiliesofancient
proprietors；theyoungerbrancheswereinagreatmeasuredependentupon
theeldest；andthelatterassumed，andsupportedsomewhatofthe
pre—eminence，whichbelongedtobaronialpossessionsintheparentcountry。
Virginiawassotenaciousofentails，thatshewouldnotevenendurethe
barringofthembythecommonmeansoffinesandrecoveries。New—York
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1Chisholmv。StateofGeorgia，2Dall。470。
166HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
andNew—JerseysilentlyadheredtotheEnglishruleofdescentsunderthe
governmentofthecrown，asroyalprovinces。Ontheotherhand，all
New—England，withtheexceptionofRhodeIsland，fromaveryearlyperiod
oftheirsettlementsadoptedtheruleofdividingtheinheritanceequally
amongallthechildren，andothernextofkin，givingadoublesharetothe
eldestson。Maryland，after1715，andPennsylvaniaalmostfromits
settlement，inlikemannerdistributedtheinheritanceamongallthe
childrenandothernextofkin。NewHampshire，althougharoyalprovince，
steadilyclungtothesystemofMassachusetts，whichshehadreceived，when
sheformedanintegralpartofthelatter。ButRhode—Islandretainedas
wehavealreadyseenitsattachmenttothecommonlawruleofdescents
downalmosttotheeraoftheAmericanRevolution。1
§；180。Inallthecolonies，weretheruleofpartibleinheritance
prevailed，estatesweresoonparcelledoutintomoderateplantationsand
farms；andthegeneralequalityofpropertyintroducedhabitsofindustry
andeconomy，theeffectsofwhicharestillvisibleintheirlocalcustoms，
institutions，andpublicpolicy。Thephilosophicalmindcanscarcelyfail
totracetheintimateconnexion，whichnaturallysubsistsbetweenthe
generalequalityoftheapportionmentofpropertyamongthemassofa
nation，andthepopularformofitsgovernment。Theformercanscarcely
fail，firstorlast，tointroducethesubstanceofarepublicintothe
actualadministrationofthegovernment，thoughitsformsdonotbearsuch
anexternalimpress。Ourrevolutionarystatesmenwerenotinsensibleto
thissilentbutpotentinfluence；andthefact，thatatthepresenttime
thelawofdivisibleinher—
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1To1770，Garnderv。Collins，2Peters’sSup。Ct。R。58。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。167
itancespervadestheUnion，isastrongproofOrthegeneralsense，not
merelyofitsequity，butofitspoliticalimportance。
§；181。Averycuriousquestionwasatonetime1agitated
beforetheking
incouncil，uponanappealfromConnecticut，howfarthestatuteOr
descentsanddistributions，dividingtheestateamongallthechildren，was
conformabletothecharterOrthatcolony，whichrequiredthelawstobe
"notcontrarytothelawsoftherealmofEngland。"Itwasuponthat
occasiondecided，thatthelawofdescents，givingthefemale，aswellas
themaleheirs，apartoftherealestate，wasrepugnanttothecharter，
andthereforevoid。Thisdeterminationcreatedgreatalarm，notonlyin
Connecticut，butelsewhere；sinceitmightcutdeepintothelegislationof
theothercolonies，anddisturbthefoundationofmanytitles。Thedecree
ofthecouncil，annullingthelaw，wasupontheurgentapplicationofsome
ofthecolonialagentsrevoked，andthelawreinstatedwithitsobligatory
force。2Atastilllaterperiodthesamequestionseemstohavebeen
presentedinasomewhatdifferentshapefortheconsiderationofthelaw
officersofthecrown；anditmaynowbegatheredastheruleof
construction，thateveninacolony，towhichthebenefitofthelawsof
Englandisexpresslyextended，thelawofdescentsofEnglandisnottobe
deemed，asnecessarilyinforcethere，ifitisinapplicabletotheir
situation；oratleast，thatachangeofitisnotbeyondthegeneral
competencyofthecoloniallegislature。3
§；182。2。Connectedwiththis，wemaynoticethestrong
tendencyofthe
coloniestomakelandsliableto
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1In1727。
21Pitk。Hist。125，126。
3Att。Gen。v。Stewart，2Meriv。R。143，157，158，159。
168HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
thepaymentofdebts。Insomeofthem，indeed，theEnglishruleprevailed
ofmakinglandsliableonlytoanextentuponanelegit。Butinbyfarthe
greatestnumber，landswereliabletobesetoffuponappraisement，orsold
forthepaymentofdebts。Andlandswerealsoassets，incasesofa
deficiencyofpersonalproperty，tobeappliedinthecourseof
administrationtodischargethedebtsofthepartydeceased。Thiswasa
naturalresultoftheconditionofthepeopleinanewcountry，who
possessedlittlemoniedcapital；whosewantswerenumerous；andwhose
desireofcreditwascorrespondentlygreat。Thetruepolicyinsucha
stateofthingswastomakeland，insomedegree，asubstituteformoney，
bygivingitallthefacilitiesoftransfer，andalltheprompt
applicabilityofpersonalproperty。Itwillbefound，thatthegrowthof
therespectivecolonieswasinnosmalldegreeaffectedbythis
circumstance。Complaintsweremade，andperhapsjustly，thatundue
prioritiesinpaymentofdebtsweregiventotheinhabitantsofthecolony
overallothercreditors；andthatoccasionalobstructionswerethrownin
thewayofcollectingdebts。1Buttheevilwasnotgeneralinits
operation；andthepolicy，whereveritwaspursued，retardedthegrowth，
andstintedthemeansofthesettlements。Forthepurpose，however，of
givinggreatersecuritytocreditors，aswellasforamoreeasyrecovery
ofdebtsdueintheplantationsandcoloniesinAmerica，thestatuteof5
George2，ch。7，[1732，]amongotherthingsdeclared，thatallhouses，
lands，negroes，andotherhereditamentsandrealestatesintheplantations
shouldbeliableto，andchargeablewiththedebtsoftheproprietor，and
beassetsforthesatisfaction
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11Chalm。Annals，692，693。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。169
thereof，inlikemannerasrealestatesarebythelawofEnglandliable，
tothesatisfactionofdebtsduebybondorotherspecialty，andshallbe
subjecttolikeremediesincourtsoflawandequity，forseizing，
extending，selling，anddisposingofthesame，towardssatisfactionofsuch
debts，inlikemanneraspersonalestatesinanyofsuchplantationsare
seized，extended，sold，ordisposedof，forsatisfactionofdebts。This
actdoesnotseemtohavebeenresistedonthepartofanyofthecolonies，
towhomitpeculiarlyapplied。1
§；183。Inrespecttothepoliticalrelationsofthecolonies
withthe
parentcountry，itisnoteasytostatetheexactlimitsofthedependency，
whichwasadmitted，andtheextentofsovereignty，whichmightbelawfully
exercisedoverthem，eitherbythecrown，orbyparliament。Inregardto
thecrown，allofthecoloniesadmitted，thattheyowedallegiancetothe
crown，astheirsovereignliegelord，thoughthenatureofthepowers，
whichhemightexercise，assovereign，werestillundefined。2
§；184。Inthesilenceofexpressdeclarationswemayresorttothe
doctrinesmaintainedbythecrownwriters，asfurnishing，ifnotanexact，
atleastacomprehensiveviewoftheclaimsoftheroyalprerogativeover
thecolonialestablishments。Theyconsidereditnotnecessarytomaintain，
thatalltheroyalprerogatives，exercisableinEngland，wereofcourse
exercisableinthecolonies；butonlysuchfundamentalrightsand
principles，asconstitutedthebasisofthethroneanditsauthority，and
withoutwhichthekingwouldceasetobesovereigninallhisdominions。
Hencetheattributes
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1Telfairv。Stead，2Cranch，407。
2Marshall’sColon。ch，13，p。153；
3Wilson’sWorks，236，237，238，244，242，243
170HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
ofsovereignty，perfection，perpetuity，andirresponsibility，whichwere
inherentinthepoliticalcapacityoftheking，belongedtohiminallthe
territoriessubjecttothecrown，whateverwasthenatureoftheirlaws，
andgovernmentinotherrespects。Everywherehewastheheadofthe
church，andthefountainofjustice；everywherehewasentitledtoashare
inthelegislation，exceptwherehehadexpresslyrenouncedit；every
wherehewasgeneralissimoofallforces，andentitledtomakepeaceor
war。Butminorprerogativesmightbeyielded，wheretheywereinconsistent
withthelawsorusagesoftheplace，orwereinapplicabletothecondition
ofthepeople。Ineveryquestion，thatrespectedtheroyalprerogativesin
thecolonies，wheretheywerenotofastrictlyfundamentalnature，the
firstthingtobeconsideredwas，whetherthecharteroftheparticular
colonycontainedanyexpressprovisiononthesubject。Ifitdid，thatwas
theguide。Ifitwassilent，thentheroyalprerogativeswereinthe
colonypreciselythesame，asintheparentcountry；forinsuchcasesthe
commonlawofEnglandwasthecommonlawofthecoloniesforsuchpurposes。
Hence，ifthecolonialchartercontainednopeculiargranttothe
contrary，thekingmighterectcourtsofjusticeandexchequertherein；and
thecolonialjudicatories，inpointoflaw，weredeemedtoemanatefromthe
crown，underthemodificationsmadebythecolonialassembliesundertheir
charters。Thekingalsomightextendtheprivilegeofsending
representativestonewtownsinthecolonialassemblies。Hemightcontrol，
andenteranolleprosequiincriminalprosecutions，andpardoncrimes，and
releaseforfeitures。Hemightpresenttovacantbenefices；andhewas
entitledtoroyalmonies，treasuretrove，escheats，andforfeitures。No
colonialassemblies
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。171
hadarighttoenactlaws，exceptwiththeassentofthe；crownbycharter，
orcommission，orotherwise；andiftheyexceededtheauthorityprescribed
bythecrown，theiractswerevoid。Thekingmightaltertheconstitution
andformofthegovernmentofthecolony，wheretherewasnocharter，or
otherconfirmatoryactbythecolonialassemblywiththeassentofthe
crown；anditrestedmerelyontheinstructionsandcommissionsgiven，from
timetotime，bythecrowntoitsgovernors。Thekinghadpoweralsoto
vestintheroyalgovernorsinthecolonies，fromtimetotime，suchofhis
prerogatives，asheshouldplease；suchasthepowertoprorogue，adjourn，
anddissolvethecolonialassemblies；toconfirmactsandlaws；topardon
offences；toactascaptaingeneralofthepublicforces；toappointpublic
officers；toactaschancellorandsupremeordinary；tositinthehighest
courtofappealsanderrors；toexercisethedutiesofvice—admiral，andto
grantcommissionstoprivateers。Theselast，andsomeotherofthe
prerogativesoftheking，werecommonlyexercisedbytheroyalgovernors
withoutobjection。
§；185。Thecolonialassemblieswerenotconsideredas
standingonthe
samefooting，asparliament，inrespectlorights，powers，andprivileges；
butasderivingalltheirenergiesfromthecrown，andlimitedbythe
respectivecharters，orotherconfirmatoryactsofthecrown，inalltheir
proceedings。Thekingmight，inrespecttoacolonialassembly，assentto
anactofassembly，beforeitmet，orratifyit，ordissentfromit，after
thesessionwasclosed。Hemightacceptasurrenderofacolonialcharter，
subjecttotherightsofthirdpersonspreviouslyacquired；andgivethe
colonyanewcharterorotherwiseinstitutethereinanewformof
government。Andithasbeenevencontended，thatthe
172HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
kingmight，incasesofextraordinarynecessityoremergency，takeawaya
charter，wherethedefenceorprotectionoftheinhabitantsrequiredit，
leavingtheminpossessionoftheircivilrights。
§；186。Sucharesomeoftheroyalprerogatives，whichwere
supposedto
existbythecrownwritersinthecolonialestablishments，whennot
restrainedbyanypositivecharterorbillofrights。Ofthese，manywere
undisputed；butotherswereresistedwithpertinacityandeffectinthe
colonialassemblies。1
§；187。Inregardtotheauthorityofparliamenttoenactlaws，
which
shouldbebindinguponthem，therewasquiteasmuchobscurity，andstill
morejealousy
spreadingoverthewholesubject。2ThegovernmentofGreatBritainalways
maintainedthedoctrine，thattheparliamenthadauthoritytobindthe
coloniesinallcaseswhatsoever。3Noactsofparliament，however，were
understoodtobindthecolonies，unlessexpresslynamedtherein。4Butin
America，atdifferenttimesandindifferentcolonies，differentopinions
wereentertainedonthesubject。5Infact，itseemedtobethepolicyof
thecolonies，asmuchaspossible，towithdrawthem—
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1Thereaderwillfindthesubjectoftheroyalprerogativeinthe
coloniesdiscussedatlargeinChittyonthePrerogativesofthe
Crown，ch。
3，p。25to40；inSpokesontheConstitutionoftheColonies，passim；in
Chalmers’sAnnalsoftheColonies；andinChalmers’sOpinions，2vols。
passim。SeealsoCom。Dig。Prerogative。
21Pitk。Hist。164to169，186，198，199，200to205；App。448，No。9；
Id。452，453；3Wilson’sWorks，238，239，240，241，242，243；2Wilson’s
Works，54，55，58；Mass。StatePapers，338，339，344，352to364；1Pitk。
Hist。255。
33Wilson’sWorks，205；IChalm。Annals，140，687，690；Stokes’s
Colon。146。
41Black。Comm。107，108；ChittyonPrerog。33。
51Pitk。Hist。198，199，200to205，206，209；Marshall’sColon。ch。
13，p。352；1ChittyonPrerog。29；1Chalmers’sOpinions，196to225；1
Pitk。Hist。ch。6，p。162to212。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。173
selvesfromanyacknowledgmentofsuchauthority，exceptsofarastheir
necessities，fromtimetotime，compelledthemtoacquiesceinthe
parliamentarymeasuresexpresslyextendingtothem。Wehavealreadyseen，
thattheyresistedtheimpositionoftaxesuponthem，withouttheconsent
oftheirlocallegislatures，fromaveryearlyperiod。1
§；188。Butitwasbynomeansanuncommonopinioninsomeofthe
colonies，especiallyintheproprietaryandchartergovernments，thatno
actofparliamentwhatsoevercouldbindthemwithouttheirownconsent。2
AnextremereluctancewasshownbyMassachusettstoanyparliamentary
interferenceasearlyas1640；3andthefamousnavigationactsof1651and
1660wereperpetuallyevaded，evenwhentheirauthoritywasnolonger
denied，throughoutthewholeofNew—England。4Massachusetts，in1679，inan
addresstothecrown，declared，thatshe"apprehendedthemtobean
invasionoftherights，liberties，andpropertiesofthesubjectsofhis
majestyinthecolony，theynotbeingrepresentedinparliament；and，
accordingtotheusualsayingsofthelearnedinthelaw，thelawsof
Englandwereboundedwithinthefourseas，anddidnotreachAmerica。"5
However，Massachusetts，aswellastheotherNewEnglandcolonies，finally
acquiescedintheauthorityofparliamenttoregulatetradeandcommerce；
butdenieditinregardtotaxationandinternalregulationofthe
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1Marshall’sColon。ch。13，p。353；1Pitk。Hist。89，90，&c。98；
Id。164，174，179，182to212；Mass。StatePapers，359to364。
21Pitk。Hist。91；1Chalm。Annals，443。
32Winthrop’sJour。25。
41Chalm。Annals，277，280，407，440，443，448，452，460，462，639，668；
3Hutch。Coll。496；Mass。StatePapers，[1818，]Introduction；Id。
50；2
Wilson’sWorks，62。
51Chalm。Ann。407；1Hutch。Hist。322；2Wilson’sWorks，62，63。
174HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
colonies。1Aslateas1757，thegeneralcourtofMassachusettsadmitted
theconstitutionalauthorityofparliamentinthefollowingwords：——"The
authorityofallactsofparliament，whichconcernthecolonies，andextend
tothem，iseveracknowledgedinallthecourtsoflaw，andmadetherule
ofalljudicialproceedingsintheprovince。Thereisnotamemberofthe
generalcourt，andweknownoinhabitantwithintheboundsofthe
government，thateverquestionedthisauthority。"2Andinanotheraddress
in1761，theydeclared，that"everyactwemake，repugnanttoanactof
parliamentextendingtotheplantations，isipsofactonullandvoid。3
Andatalaterperiod，in1768，inacircularaddresstotheother
colonies，theyadmitted，"thathismajesty’shighcourtofParliamentis
thesupremelegislativepoweroverthewholeempire；"contending，however，
thatasBritishsubjectstheycouldnotbetaxedwithouttheirown
consent。4
§；189。"Inthemiddleandsouthernprovinces，"weare
informedbyamost
respectablehistorian，5"noquestionrespectingthesupremacyof
parliamentinmattersofgenerallegislationexisted。Theauthorityof
suchactsofinternalregulation，asweremadeforAmer—
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11Pitk。Hist。92，98，181to212，285，473，475；1Chalm。Annals，452，
460；1Hutch。Hist。322；3Hutch。Hist。23，24；Dummer’sDefence，1
AmericanTracts，51；Burke’sSpeechonTaxationin1774，andon
Conciliationin1775。
23Hutch。Hist。66；Mass。StatePapers，337。
33Hutch。Hist。92；App。463；Marshall’sColon。
No。5，p。472。
4Marshall’sColon。ch。13，p。371；App。No。5，p。472，473；1
Pitk。Hist。186；App。448，450，453，458。——Thiswasthegroundasserted
inMr。J。Otis’scelebratedpamphletontheRightsoftheColonies。1
AmericanTracts，[1766，]48，52，54，56，59，66，73，99；andalsoin
Dulany’sConsiderationsonTaxingtheColonies，1Amer。Tracts，14，18，
36，52。Seealso1Jefferson’sCorresp。6，7，12。
5Marshall’sColon。ch。13，p。354。Seealso1Pitk。Hist。162，212，
255，275，276；1Jefferson’sCorresp。6，7，104；Id。117。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。175
ica，aswellasthosefortheregulationofcommerce，evenbythe
impositionofduties，providedthesedutieswereimposedforthepurposeof
regulation，hadbeenatalltimesadmitted。Butthesecolonies，however
theymightacknowledgethesupremacyofparliamentinotherrespects，
deniedtherightofthatbodytotaxtheminternally。"Iftherewereany
exceptionstothegeneralaccuracyofthisstatement，theyseemtohave
beentoofewandfugitivetoimpairthegeneralresult。1Inthecharterof
Pennsylvania，anexpressreservationwasmadeofthepoweroftaxationby
anactofparliament，thoughthiswasarguednottobeasufficient
foundationfortheexerciseofit。2
§；190。Perhapsthebestgeneralsummaryoftherightsandliberties
assertedbyallthecoloniesiscontainedinthecelebrateddeclaration
drawnupbytheCongressoftheNineColonies，assembledatNewYork，in
October，1765。3Thatdeclarationasserted，thatthecolonists"owethe
sameallegiancetothecrownofGreatBritain，thatisowingfromhis
subjectsbornwithintherealm，andallduesubordinationtothataugust
body，theparliamentofGreatBritain。"Thatthecolonists"areentitled
toalltheinherentrightsandlibertiesofhis[theking’s]naturalborn
subjectswithinthekingdomofGreatBritain。""Thatitisinseparably
essentialtothefreedomofapeople，andtheundoubtedrightof
Englishmen，thatnotaxesbeimposedonthem，butwiththeirownconsent，
givenpersonally，orbytheirrepresentatives。"Thatthepeopleofthe"
colo—
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11Pitk。Hist。92，96，98，162to212；App。No。4，448，450，453。
21Chalmers’sAnnals，638，658；2Amer。Tracts，RightsofParlia。Vend。
25。26；3Amer。Tracts，App。51；Id。Franklin’sExam。46
3TheninestateswereMassachusetts，Rhode—Island，Connecticut，New—York，
New—Jersey，Pennsylvania，Delaware，Maryland，andSouthCarolina。
176HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
niesarenot，andfromtheirlocalcircumstancescannotberepresentedin
thehouseofcommonsofGreatBritain。Thattheonlyrepresentativesof
thesecoloniesarepersonschosenthereinbythemselves；andthatnotaxes
everhavebeen，orcanbe，constitutionallyimposeduponthem，butbytheir
respectivelegislatures。Thatallsuppliesofthecrownbeingfreegifts
fromthepeople，itisunreasonableandinconsistentwiththeprinciples
andspiritoftheBritishconstitutionforthepeopleofGreatBritainto
granttohismajestythepropertyofthecolonies。Andthatthetrialby
juryistheinherentandinvaluablerightofeveryBritishsubjectinthese
colonies。"1
§；191。Wehereobserve，thatthesuperintendingauthorityof
parliamentis
admittedingeneralterms；andthatabsoluteindependenceofitisnoteven
suggested，althoughinsubsequentclausescertaingrievancesbythestamp
act，andbycertainactslevyingdutiesandrestrainingtradeinthe
colonies，aredisapprovedofinverystronglanguage。2Inthereportofthe
committeeofthesamebodyonthesubjectofcolonialrights，drawnupwith
greatability，itwasstated，"itisacknowledged，thattheparliament，
collectivelyconsidered，asconsistingofking，lords，andcommons，arethe
supremelegislatureofthewholeempire；andassuch，haveanundoubted
jurisdictionoverthewholecolonies，sofarasisconsistentwithour
essentialrights，ofwhichalsotheyareandmustbethefinaljudges；and
eventheapplicationsandpetitionstothekingandparliamenttoimplore
reliefinourpresentdifficulties，willbeanamplerecognitionofour
subjectionto，anddependenceupon
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1Marsh。Hist。Colonies，ch。13，p。360，470，471；1Pitk。Hist。
178，179，180，446。
2Marsh。Hist。Colon。p。471，note4。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。177
thelegislature。"1Andtheycontended，that"thereisavastdifference
betweentheexerciseofparliamentaryjurisdictioningeneralactsforthe
amendmentofthecommonlaw，oreveningeneralregulationsoftradeand
commercethroughtheempire，andtheactualexerciseofthatjurisdiction
inlevyingexternalandinternaldutiesandtaxesonthecolonists，while
theyneitherare，norcanberepresentedinparliament。"2Andinthe
petitionofthesamebodytothehouseofcommons，thereisthefollowing
declaration："Wemostsincerelyrecogniseourallegiancetothecrown，and
acknowledgeallduesubordinationtotheparliamentofGreatBritain，and
shallalwaysretainthemostgratefulsenseoftheirassistanceand
protection。"3Butitisadded，thereis"amaterialdistinctioninreason
andsoundpolicybetweenthenecessaryexerciseofparliamentary
jurisdictioningeneralactsfortheamendmentofthecommonlaw，andthe
regulationoftradeandcommerce，throughthewholeempire；andthe
exerciseofthatjurisdictionbyimposingtaxesonthecolonies；"4thus
admittingtheformertoberightful，whiledenyingthelatter。5
§；192。Butafterthepassageofthestampact，in1765，many
ofthe
coloniesbegantoexaminethissubjectwithmorecareandtoentertain
everydifferentopinions，astoparliamentaryauthority。Thedoctrines
maintainedindebateinparliament，aswellasthealarmingextent，to
whichapracticalapplicationofthosedoctrinesmightlead，indryingup
theresources，andpros—
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1Pitk。Hist。448，450。
21Pitk。Hist。453，454。
34Amer。Museum，89。
44Amer。Museum，89，90。
5ThecelebratedDeclarationoftheRightsofthecoloniesbyCongressin
1774hereaftercitedcontainsasummarynotessentiallydifferent。1
Journ。ofCongress，27to31。
178HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
tratingthestrengthandprosperityofthecolonies，drovethemtoamore
closeandnarrowsurveyofthefoundationofparliamentarysupremacy。
Doubtsweresooninfusedintotheirminds；andfromdoubtstheypassedby
aneasytransitiontoadenial，firstofthepoweroftaxation，andnextof
allauthoritywhatevertobindthembyitslaws。1Oneofthemost
distinguishedofourwriters2duringthecontestadmits，thatheentered
upontheinquiry"withaviewandexpectationofbeingabletotracesome
constitutionallinebetweenthosecases，inwhichweought，andthose，in
whichweoughtnottoacknowledgethepowerofparliamentoverus。Inthe
prosecutionofhisinquirieshebecamefullyconvinced，thatsuchaline
doesnotexist；andthattherecanbenomediumbetweenacknowledgingand
denyingthatpowerinallcases。"
§；193。Ifothercoloniesdidnotimmediatelyarriveatthesame
conclusion，itwaseasytoforesee，thatthestrugglewouldultimatelybe
maintaineduponthegeneralground；andthatacommoninterestandacommon
desireofsecurity，ifnotofindependence，wouldgraduallybringallthe
coloniestofeeltheabsolutenecessityofadheringtoit，astheirtruest
andsafestdefence。3In1773，Massachusettsfoundnodifficultyin
contendinginthebroadesttermsforanunlimitedindependenceof
parliament，andinaboldanddecidedtonedeniedallitspowerof
legislationoverthem。Adistinctionwastakenbetweensubjectionto
parliament，andallegi—
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11Jefferson’sCorresp。6，7，12，104to116。
23Wilson’sWorks，203；Mass。StatePapers，339，340。
33Wilson’sWorks，221，222，226，227，229，237，238；2Wilson’sWorks，
54，55，58to63；1Pitk。Hist。242，243，246，248，249，250；Mass。
StatePapers，331，333，337，339，342to364；
4Debrett’sParl。Debates，
251，&c。note；Marsh。Hist。Colon。ch。14，p。412，4831Jefferson’s
Corresp。6，7，12，100，104to116。
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。179
ancetothecrown。Thelatterwasadmitted；buttheformerwasresolutely
opposed。1Itisremarkable，thattheDeclarationofIndependence，which
setsforthourgrievancesinsuchwarmandglowingcolors，doesnotonce
mentionparliament，oralludetoourconnexionwithit；buttreatstheacts
ofoppressionthereinreferredto，asactsoftheking，incombination"
withothers"fortheoverthrowofourliberties。2
§；194。Thecoloniesgenerallydidnot，however，atthis
periodconcurin
thesedoctrinesofMassachusetts，andsomedifficultiesaroseamongthemin
thediscussionsonthissubject。Eveninthedeclarationofrights3drawn
upbythecontinentalcongressin1774，andpresentedtotheworld，as
theirdeliberateopinionofcolonialprivileges，whileitwasasserted，
thattheywereentitledtoafreeandexclusivepoweroflegislationin
theirprovinciallegislatures，inallcasesoftaxationandinternal
policy，theyadmittedfromthenecessityofthecase，andaregardtothe
mutualinterestsofbothcountries，thatparliamentmightpasslawsbona
fidefortheregulationofexternalcommerce，thoughnottoraisea
revenue，forthepurposeofsecuringthecommercialadvantagesofthewhole
empiretothemothercountry，andthecommercialbenefitsofitsrespective
members。4Anutterdenialofallparliamentaryauthor—
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1Mass。StatePapers，edit。1818，p。342to365，383to396；1
Pitk。Hist。250，251，453，454。
21Jefferson’sCorresp。6，7，12，100to116。
31Pitk。Hist。285，286，340，344；Journ。ofCongress，1774，p。28，29；
Marsh。Colon。ch。14，p。412，483。
4Asthisdocumentisveryimportant，andnoteasilyfound，thematerial
clauseswillbehereextracted。Afterrecitingmanyactsof
grievance，the
Declarationproceedsasfollows：
"ThegoodpeopleoftheseveralcoloniesofNew—Hampshire，Massachusetts
Bay，Rhode—IslandandProvidencePlantationsConnecticut，New—York，
New—Jersey，Pennsylvania，Newcastle，Kent，andSussexon
180HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
itywasnotgenerallymaintaineduntilafterindependencewasinthefull
contemplationofmostofthecolonies。
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Delaware，Maryland，Virginia，North—Carolina，andSouth—Carolina，justly
alarmedatthesearbitraryproceedingsofparliamentandadministration，
haveseverallyelected，constituted，andappointeddeputiestomeetandsit
ingeneralcongress，inthecityofPhiladelphia，inordertoobtainsuch
establishment，asthattheirreligion，laws，andlibertiesmaynotbe
subverted：Whereuponthedeputiessoappointedbeingnowassembled，ina
fullandfreerepresentationofthesecolonies，takingintotheirmost
seriousconsiderationthebestmeansofattainingtheendsaforesaid，doin
thefirstplace，asEnglishmen，theirancestors，inlikecaseshaveusually
done，forassertingandvindicationtheirrightsandliberties，DECLARE，
"ThattheinhabitantsoftheEnglishcoloniesinNorth—America，bythe
immutablelawsofnature，theprinciplesoftheEnglishconstitution，and
theseveralchartersorcompacts，havethefollowingRIGHTS。
"Resolved，N。C。D。1。Thattheyareentitledtolife，liberty，and
property；andtheyhavenevercededtoanysovereignpowerwhatever，a
righttodisposeofeitherwithouttheirconsent。
"Resolved，N。C。D。2。Thatourancestors，whofirstsettledthese
colonies，were，atthetimeoftheiremigrationfromthemothercountry，
entitledtoalltherights，liberties，andimmunitiesoffreeandnatural
bornsubjects，withintherealmofEngland。
"Resolved，N。，。D。3。Thatbysuchemigrationtheybynomeans
forfeited，surrendered，orlostanyofthoserights，butthattheywere，
andtheirdescendantsnoware，entitledtotheexerciseandenjoymentof
allsuchofthem，astheirlocalandothercircumstancesenablethemto
exerciseandenjoy。
"Resolved，4。ThatthefoundationofEnglishlibertyandofallfree
governmentisarightinthepeopletoparticipateintheirlegislative
council：andastheEnglishcolonistsarcnotrepresented，andfromtheir
localandothercircumstancescannotproperlyberepresentedintheBritish
parliament，theyarcentitledtoafreeandexclusivepoweroflegislation
intheirseveralprovinciallegislatures，wheretheirrightof
representationcanalonebepreserved，inallcasesoftaxationand
internalpolity，subjectonlytothenegativeoftheirsovereign，insuch
manner，ashasbeenheretoforeusedandaccustomed。Butfromthenecessity
ofthecase，andaregardtothemutualinterestsofbothcountries，we
cheerfullyconsenttotheoperationofsuchactsoftheBritishparliament，
asarebonafiderestrainedtotheregulationofourexternalcommerce，for
thepurposeofsecuringthecommercialadvantagesofthewholeempireto
themothercountryandthecommercialbenefitsofitsrespectivemembers；
excludingeveryideaoftaxation，internalorexter—
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。181
§；195。Theprincipalgrounds，onwhichparliamentasserted
therightto
makelawstobindthecoloniesinallcaseswhatsoever，were，thatthe
colonieswereoriginallyestablishedunderchartersfromthecrown；that
theterritoriesweredependenciesoftherealm，and
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nat，forraisingarevenueonthesubjectsinAmericawithouttheircon—sent。
"Resolved，N。C。D。5。Thattherespectivecoloniesareentitledto
thecommonlawofEngland，andmoreespeciallytothegreatandinestimable
privilegeofbeingtriedbytheirpeersofthevicinage，accordingtothe
courseofthatlaw。
"Resolved，6。Thattheyareentitledtothebenefitofsuchofthe
Englishstatutes，asexistedatthetimeoftheircolonization；andwhich
theyhave，byexperience，respectivelyfoundtobeapplicabletotheir
severallocalandothercircumstances。
"Resolved，N。C。D。7。Thatthese，hismajesty’scolonies，are
likewiseentitledtoalltheimmunitiesandprivilegesgrantedand
confirmedtothembyroyalcharters，orsecuredbytheirseveralcodesof
provinciallaws。
"Resolved，N。C。D。8。Thattheyhavearightpeaceablytoassemble，
consideroftheirgrievances，andpetitionthekingandthatall
prosecutions，prohibitoryproclamations，andcommitmentsforthesame，are
illegal。
"Resolved，N。C。D。9。Thatthekeepingastandingarmyinthese
colonies，intimesofpeace，withouttheconsentofthelegislatureofthat
colony，inwhichsucharmyiskept，isagainstlaw。
"Resolved，N。C。D。10。Itisindispensablynecessarytogood
government，andrenderedessentialbytheEnglishconstitution，thatthe
constituentbranchesofthelegislaturebeindependentofeachother；that，
therefore，theexerciseoflegislativepowerinseveralcolonies，bya
councilappointed，duringpleasure，bythecrown，isunconstitutional，
dangerous，anddestructivetothefreedomofAmericanlegislation。
"All，andeachofwhich，theaforesaiddeputiesinbehalfofthemselves，
andtheirconstituents，doclaim，demand，andinsiston，astheir
indubitablerightsandliberties；whichcannotbelegallytakenfromthem，
altered，orabridgedbyanypowerwhatever，withouttheirownconsent，by
theirrepresentativesintheirseveralprovinciallegislatures。"
TheplanofconciliationproposedbytheprovincialconventionofNewYork
in1775，explicitlyadmits，"thatfromthenecessityofthecaseGreat
Britainshouldregulatethetradeofthewholeempireforthegeneral
benefitofthewholebutnotfortheseparatebenefitofanyparticular
part。"1Pitk。Hist。ch。9，p。344。
182HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。[BOOKI。
thecrowncouldnotbyitsgrantsexemptthemfromthesupremelegislative
powerofparliament，whichextendedwhereverthesovereigntyofthecrown
extended；thatthecolonistsintheirnewsettlementsowedthesame
subjectionandallegiancetothesupremepower，asiftheyresidedin
England，andthatthecrownhadnoauthoritytoenterintoanycompactto
impairit；thatthelegislativepoweroverthecoloniesissupremeand
sovereign；thatthesupremepowermustbeentireandcompleteintaxation，
aswellasinlegislation；thatthereisnodifferencebetweenagrantof
dutiesonmerchandise，andagrantoftaxesandsubsidies；thatthereisno
differencebetweenexternalandinternaltaxes，andthoughdifferentin
name，theyareineffectthesame；thattaxationisapartofthesovereign
power，andthatitmayberightfullyexercisedoverthose，whoarenot
represented。1
§；196。The—grounds，onwhichthecoloniesresistedtheright
oftaxation
byparliament，were，aswehaveseen，thattheywerenotrepresentedin
parliament；thattheywereentitledtoalltheprivilegesandimmunitiesof
Britishsubjects；thatthelattercouldnotbetaxedbutbytheirown
representatives；thatrepresentationandtaxationwereinseparably
connected；thattheprinciplesoftaxationwereessentiallydistinctfrom
thoseoflegislation；thatthereisawidedifferencebetweenthepowerof
internalandexternaltaxation；thatthecolonieshadalwaysenjoyedthe
solerightofimposingtaxesuponthemselves；andthatitwasessentialto
theirfreedom。2
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11Pitk。Hist。199，201，202，204，205，206，208，209，457；Mass。
StatePapers，338，339；1Chalm。Annals，15，28；2Wilson’sLawLect。54
to63；ChittyonPrerog。ch。3；1Chalm。Opin。196to225。
21Pitk。Hist。190，200，201，208，209，211，219，285to288，311，443，
CH。XVII。]GENERALREVIEW。183
§；197。Thestampactwasrepealed；butwithinafewyearsafterwards
dutiesofanothersortwerelaid，theobjectofwhichwastoraisea
revenuefromimportationsintothecolonies。Theseofcoursebecameas
offensivetothecoloniesasthepriorattemptatinternaltaxation；and
wereresisteduponthesamegroundsofunconstitutionality。1Itsoon
becameobvious，thatthegreatstruggleinrespecttocolonialand
parliamentaryrightscouldscarcelybedecidedotherwise，thanbyanappeal
toarms。GreatBritainwasresolutelybentuponenforcingherclaimsbyan
openexerciseofmilitarypower；andontheotherhand，Americascarcely
sawanyotherchoicelefttoher，butunconditionalsubmission，orboldand
unmeasuredresistance。
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446，447，448，453，458，459，467；Mass。StatePapers，344，345，346to
351；4Debrett’sParl。Debates，251，note，&c。；2Wilson’sLawLect。54
to63。
1Pitk。Hist。217，219，&c。？？
BOOKII。
HISTORYOFTHEREVOLUTIONANDOFTHE
CONFEDERATION。
CHAPTERI。
THEREVOLUTION。
§；198。WEhavenowcompletedoursurveyoftheoriginandpolitical
historyoftheAmericancoloniesuptotheperiodoftheRevolution。We
haveexaminedthemoreimportantcoincidencesanddifferencesintheir
formsofgovernment，intheirlaws，andintheirpoliticalinstitutions。
Wehavepresentedageneraloutlineoftheiractualrelationswiththe
parentcountry；oftherights，whichtheyclaimed；ofthedependence，which
theyadmitted；andofthecontroversies，whichexistedatthisperiod，in
respect。tosovereignpowersandprerogativesononeside，andcolonial
rightsandlibertiesontheother。
§；199。Wearenexttoproceedtoanhistoricalreviewofthe
originof
thatunionofthecolonies，whichledtothedeclarationofindependence；
oftheeffectsofthatevent，andofthesubsequentwaruponthepolitical
characterandrightsofthecolonies；oftheformationandadoptionofthe
articlesofconfederation；ofthesovereignpowersantecedentlyexercised
bythecontinentalcongress；ofthepowersdelegatedbythe
CH。I。]HISTORYOFTHEREVOLUTION。185
confederationtothegeneralgovernment；ofthecausesofthedeclineand
falloftheconfederation；andfinally，oftheestablishmentofthepresent
constitutionoftheUnitedStates。Havingdisposedoftheseinteresting
andimportanttopics，weshallthenbepreparedtoenteruponthe
examinationofthedetailsofthatconstitution，whichhasjustlybeen
deemedoneofthemostprofoundeffortsofhumanwisdom，andwhichitis
believedwillawakenouradmiration，andwarmouraffectionmoreandmore，
asitsexcellenciesareunfoldedinaminuteandcarefulsurvey。
§；200。Noredressofgrievanceshavingfolloweduponthemany
appeals
madetotheking，andtoparliament，byandinbehalfofthecolonies，
eitherconjointlyorseparately，itbecameobvioustothem，thatacloser
unionandco—operationwerenecessarytovindicatetheirrights，and
protecttheirliberties。Ifaresorttoarmsshouldbeindispensable，it
wasimpossibletohopeforsuccess，butinunitedefforts。Ifpeaceable
redresswastobesought，itwasasclear，thatthevoiceofthecolonies
mustbeheard，andtheirpowerfeltinanationalorganization。In1774
Massachusettsrecommendedtheassemblingofacontinentalcongressto
deliberateuponthestateofpublicaffairs；andaccordingtoher
recommendation，delegateswereappointedbythecoloniesforacongress，to
beheldinPhiladelphiaintheautumnofthesameyear。Insomeofthe
legislaturesofthecolonies，whichweretheninsession，delegateswere
appointedbythepopular，orrepresentativebranch；andinothercasesthey
wereappointedbyconventionsofthepeopleinthecolonies。1Thecon—
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11Journ。ofCong。2，3。&c。27，45；9Dane’sAbridg。App。§；5，p。
16，§；10，p。21。
186HISTORYOFTHEREVOLUTION。[BOOKII。
gressofdelegatescallingthemselvesintheirmoreformalacts"the
delegatesappointedbythegoodpeopleofthesecolonies"assembledonthe
4thofSeptember，1774；1andhavingchosenofficers，theyadoptedcertain
fundamentalrulesfortheirproceedings。
§；201。Thuswasorganizedundertheauspices，andwiththe
consentofthe
people，actingdirectlyintheirprimary，sovereigncapacity，andwithout
theinterventionofthefunctionaries，towhomtheordinarypowersof
governmentweredelegatedinthecolonies，thefirstgeneralornational
government，whichhasbeenveryaptlycalled"therevolutionary
government，"sinceinitsoriginandprogressitwaswhollyconductedupon
revolutionaryprinciples。2Thecongress，thusassembled，exercisedde
factoanddejureasovereignauthority；notasthedelegatedagentsofthe
governmentsdefactoofthecolonies，butinvirtueoforiginalpowers
derivedfromthepeople。Therevolutionarygovernment，thusformed，
terminatedonly，whenitwasregularlysupercededbytheconfederated
governmentunderthearticlesfinallyratified，asweshallhereaftersee，
in1781。3