[26]Inthefollowingportrayaloftheancientrégime，thebombastandcredulityofthedayoverflowsinthemostextravagantexaggerations（BuchezetRoux，XXXI。，300，Report，bySaint—Just，February26，1794。）:"In1788，LouisXVI。CausedeightthousandpersonsofbothsexesandofeveryagetobesacrificedintherueMeslayandonthePont—Neuf。ThesesceneswererepeatedbythecourtontheChampsdeMars；thecourthadhangingsintheprisons，andthebodiesofthedrownedfoundintheSeinewereitsvictims。Thesewerefourhundredthousandprisonersinconfinement；fifteenthousandsmugglerswerehunginayear，andthreethousandmenwerebrokenonthewheel；thereweremoreprisonersinParisthantherearenow……LookatEurope。TherearefourmillionsofpeopleshutupinEuropewhoseshrieksareneverheard。"—Ibid。，XXIV。，132。（SpeechbyRobespierre，May10，1793）。"Uptothistimetheartofgoverninghassimplyconsistedintheartofstrippingandsubduingthemassesforthebenefitofthefew，andlegislation，themodeofreducingtheseoutragestoasystem。"
[27]BuchezetRoux，XXXII。，353。（ReportbyRobespierretotheConvention，May7，1794。）"Naturetellsusthatmanisbornforfreedomwhiletheexperienceofmanforcenturiesshowshimaslave。
Hisrightsarewritteninhisheartandhistoryrecordshishumiliation。"
[28]Ibid。，372。"Priestsaretomoralitywhatcharlatansaretomedicalpractice。HowdifferentistheGodofnaturefromtheGodofthepriests！Iknowofnothingwhichissomuchlikeatheismasthereligionstheyhavemanufactured。"Already，intheConstituentAssembly，Robespierrewantedtopreventthefatherfromendowingachild。"Youhavedonenothingforlibertyifyourslawsdonottendtodiminishbymildandeffectivemeanstheinequalityoffortunes。"
（Hamel，I。，403。）
[29]DecreeofFrimaire18，yearII。—Notetherestrictions:"Theconvention，intheforegoingarrangement，hasnoideaofderogatingfromanylaworprecautionforpublicsafetyagainstrefractoryorturbulentpriests，oragainstthosewhomightattempttoabusethepretextofreligioninordertocompromisethecauseofliberty。Nordoesitmeantodisapproveofwhathasthusfarbeendonebyvirtueoftheordinancesofrepresentativesofthepeople，nortofurnishanybodywithapretextforunsettlingpatriotismandrelaxingtheenergyofpublicspirit。"
[30]DecreesofMay27，andAugust26，1792，March18，April21andOctober20，1793，April11，andMay11，1794。—Add（Moniteur，XIX。，697）thedecreeprovidingfortheconfiscationofthepossessionsofecclesiastics"whohavevoluntarilyleftorbeensoreported，whoareretiredasoldorinform，orwhohavepreferredtransportationtoretirement。"—Ibid。，XVIII。，492，（sessionofFrimaire2）。AspeechbyForester。"Astothepriesthood，itscontinuationhasbecomeadisgraceandevenacrime。"—ArchivesNationales，AF。II。，36。（AnorderbyLequinio，representativeofthepeopleofCharante—Inférieur，laVendéeandDeux—Sèvres，Saintes，Nivose1，yearII。）"Inorderthatfreedomofworshipmayexistinfullplenitudeitisforbiddentoallwhomitmayconcerntopreachorwriteinfavorofanyformofworshiporreligiousopinionwhatsoever。"Andespecially"itisexpresslyforbiddentoanyformerminister，belongingtoanyreligioussectwhatever，topreach，writeorteachmoralityunderpenaltyofbeingregardedasasuspectand，assuch，immediatelyputunderarrest……Everymanwhoundertakestopreachanyreligiouspreceptswhatsoeveris，bythatfact，culpablebeforethepeople。Heviolates……socialequality，whichdoesnotpermittheindividualtopubliclyraisehisidealpretensionsabovethoseofhisneighbor。"
[31]LudoficSciout，"HistoiredelaConstitutionCivileduclergé，"
vols。III。andIV。，passim。—JulesSauzay，"HistoiredelapersécutionrévolutionairedansleDoubs，"vols。III。，IV。，V。，andVI。，particularlythelist，attheendofthework，ofthosedeported，guillotined，sentintotheinteriorandimprisoned。
[32]OrderofthedayoftheConventionSeptember17，1792；circularoftheExecutiveCouncil，January22，1793；decreesoftheConvention，July19，August12，September17，November15，1793。—Moniteur，October，andNovember，1793，passim。（November23，OrderoftheParisCommune，closingthechurches。）—Inrelationtotheterrortheconstitutionalpriestswereunder，Imerelygivethefollowingextracts（ArchivesNationales，F7，31167）:"CitizenPontard，bishopofthedepartmentofDordogne，lodginginthehouseofcitizenBourbon，No。66faubourgSaint—Honoré，onbeinginformedthattherewasanarticleinanewspapercalled"leRepublican"statingthatameetingofpriestshadbeenheldinthesaidhouse，declaresthathehadnoknowledgeofit；thatalltheofficersinchargeoftheapartmentsareinharmonywiththeRevolution；that，ifhehadhadoccasiontosuspectsuchacircumstance，hewouldhavemoveoutimmediately，andthatifanymotivecanpossiblybedetectedinsuchareportitishisproposedmarriagewiththenieceofcitizenCaminade，anexcellentpatriotandcaptainofthe9thcompanyoftheChamps—Elyséessection，amarriagewhichputsanendtofanaticisminhisdepartment，unlessthisbedonebytheordinationofapriestàlasans—culottewhichhehaddoneyesterdayinthechapel，anotheractinharmonywiththeRevolution。Itiswelltoadd，perhaps，thatoneofhiscurésnowinParishascalledonhim，andthathecametorequesthimtosecondhismarriage。ThenameofthesaidcuréisGreffierSauvage；heisstillinParis，andispreparingtobemarriedthesametimeashimself。
Asidefromthesemotives，whichmayhavegivenrisetosometalk，citizenPontardseesnocausewhateverforsuspicion。Besides，sothoroughlypatrioticashe，heasksnothingbetterthantoknowthetruth，inordertomarchalongunhesitatinglyintherevolutionarypath。Hesighshisdeclaration，promisingtosupporttheRevolutiononalloccasions，byhiswritingsaswellasbyhisconduct。HepresentsthetwonumbersofhisjournalwhichhehashadprintedinParisinsupportoftheprinciplesheadheresto。AtParis，September7，1793，yearII。OftheRepublic，oneandindivisible。F。Pontard，bishopoftheRepublicinthedepartmentofDordogne。"—DaubanLaDemagogieen1793，p。557。ArrestofrepresentativeOsselin，letterhisbrother，curéofSaint—Aubin，tothecommitteeofsectionMutiusSc？vola，Brumaire20，yearII。，"LikeBrutusandMutiusSc？vola，I
trampleonthefeelingswithwhichIidolisedmybrother！O，truth，thoudivinityofrepublicans，thouknowesttheincorruptibilityofmayintentions！"（andsoonforfifty—threelines）。"Thesearemysentiments，Iamfraternally，Osselin，ministerofworshipatSaint—
Aubin。"—P。S。"ItwasjustasIwasgoingtoansweracallofnaturethatIlearnedthisafflictingnews。"（Hekeepsupthisbombastuntilwordsfailhim，andfinally，frightenedtodeath，andhisbrainexhausted，hegivesthispostscripttoshowthathewasnotanaccomplice。）
[33]Atermdenotingthesubstitutionofteninsteadofsevendaysasadivisionoftimeinthecalendar，andforcedintouseduringtheRevolution。
[34]"Recuildepiecesauthentiquesservantàl’histoiredelarevolutionàStrasbourg，"II。，299。（Adistrictorder。）
[35]Later，whenLeninandStalinresurrectedJacobinism，theyplacedtheheadquartersofanysubversivemovementoutsidethecountrywhereitoperated。（SR。）
[36]ThermidorreferstotheaveryimportantdayandeventduringtheFrenchRevolution:thedayRobespierrefell:Thermidor9，yearII，（July27，1794），Robespierre’sfall，effectivethe10，waspreparedbyhisadversaries，Tallien，Barras，Fouchéetc。，essentiallybecausetheyfearedfortheirlives。Robespierreand21ofhisfollowerswereexecutedontheeveningofthe10thofThermidoryearII。（SR。）。
[37]LudovicSciout，IV。，426。（InstructionssentbytheDirectorytotheNationalCommissions，Frimaire，yearII。）—Ibid。，ch。X。toXVIII。
[38]Ibid。，IV。，688。AnorderoftheDirector，Germinal14，yearVI。
—"Themunicipalgovernmentswilldesignatespecialdaysineachdecadeformarketdaysintheirrespectivedistricts，andnotallow，inanycase，theirordinancetobesetasideonthepleathatthesaidmarketdayswouldfallonaholiday。Theywillspeciallystrivetobreakupallconnectionbetweenthesalesoffishanddaysoffastingdesignatedontheoldcalendar。Everypersonexposingfoodorwaresonsaleinthemarketsondaysotherthanthosefixedbythemunicipalgovernmentwillbeprosecutedinthepolicecourtforobstructingapublicthoroughfare。"—TheThermidoriansremainequallyasanti—
Catholicastheirpredecessors；only，theydisavowopenpersecutionandrelyonslowpressure。（Moniteur，XIII。，523。SpeechbyBoissyd’Anglas，Vent？se3，yearII。）"Keepaneyeonwhatyoucannothinder；
regulatewhatyoucannotprohibit……Itwillnotbelongbeforetheseabsurddogmas，theoffspringoffearanderror，whoseinfluenceonthehumanmindhasbeensosteadilydestructive，willbeknownonlytobedespised……ItwillnotbelongbeforethereligionofSocrates，ofMarcusAureliusandCicerowillbethereligionofthewholeworld。"
[39]Moniteur，XVI。，646。（TheKing’strial。）SpeechbyRobespierre:
"therightofpunishingthetyrantandofdethroninghimisoneandthesamething。"—SpeechbySaint—Just:"Royaltyisaneternalcrime，againstwhicheverymanhastherightoftakinguparms……Toreigninnocentlyisimpossible！"
[40]EpigraphofMarat’sjournal:Utereadaptmiseries，abetFortunasuperbis。
[41]BuchezetRoux，XXXII。，323。（ReportofSaint—Just，Germinal21，yearII。，andadecreeofGerminal26—29，Art。4，13，15。）—Ibid。，315。
[42]BuchezetRoux，（ReportofSaint—Just，October10，1793。）"Thatwouldbetheonlygoodtheycoulddotheircountry……Itwouldbenomorethanjustforthepeopletoreignoveritsoppressorsinitsturn，andthattheirprideshouldbebathedinthesweatoftheirbrows。"
[43]Ibid。，XXXI。，309。（ReportofSaint—Just，Vent？se8，yearII。）
[44]Ibid。，XXVI。435。（SpeechbyRobespierreontheconstitution，May10，1793。）"Whatwereourusagesandpretendedlawsotherthanacodeofimpertinenceandbaseness，wherecontemptofmenwassubjecttoasortoftariff，andgraduatedaccordingtoregulationsasoddastheywerenumerous？Todespiseandbedespised，tocringeinordertorule，slavesandtyrantsinturn，nowkneelingbeforeamaster，nowtramplingthepeopleunderfoot—suchwastheambitionofallofus，solongasweweremenofbirthorwelleducatedmen，whethercommonfolksorfashionablefolks，lawyersorfinanciers，pettifoggersorwearingswords。"—ArchivesNationales，F7，31167。（ReportoftheobservatoryChaumont，Niv？se10，yearII。）—"Boolean’seffigy，placedinthecollegeofLisle，hasbeenloweredtothestatuesofthesaints，thelatterbeingtakenoutoftheirniches。Thereisnownokindofdistinction。Saintsandauthorsareofthesameclass。"
[45]BuchezetRoux。，296。（"Institutions"bySaint—Just。）—Meillan，"Mémoires，"p。17。—AnnePlumptre，"Anarrativeofthreeyears’
residenceinFrance，from1802to1805，"II。，96。AtMarseilles:"Thetwogreatcrimeschargedonthosewhodoomedtodestruction，werehereaselsewhere，wealthandaristocracy……IthadbeendecreedbytheTerroriststhatnopersoncouldhaveoccasionformorethantwohundredlivresayear，andthatnoincomeshouldbepermittedtoexceedthatsum。"
[46]ArchivesNationales，F7，4437。（Addressofthepeople’sclubofCaisson（Gard），Messidor7，yearII。）"TheBourgeoisie，themerchants，thelargeland—ownershaveallthepretensionoftheex—
nobles。Thelawprovidesnomeansforopeningtheeyesofthecommonpeopleinrelationtothesenewtyrants。Theclubdesiresthattherevolutionarytribunalshouldbeempoweredtocondemnthisproudclassofindividualstoapromptpartialconfinement。Thepeoplewouldthenseethattheyhadcommittedamisdemeanorandwouldwithdrawthatsortofrespectinwhichtheyholdthem。"Anoteinthehand—writingofCouthon:"Lefttothedecisionofpopularcommissions。"
[47]GouvernorMorris，inaletterofJanuary4，1796，saysthatFrenchcapitalistshavebeenfinanciallyruinedbyassignats，andphysicallybytheguillotine。—BuchezetRoux，XXX。，26。（NoteswrittenbyRobespierreinJune，1793。）"Internaldangerscomefromthebourgeois……whoareourenemies？Theviciousandtherich。"
[48]NarrativebyM。SylvesterdeSacy（May23，1873）:Hisfatherownedafarmbringinginfourthousandfrancsperannum；thefarmerofferedhimfourthousandfrancsinassignatsorahog；M。deSacytookthehog。
[49]BuchezetRoux，XXXI。，441。（ReportbyCambonontheinstitutionofthegrandlivreofpublicdebt，August15，1793。）
[50]Ibid。，XXXI。，311。ReportbySaint—Just，February26，1794，anddecreeinaccordancetherewith，unanimouslyadopted。See，inparticular，article2。—Moniteur，12Vent？se，yearII。（meetingoftheJacobinclub，speechbyCollotd’Herbois）。"TheConventionhasdeclaredthatprisonersmustprovethattheywerepatriotsfromthe1stofMay1789。WhenthepatriotsandenemiesoftheRevolutionshallbefullyknown，thenthepropertyoftheformershallbeinviolableandheldsacred，whilethatofthelatterwillbeconfiscatedforthebenefitoftherepublic。"
[51]BuchezetRoux，XXVI。，455（SessionoftheJacobinClub，May10，1793，speechbyRobespierre。）—Ibid。，（ReportbySaint—Just，Feb。
26，1794。）"Hewhohasshownhimselfanenemyofhiscountrycannotbeoneofitsproprietors。Onlyhehaspatrimonialrightswhohashelpedtofreeit。"
[52]BuchezetRoux，XXXI。，93and130。（SpeechbyRobespierreonproperty，andthedeclarationofrightsadoptedbytheJacobinclub。）
DecreeofSept。3，1793（articles13and14）。
[53]Moniteur，XXII。，719。（ReportbyCambon，Frimaire6，yearIII。）
AtBordeauxRabahasbeensentencedtopayafineof1，200，000francs，Pechottetopay500，000francs，Martin—Martinto300，000francs。"—
Cf。RodolpheReuss，"SéligmannAlexandreoulesTribulationsd’unisraélitedeStrasbourg。"
[54]Ibid。，XVIII。，486。（ReportbyCambon，Frimaire1，yearII。）
"Theegotistswho，sometimeago，founditdifficulttopayforthenationaldomainstheyhadacquiredfromtheRepublic，eveninassignats，nowbringustheirgold……Collectorsoftherevenuewhohadburiedtheirgoldhavecomeandofferedtopaywhattheyowethenationiningotsofgoldandsilver。Thesehavebeenrefused，theAssemblyhavingdecreedtheconfiscationoftheseobjects。"
[55]DecreeofBrumaire23，yearII。OntaxesandconfiscationsintheprovincesseeM。deMartel，"EtudesurFouchéetPiecesauthentiquesservantàl’histoiredelarevolutionàStrasbourg。"AndfurtheronthedetailsofthisoperationatTroyes。—Meillan，90:
"AtBordeaux，merchantswereheavilytaxed，notonaccountoftheirincivism，butonaccountoftheirwealth。"
[56]DecreeofMarch7—11，1793。
[57]Moniteur，XVIII。，274，decreesofBrumaire4，andibid，305，decreeofBrumaire9，yearII。，establishingequalpartitionofinheritanceswithretroactiveeffecttoJuly14，1789。Adulterousbastardsareexcepted。Thereporterofthebill，Cambacèrés，lamentsthisregrettableexception。
[58]Rightsofinheritanceallowedtothedescendantsofadeceasedpersonwhoneverenjoyedtheserights，butwhomighthaveenjoyedthemhadhebeenlivingwhentheyfelltohim。—Tr。
[59]Fenet，"TravauxduCodecivil。"（ReportbyCambacèrésontheCodecivil，August9，1793）。Thespokesmanforthecommitteethathadframedthebillmakesexcusesfornothavingdeprivedthefatherofallthedisposableportion。"Thecommitteebelievedthatsuchaclausewouldseriouslyviolateourcustomswithoutbeingofanybenefittosocietyorofanymoraladvantage。Weassuredourselves，moreover，thatthereshouldalwaysbeadivisionofproperty。"Withrespecttodonations:"Itisrepugnanttoallideasofbeneficencetoallowdonationstotherich。Natureisaversetothemakingofsuchgiftssolongasoureyesdwellonmiseryandmisfortune。Theseaffectingconsiderationshavedeterminedustofixapoint，asortofmaximum，whichprohibitsgiftsonthepartofthosewhohavereachedthatpoint。"
[60]Moniteur，XII。，730，（June22，1792），speechbyLamarque。—Butthisprincipleisencounteredeverywhere。"Equality，indeed，（is）thefinalaimofsocialart。"（Condorcet，’Tableaudesprogrèsdel’esprithumain，"II。，59。—"Wedesired，"writesBaudot，"toapplytopoliticstheequalitywhichtheGospelawardstoChristians。"（Quinet，"RevolutionFran？aise，II。，407。）
[61]BuchezetRoux，XXXV，296（ThewordsofSaint—Just。）—Moniteur，XVIII，505（OrdinanceoftheParisCommune，Frimaire3，yearII）。
"WealthandPovertymustalikedisappearundertherégimeofequality。"
[62]Ib。XXXV，296（"Institutions"bySaint—Just）。"Amanisnotmadefortrades，norforaworkhousenorforanalms—house；allthisisfrightful。"—Ibid。，XXXI。，312。（ReportofSaint—Just，Vent？se8，yearII。）"LetallEuropeseethatyouwillnotallowamiserablemanonFrenchterritory！……HappinessisanewideainEurope。"
[63]Ib。XXXV，296（"Institutions"bySaint—Just。）
[64]Moniteur，XX，444（ReportbyBarère，Floreal22，yearII）。
"Mendicityisincompatiblewithpopulargovernment。"
[65]Ib。，XIX。，568。（ReportbySaint—Just，Vent？se8，yearII。）
[66]Ib。，XX，448（RapportbyBarère，Floreal22）。
[67]Ibid。，XIX。，568。（ReportbySaint—Just，Vent？se8，anddecreeofVent？se13。）"TheCommitteeofPublicSafetywillreportonthemeansofindemnifyingtheunfortunatewithpropertybelongingtotheenemiesoftheRevolution。"
[68]Ibid。，XIX。，484。（ReportbyBarère，Vent？se21，yearII。）—
Ibid。，XX。，445。（ReportbyBarère，Floréal22，yearII。）—Decreesonpublicassistance，June28，1793，July25，1793，Frimaire2，andFloréal22，yearII。）—thisprinciple，moreover，wassetforthintheConstitutionof1793。"Publichelpisasacredobligation；societyowesasubsistencetounfortunatecitizens，whetherbyprovidingworkforthem，orbyensuringthemeansofexistencetothosewhoarenotinaconditiontowork。"—ArchivesNationales，AF。II。，39。ThecharacterofthismeasureisveryclearlyexpressedinthefollowingcircularoftheCommitteeofPublicSafetytoitsrepresentativesonmissioninthedepartments，Vent？se，yearII。"Asummaryactwasnecessarytoputthearistocracydown。ThenationalConventionhasstrucktheblow。Virtuousindigencehadtorecoverthepropertywhichcrimehadencroachedupon。ThenationalConventionhasproclaimeditsrights。AgenerallistofallprisonersshouldbesenttotheCommitteeofGeneralSecurity，chargedwithdecidingontheirfate。
TheCommitteeofPublicSafetywillreceivethestatementoftheindigentineachcommunesoastoregulatewhatisduetothem。Boththeseproceedingsdemandtheutmostdispatchandshouldgotogether。
Itisnecessarythatterrorandjusticebebroughttobearonallpointsatonce。TheRevolutionistheworkofthepeopleanditistimetheyshouldhavethebenefitofit。"
[69]Moniteur，XX。，449。（ReportbyBarère，Floréal22，yearII。）
[70]DecreeofApril2—5，1793。
[71]Moniteur，XVIII。，505。（OrdersofFouchéandColletd’Herbois，datedatLyonsandcommunicatedtothecommuneofParis，Frimaire3，yearII。）—DeMartel，"EtudesurFouché，"132。OrdersofFouchéonhismissionintheNievre，Sept。19，1793。"ThereshallbeestablishedineachdistricttownaCommitteeofPhilanthropy，authorizedtolevyontherichataxproportionatetothenumberoftheindigent。"
[72]DecreeofApril2—5，1793。"Thereshallbeorganizedineachlargecommuneaguardofcitizensselectedfromtheleastfortunate。
ThesecitizensshallbearmedandpaidattheexpenseoftheRepublic。"
[73]Moniteur，XX。，449。（ReportofBarère，Floréal22，yearII。）
[74]Ibid。，XIX。，689。（ReportbySaint—Just，Vent？se23，yearII。）
"Wespokeofhappiness。ItisnotthehappinessofPersepoliswehaveofferedtoyou。ItisthatofSpartaorAthensintheirbestdays，thehappinessofvirtue，thatofcomfortandmoderation，thehappinesswhichspringsfromtheenjoymentofthenecessarywithoutthesuperfluous，theluxuryofacabinandofafieldfertilizedbyyourownhands。Acart，athatchedroofaffordingshelterfromthefrosts，afamilysafefromthelubricityofarobber—suchishappiness！"
[75]BuchezetRoux，XXXI。，402。（Constitutionof1793。）
[76]Ibid。XXXV。，310。（"Institutions"，bySaint—Just。）
[77]Ibid。，XXVI。，93and131。（SpeechbyRobespierreonproperty，April24，1793，anddeclarationofrightsadoptedbytheJacobinClub。）—Mallet—Dupan，"Mémoires，"I。，401。（AddressofadeputationfromGard。）"Materialwealthisnomorethespecialpropertyofanyonememberofthesocialbodythanbasemetalstampedasacirculatingmedium。"
[78]Moniteur，VIII。，452。（SpeechbyHébertintheJacobinClub，Brumaire26，yearII。）"UnSéjourenFrancede1792à1795，"p。218。
（Amiens，Oct。4，1794。）"WhilewaitingthismorningatashopdoorI
overheardabeggarbargainingforasliceofpumpkin。Unabletoagreeonthepricewiththewomanwhokepttheshophepronouncedher’corruptedwitharistocracy。’’Idefyyoutoproveit！’shereplied。
But，asshespoke，sheturnedpaleandadded，’Yourcivismisbeyondallquestion—buttakeyourpumpkin。’’Ah，’returnedthebeggar，’whatagoodrepublican！’"
[79]Ibid。，XVIII。，320。（MeetingofBrumaire11，yearII。ReportbyBarère。）—Meillan，17。Already，beforethe31stMay:"Thetribuneresoundedwithchargesagainstmonopoly，everymanbeingamonopolistwhowasnotreducedtolivingondailywagesoronalms。"
[80]DecreesofJuly26，1793，Sept。11and29；Brumaire11，andVent？se6，yearII。
[81]Moniteur，XVIII。，359。"Brumaire16，yearII。SentenceofdeathofPierreGourdier，thirty—sixyearsofage，stock—broker，residentinParis，rueBellefond，convictedofhavingmonopolizedandconcealedinhishousealargequantityofbread，inordertobreadscarcityinthemidstofabundance。"Hehadgastritisandcouldeatnothingbutpanadamadewithtoast，andthebakerwhofurnishedthisgavehimthirtypiecesatatime（Wallon，II。，155）。
[82]JournalofthedebatesoftheJacobinClub，No。532，Brumaire20，yearII。（PlanofcitizenDupré，presentedintheConventionbyadeputationoftheArcisClub。）—Dauban，"Parisen1794，"p。483（aprojectsimilartotheformer，presentedtotheCommitteeofPublicSafetybytheJacobinClubofMontereau，Thermidor，yearII。）
[83]Theseproposalsshouldcometohauntwesterncivilizationforalongtime。（SR。）
[84]BuchezetRoux，XXXV。，272。（"Institutions，"bySaint—Just。）
[85]TheseideaswerestillpowerfulevenbeforeTainewrotethesewordsin1882。TheOxfordDictionaryofQuotationscitesadeclarationmadeby47anarchistsontrialaftertheiruprisinginLyonsin1870:"Wewish，inaword，equality—equalityinfactascorollary，orrather，asprimordialconditionofliberty。Fromeachaccordingtohisfaculties，toeachaccordingtohisneeds；thatiswhatwewishsincerelyandenergetically。"
[86]BuchezetRoux，XXXI，273，（ReportbyRobespierre，Pluvi？se17，yearII。（7Feb。1794）。
[87]Moniteur，XIX（RapportbyBarère，Vent？se21，anII）。"Youshoulddetectandcombatfederalisminallyourinstitutions，asyournaturalenemy……AgrandcentralestablishmentforalltheworkoftheRepublicisaneffectivemeansagainstfederalism。"—BuchezetRoux，XXXI，351，etXXXII，316（RapportsbySaint—Just，Vent？se23etGerminal26，yearII）。"Immoralityisafederalisminthecivilstate……Civilfederalism，byisolatingallpartsofthestate，hasdriedupabundance。"
[88]DecreeofGerminal26—29，yearII。Financialcompaniesareandherebyremainsuppressed。Allbankers，commissionmerchants，andotherpersons，areforbiddentoformanyestablishmentofthisorderunderanypretextorunderanydenomination。"
[89]"MemoiresdeCarnot，"I。，278（ReportbyCarnot）。"Thatisnotfamilylife。Iftherearelocalprivilegestherewillsoonbeindividualprivilegesandlocalaristocracywillbringalonginitstrainthearistocracyofinhabitants。"
[90]Moniteur，XIX。，683（RapportbyBarère，Vent？se21，yearII）。——
ThisreportshouldbereadinfulltocomprehendthecommunisticandcentralizingspiritoftheJacobins。（UndoubtedlyLenin，duringhisyearsinParis，hadreadTaine’sfootnoteandaskedthenationallibraryforacopyofthisrapport。SR。）
[91]Fenet，"TravauxduCodecivil，"105（RapportsbyCambacérès，August9，1793andSeptember9，1794）。—DecreesofSeptember20，1793andFloréal4，yearII（Ondivorce）。—Cf。"Institutions，"bySaint—Just（BuchezetRoux，XXXV，302）。"Amanandwomanwholoveeachotheraremarried；iftheyhavenochildrentheymaykeeptheirrelationshipsecret。"
[92]ThisarticleoftheJacobinprogram，liketheothers，hasitspracticalresult。—"AtParis，inthetwenty—sevenmonthsafterthepromulgationofthelawofSeptember，1792，thecourtsgrantedfivethousandninehundredandninety—fourdivorces，andinyearVI，thenumberofdivorcesexceededthemarriages。"（Glasson，leMariageciviletleDivorce，51。）—"Thenumberoffoundlingswhich，in1790，inFrance，didnotexceedtwenty—threethousand，isnow（yearX。）morethansixty—threethousand。"StatistiquedelaSarthe，"byAuvray，prefect，year，X。）—IntheLot—et—Garonne（Statistique，byPeyre，préfet，yearX），morethanfifteenhundredfoundlingsarecounted:
"thisextraordinarynumberincreasedduringtheRevolutionthroughthetooeasyadmissionoffoundlingsintotheasylums，throughthetemporarysojourningofsoldiersintheirhomes，throughthedisturbanceofeverymoralandreligiousprinciple。"—"Itisnotraretofindchildrenofthirteenandfourteentalkingandactinginawaythatwouldhaveformerlydisgracedayoungmanoftwenty。"（Moselle，Analyse，byFerrière。）—"Thechildrenofworkmenareidleandinsubordinate；someindulgeinthemostshamefulconductagainsttheirparents；"otherstrystealingandusethecoarsestlanguage。"
（Meurthe，Statistique，byMarquis，préfet。）—Cf。AnnePlumptre（A
Narrativeofthreeyears’residenceinFrancefrom1802to1805，I。
436）。"Youwouldnotbelieveit，Madame，saidagardenertoheratNimes，thatduringtheRevolutionwedarednotscoldourchildrenfortheirfaults。Thosewhocalledthemselvespatriotsregardeditasagainstthefundamentalprinciplesoflibertytocorrectchildren。
Thismadethemsounrulythat，veryoften，whenaparentpresumedtoscolditschildthelatterwouldtellhimtomindhisbusiness，adding，’wearefreeandequal，theRepublicisouronlyfatherandmother；ifyouarenotsatisfied，Iam。Gowhereyoulikeitbetter。’Childrenarestillsaucy。Itwilltakeagoodmanyyearstobringthembacktominding。’
[93]BuchezetRoux，XXXII。，364（ReportbyRobespierre，Floréal8，yearII。）
[94]BuchezetRoux，XXXII。，385—（AddressofaJacobindeputationtotheConvention，Floréal27，yearII。）—AtBayeux，theyounggirlwhorepresentedLiberty，hadthefollowinginscriptiononherbreastorback:"Donotmakeofmeaninstrumentoflicentiousness。"（GustaveFlaubert，familysouvenirs。）
[95]BuchezetRoux，XXXI。，415。（ReportbyFabred’Eglantine，October6，1793。）—（Grégoire，"Memoires，"I。，341。）"ThenewcalendarwasinventedbyRommeinordertogetridofSunday。Thiswashisobject；headmittedittome。"
[96]Ibid。，XXXII。，274。（ReportbyRobespierre，Floréal18，yearII。）"NationalFestivalsformanessentialpartofpubliceducation……Asystemofnationalfestivalsisthemostpowerfulmeansofregeneration。"
[97]Ibid。，XXXVIII。，335。Marat’sheart，placedonatableintheCordéliersClub，wasanobjectofreligiousreverence。—（Grégoire，"Mémoires，"I。，341。）"InsomeschoolsthepupilswereobligedtomakethesignofthecrossatthenamesofMarat，Lazowski，etc。"
[98]ComtedeMartel，"étudesurFouché，"137。FêteatNevers，ontheinagurationofabustofBrutus。—Ibid。，222，civicfestivalatNeversinhonorofvalorandmorals。—Dauban，"Parisen1794。"
ProgrammeofthefêteofthesupremeBeingatSceaux。
[99]AnexpressionbyRabautSaint—Etienne。
[100]Ibid。，XXXII。，373（ReportbyRobespierre，Floréal15，yearII。）
—Dantonhadexpressedpreciselythesameopinion，supportedbythesamearguments，atthemeetingofFrimaire22，yearII。（Moniteur，XVIII，654。）"ChildrenfirstbelongtotheRepublicbeforebelongingtotheirparents。Whowillassuremethatthesechildren，inspiredbyparentalegoism，willnotbecomedangeroustotheRepublic？Whatdowecarefortheideasofanindividualalongsideofnationalideas？……
Whoamongusdoesnotknowthedangerofthisconstantisolation？Itisinthenationalschoolsthatthechildmustsuckrepublicanmilk！……TheRepublicisoneandindivisible。Publicinstructionmustlikewiserelatetothiscenterofunity。"
[101]DecreeofVendémaire30andBrumaire7，yearII。—Cf。Sauzay，VI。，252，ontheapplicationofthisdecreeintheprovinces。
[102]AlbertDuruy，2L’InstructionpubliqueetlaRevolution，2164，to172（extractsfromvariousrepublicanspelling—booksandcatechisms）。
—DecreeofFrimaire29，yearII。，sectionI。，art。I，83；sectionII。，art。2；sectionIII。，arts。6and9。
[103]Moniteur，XVIII。，653。（MeetingofFrimaire22，speechbyBouquir，reporter。）
[104]Moniteur，XVIII。，351—359。（MeetingofBrumaire15，yearII。，reportbyChénier。）"Youhavemadelaws—createhabits……YoucanapplytothepublicinstructionofthenationthesamecoursethatRousseaufollowsin’Emile。’"
[105]ThewordsofBouquier，reporter。（MeetingofFrimaire22，yearII。）
[106]BuchezetRoux，XXIV，57（PlanbyLePeletierdeSaint—Fargeau，readbyRobespierreattheConvention，July13，1793。）—Ibid。，35。
（Draftofadecreebythesamehand。）
[107]Ibid。，XXX。，229。（"Institutions，"bySaint—Just。）
[108]BuchezetRoux，XXXI。，261。（MeetingofNivose17。）OnthecommitteepresentingthefinaldraftofthedecreesonpublicinstructiontheConventionadoptsthefollowingarticle:"Allboyswho，onleavingtheprimaryschoolsofinstruction，donotdevotethemselvestotillage，willbeobligedtolearnsomescience，artoroccupationusefultosociety。Otherwise，onreachingtwenty，theywillbedeprivedofcitizens’rightsfortenyears，andthesamepenaltywillbelaidontheirfather，mother，tutororguardian。"
[109]DecreeofPrairial13，yearII。
[110]Langlois，"Souvenirsdel’EcoledeMars。"
[111]BuchezetRoux，XXXII。，355。（ReportbyRobespierre，Floréal18，yearII。）
[112]Moniteur，XVIII。，326。（MeetingoftheCommune，Brumaire11，yearII。）thecommissaryannouncesthat，atFontainebleauandotherplaces，"hehasestablishedthesystemofequalityintheprisonsandplacesofconfinement，wheretherichandthepoorpartakeofthesamefood。"—Ibid。，210。（MeetingoftheJacobins，Vendémiaire29，yearII。SpeechbyLaplanceonhismissiontoGers。）"Priestshadeverycomfortintheirsecludedretreats；thesans—culottesintheprisonssleptonstraw。Theformerprovidedmewithmattressesforthelatter。"—Ibid。，XVIII。，445。（Meetingoftheconvention，Brumaire26，yearII。）"TheConventiondecreesthatthefoodofpersonskeptinplacesofconfinementshallbesimpleandthesameforall，therichpayingforthepoor。"
[113]ArchivesNationales。（AF。II。，37，orderofLequinio，Saintes，Nivose1，yearII。）"Citizensgenerallyinallcommunes，arerequestedtocelebratethedayofthedecadebyafraternalbanquetwhich，servedwithoutluxuryordisplay……willrenderthemanboweddownwithfatiqueinsensibletohisforlorncondition；whichwillfillthesoulofthepoorandunfortunatewiththesentimentofsocialequalityandraisemanuptothefullsenseofhisdignity；whichwillsuppresswiththerichmantheslightestfeelingofprideandextinguishinthepublicfunctionaryallgermsofhaughtinessandaristocracy。"
[114]ArchivesNationales，AF。II。，ii。，48（ActofFloréal25，yearII。）"theCommitteeofPublicSafetyrequestDavid，representativeofthepeople，topresenthisviewsandplansinrelationtomodifyingthepresentnationalcostume，soastorenderitappropriatetorepublicanhabitsandthecharacteroftheRevolution。"—Ibid。，（ActofPrairial5，yearII。）forengravingandcoloringtwentythousandimpressionsofthedesignforaciviluniform，andsixthousandimpressionsforthethreedesignsforamilitary，judicialandlegislativeuniform。
[115]Anidenticalchangetook，strangelyenoughandascausedbysomehiddenforce，placeinDenmarkintheseventies。（SR。）
[116]ThisisnowthecaseintheentireWestern’democratic’sphere，innewspapers，schools，andontelevision。（SR。）
[117]Ibid，XXXI。，271。（ReportbyRobespierre，Pluviose1，yearII。）
"Thissublimeprinciplesupposesapreferenceforpublicinterestsoverallprivateinterests；fromwhichitfollowsthattheloveofcountrysupposesagain，orproduces，allthevirtues。""Astheessenceofarepublicorofdemocracyisequality，itfollowsthatloveofcountrynecessarilycomprisesaloveofequality。""ThesouloftheRepublicisvirtue，equality。"—Lavalette，"Memoirs，"I。，254。
（NarratedbyMadameLavalette。）Shewascompelledtoattendpublicfestivals，and，everymonth，thepatrioticprocessions。"Iwasrudelytreatedbymyassociates，thelowwomenofthequarter；thedaughterofanemigré，ofamarquis，orofanimprisonedmother，oughtnottobeallowedthehonoroftheircompany；……itwasallwrongthatshewasnotmadeanapprentice……HortensedeBeauharnaiswasapprenticedtohermother’sseamstress，whileEugenewasputwithacarpenterintheFaubourgSt。Germain。"Theprevailingdogmatismhasasingulareffectwithsimple—mindedpeople。（ArchivesNationals，AF。
II。，135。petitionofUrsuleRiesler，servanttocitizenEstreichandarrestedalongwithhim，addressedtoGarneri，agentoftheCommitteeofPublicSafety。ShebegscitizenGarnerintointeresthimselfinobtainingherfreedom。ShewilldevoteherlifetoprayingtotheSupremeBeingforhim，sincehewillredeemherlife。Heistofurnishher，moreover，withthemeansforespousingafuturehusband，agenuinerepublican，bywhosheispregnant，andwhowouldnotallowhertoentertainanyideaoffanaticalcapers。
CHAPTERII。
I。
ReactionaryconceptoftheState。—AnalogybetweenthisideaoftheStateandthatofantiquity。—Differencebetweenantiqueandmodernsociety。—Changedcircumstances。
TheJacobintheorycanthenbesummarizedinthefollowingpoints:
*Thespeculativecreationofacurtailedtypeofhumanbeing。
*Anefforttoadaptthelivingmantothistype。
*Theinterferenceofpublicauthorityineverybranchofpublicendeavor。
*Constraintsputuponlabor，tradeandproperty，uponthefamilyandeducation，uponworship，habits，customsandsentiments。
*Thesacrificeoftheindividualtothecommunity。
*TheomnipotenceoftheState。
Notheorycouldbemorereactionarysinceitmovesmodernmanbacktoatypeofsocietywhichhe，eighteencenturiesago，hadalreadypassedthroughandleftbehind。
Duringthehistoricaleraproceedingourown，andespeciallyintheoldGreekorLatincities，inRomeorSparta，whichtheJacobinstakefortheirmodels，[1]humansocietywasshapedafterthepatternofanarmyorconvent。Inaconventasinanarmy，oneidea，absorbingandunique，predominates:
*TheaimofthemonkistopleaseGodatanysacrifice。
*Thesoldiermakeseverysacrificetoobtainavictory。
Accordingly，eachrenounceseveryotherdesireandentirelyabandonshimself，themonktohisrulesandthesoldiertohisdrill。Inlikemanner，intheantiqueworld，twopreoccupationswereofsupremeimportance。Inthefirstplace，thecityhaditsgodswhowerebothitsfoundersandprotectors:itwasthereforeobligedtoworshiptheseinthemostreverentandparticularmanner；otherwise，theyabandonedit。Theneglectofanyinsignificantritemightoffendthemandruinit。Inthesecondplace，therewasincessantwarfare，andthespoilsofwarwereatrocious；onacitybeingtakeneverycitizenmightexpecttobekilledormaimed，orsoldatauction，andseehischildrenandwifesoldtothehighestbidder。[2]Inshort，theantiquecity，withitsacropolisoftemplesanditsfortifiedcitadelsurroundedbyimplacableandthreateningenemies，resemblesforustheinstitutionoftheKnightsofSt。JohnontheirrocksatRhodesorMalta，areligiousandmilitaryconfraternityencampedaroundachurch。—Liberty，undersuchconditions，isoutofthequestion:
publicconvictionsaretooimperious；publicdangeristoogreat。
Withthispressureuponhim，andthushampered，theindividualgiveshimselfuptothecommunity，whichtakesfullpossessionofhim，because，tomaintainitsownexistence，itneedsthewholeman。
Henceforth，noonemaydevelopapartandforhimself；noonemayactorthinkexceptwithinfixedlines。ThetypeofManisdistinctlyandclearlymarkedout，ifnotlogicallyatleasttraditionally；eachlife，aswellaseachportionofeachlifemustconformtothistype；
otherwisepublicsecurityiscompromised:anyfallingoffingymnasticeducationweakensthearmy；passingtheimagesofthegodsandneglectingtheusuallibationdrawsdowncelestialvengeanceonthecity。Consequently，topreventalldeviations，theState，absolutemaster，exercisesunlimitedjurisdiction；nofreedomwhateverislefttotheindividual，noportionofhimselfisreservedtohimself，noshelteredcorneragainstthestronghandofpublicforce，neitherhispossessions，hischildren，hispersonality，hisopinionsorhisconscience。[3]If，onvotingdays，hesharesinthesovereignty，heissubjectalltherestoftheyear，eventohisprivatesentiments。
Rome，toservetheseends，hadtwocensors。OneofthearchonsofAthenswasinquisitorofthefaith。Socrateswasputtodeathfornotbelievinginthegodsinwhichthecitybelieved。[4]—Inreality，notonlyinGreeceandinRome，butinEgypt，inChina，inIndia，inPersia，inJudea，inMexico，inPeru，duringthefirststagesofcivilization，[5]theprincipleofhumancommunitiesisstillthatofgregariousanimals:theindividualbelongstohiscommunitythesameasthebeetoitshiveandtheanttoitsant—hill；heissimplyanorganwithinanorganism。Underavarietyofstructuresandindiverseapplicationsauthoritativesocialismaloneprevails。
Justtheoppositeinmodernsociety；whatwasoncetherulehasnowbecometheexception；theantiquesystemsurvivesonlyintemporaryassociations，likethatofanarmy，orinspecialassociations，asinaconvent。Gradually，theindividualhasliberatedhimself，andcenturyaftercentury，hehasextendedhisdomainandthetwochainswhichonceboundhimfasttothecommunity，havesnappedorbeenlightened。
Inthefirstplace，publicpowerhasceasedtoconsistofamilitiaprotectingacult。Inthebeginning，throughtheinstitutionofChristianity，civilsocietyandreligioussocietyhavebecometwodistinctempires，Christhimselfhavingseparatedthetwojurisdictions；
"RenderuntoC？sarthethingswhichareC？sar’s，anduntoGodthethingsthatareGod’s。"
Additionally，throughtheriseofProtestantism，thegreatChurchissplitintonumeroussectswhich，unabletodestroyeachother，havebeensocompelledtolivetogetherandtheState，evenwhenpreferringoneofthem，hasfounditnecessarytotoleratetheothers。Finally，throughthedevelopmentofProtestantism，philosophyandthesciences，speculativebeliefshavemultiplied。Therearealmostasmanyfaithsnow—a—daysastherearethinkingmen，and，asthinkingmenarebecomingdailymorenumerous，opinionsaredailybecomingmorenumerous。SoshouldtheStatetrytoimposeanyoneoftheseonsociety，thiswouldexciteoppositionfromaninfinityofothers；
hencethewisdomingoverningisfound，first，inremainingneutral，and，next，inacknowledgingthatitisnotqualifiedtointerfere。
Inthesecondplace，warhasbecomelessfrequentandlessdestructivebecausemenhavenotsomanymotivesforwagingit，northesamemotivestopushittothesameextremes。Formerly，warwasthemainsourceofwealth；throughvictoriesManacquiredslaves，subjectsandtributaries；heturnedthesetothebestaccount；heleisurelyenjoyedtheirforcedlabor。Nothingofthiskindisseennow—a—days；peoplenolongerthinkofprovidingthemselveshumancattle；theyhavediscoveredthat，ofallanimals，thesearethemosttroublesome，theleastproductive，andthemostdangerous。Comfortsandsecurityareobtainedmuchmorereadilythroughfreelaborandmachinery；thegreatobjectnoisnottoconquer，buttoproduceandinterchange。Everyday，man，pressingforwardmoreeagerlyincivilcareers，islessdisposedtoputupwithanyobstaclethatinterfereswithhisaims；ifhestillconsentstobeasoldieritisnottobecomeaninvader，buttoprovideagainstinvasion。Meanwhile，warhasbecomemorescientificand，throughthecomplicationsofitsmachinery，morecostly；theStatecannolongercalloutandenlistforlifeeveryable—bodiedmanwithoutruiningitself，norputtoomanyobstaclesinthewayofthefreeindustrywhich，throughtaxation，providesforitsexpenses；howevershort—sightedtheStatemaybe，itconsultscivilinterests，eveninitsmilitaryinterest。—Thus，ofthetwonetsinwhichithasenvelopedallhumanactivity，oneisrentasunderandtheotherhasslackeneditsmeshes。Thereisnolongeranyreasonformakingthecommunityomnipotent；theindividualneednotalienatehimselfentirely；hemay，withoutinconvenience，reservetohimselfapartofhimself，and，ifnowcalledupontosignasocialcontract，youmaybesurethathewouldmakethisreservation。
II
Changedminds。—ConscienceanditsChristianorigin。—Honoranditsfeudalorigin。—Theindividualofto—dayrefusestosurrenderhimselfentirely。—Hismotives。—Additionalmotivesinmoderndemocracy。—Characteroftheelectiveprocessandthequalityoftherepresentative。
Andsohavenotonlyoutwardcircumstanceschanged，buttheveryhumanattitudesarenowdifferent。Inthemindofmodernmanafeeling，distastefultotheantiquepact，hasevolved。—Undoubtedly，inextremecasesandunderthepressureofbrutalnecessityImay，momentarily，signablankcheck。But，never，ifIunderstandwhatI
amdoing，willIsignawayingoodfaiththecompleteandpermanentabandonmentofmyself:itwouldbeagainstconscienceandagainsthonor，whichtwopossessionsarenottobealienated。Myhonorandmyconsciencearenottogooutofmykeeping；Iamtheirsoleguardiananddepositary；Iwouldnotevenentrustthemtomyfather。—Boththesetermsarerecentandexpresstwoconceptionsunknowntotheancients，[6]bothbeingofprofoundimportandofinfinitereach。
Throughthem，likeabudseparatedfromitsstemandtakingrootapart，theindividualhasseparatedhimselffromtheprimitivebody，clan，family，casteorcityinwhichhehaslivedindistinguishableandlostinthecrowd；hehasceasedtobeanorganandappendage；hehasbecomeapersonality。—ThefirstoftheseconceptsisofChristianoriginthesecondoffeudalorigin；both，followingeachotherandconjoined，measuretheenormousdistancewhichseparatesanantiquesoulfromamodernsoul。[7]
Alone，inthepresenceofGod，theChristianhasfeltmelting，likewax，allthetiesbindinghimtohisgroup；thisbecauseheisinfrontoftheGreatJudge，andbecausethisinfalliblejudgeseesallsoulsastheyare，notconfusedlyandinmasses，butclearly，eachbyitself。AtthebarofHistribunalnooneisanswerableforanother；
eachanswersforhimselfalone；oneisresponsibleonlyforone’sownacts。Butthoseactsareofinfiniteconsequence，forthesoul，redeemedbythebloodofaGod，isofimmeasurablevalue；hence，accordingasithasorhasnotprofitedbythedivinesacrifice，sowilltherewardorpunishmentbeinfinite；atthefinaljudgment，aneternityoftormentorblissopensbeforeit。Allotherinterestsvanishalongsideofavisionofsuchvastness。Thenceforth，righteousnessisthemostseriousofallaims，notintheeyesofman，butofGodandagain，dayafterday，thesoulrenewswithinitselfthattragicquestioninginwhichtheJudgeinterrogatesandthesinnerresponds。—Throughthisdialogue，whichhasbeengoingonforeighteencenturies，andwhichisyettocontinue，consciencehasgrownmoreandmoresensitive，andmanhasconceivedtheideaofabsolutejustice。
Whetherthisisvestedinanall—powerfulmaster，orwhetheritisaself—existenttruth，likemathematicaltruths，innowaydiminishesitssacrednessnor，consequently，fromitsauthority。Itcommandswithasuperiorvoiceanditscommandsmustbeobeyed，irrespectiveofcost:therearestrictdutiestowhicheverymanisrigorouslybound。
Nopledgemayrelievehimoftheseduties；ifnotfulfilledbecausehehasgivencontrarypledgesheisnolessculpableonthisaccount，andbesides，heisculpableforhavingpledgedhimself；thepledgingofhimselftocrimeswasinitselfacrime。Hisfaultthusappearstohimselftwofold，andtheinwardprickgallshimtwiceinsteadofonce。
Hence，themoresensitivetheconscience，themoreloathitistogiveup；itrejectsanypromisewhichmayleadtowrong—doing，andrefusestogivetogiveothersanyrightofimposingremorse。
Atthesametimeanothersentimenthasarisen，notlessvaluable，buthardier，moreenergetic，morehumanandmoreeffective。Onhisowninhisstronghold，thefeudalchieftain，attheheadofhisband，coulddependonnobodybuthimself，forapublicforcedidnotthenexist。
Itwasnecessarythatheshouldprotecthimself，and，indeed，over—
protecthimself。Whoever，intheanarchicalandmilitarysocietyinwhichhelived，allowedtheslightestencroachment，orleftunpunishedtheslightestapproachtoinsult，wasregardedasweakorcravenandatoncebecameaprey；onehadtobeproud—spirited，ifnot，oneriskeddeath。Thiswasnotdifficulteither。Soleproprietorandnearlyabsolutesovereign，withneitherequalsorpeersonhisdomain，herehewasuniquebeing，superiorandincomparabletoeveryoneelse。[8]Onthatsubjectrevolvedhislongmonologueduringhishoursofgloomysolitude，whichsoliloquyhaslastedforninecenturies。[9]
Thusinhisowneyes，hispersonandallthatdependsonhimareinviolable；ratherthantoleratetheslightestinfringementonhisprerogativeshewilldareallandsacrificeall。[10]Asensitivepride（orgueilexalté）isthebestofsentinelstoprotectaright；for，notonlydoesitmountguardovertherighttopreserveit，but，again，andespecially，foritsownsatisfaction；theimaginationhasconceivedapersonalityappropriateforhisrank，andthischaracterthemanimposesonhimselfashisrole。Henceforth，henotonlyforcestherespectofothers，butherespectshimself；hepossessesthesentimentofhonor，agenerousself—esteemwhichmakeshimregardhimselfasnobleandincapableofdoinganythingmean。Indiscriminatingbetweenhisactions，hemayerr；fashionorvanitymaysometimesleadhimtoofar，orleadhimastray，eitheronthepathofrecklessnessoronthatofpuerility；hispointofhonormaybefixedinthewrongdirection。But，insum，andthankstothisbeingafixedpoint，hewillmaintainhimselferectevenunderanabsolutemonarchy，underaPhilipII。inSpain，underaLouisXIV。inFrance，underaFrederickII。inPrussia。Fromthefeudalbaronorgentlemanofthecourttothemoderngentleman，thistraditionpersistsanddescendsfromstorytostorydowntolowestsocialsubstratum:to—day，everymanofspirit，thebourgeois，thepeasant，theworkman，hashispointofhonorlikethenoble。Helikewise，inspiteofthesocialencroachmentsthatgainonhim，reservestohimselfhisprivatenook，asortofmoralstrongholdwhereinhepreserveshisfaiths，hisopinions，hisaffections，hisobligationsasson，husbandandfather；
itisthesacredtreasuryofhisinnermostbeing。Thisstrongholdbelongstohimalone；noone，eveninthenameofthepublic，hasarighttoenterit；tosurrenderitwouldbecowardice，ratherthangiveupitskeyshewoulddieinthebreach；[11]whenthismilitantsentimentofhonorisenlistedonthesideofconscienceitbecomesvirtueitself。[12]—Suchare，inthesedays，（1870）thetwocentralthemesofourEuropeanmorality。[13]Throughtheformertheindividualrecognizesdutiesfromwhichnothingcanexempthim；
throughthelatter，heclaimsrightsofwhichnothingcandeprivehim:
ourcivilizationhasvegetatedfromthesetworoots，andstillvegetates。Considerthedepthandtheextentofthehistoricalsoilinwhichtheypenetrate，andyoumayjudgeoftheirvigor。Considertheheightandunlimitedgrowthofthetreeswhichtheynourish，andyoumayjudgeoftheirhealthiness。Everywhereelse，oneorotherhavingfailed，inChina，intheRomanEmpire，inIslam，thesaphasdrieddownwardandthetreehasbecomestunted，orhasfallen……Itisthemodernman，whoisneitherChinese，norantique，norMoslem，norNegro，norsavage，themanformedbyChristianeducationandtakingrefugeinhisconscienceasinasanctuary，themanformedbyfeudaleducationandentrenchedbehindhishonorasinafortress，whosesanctuaryandstrongholdthenewsocialcontractbidshimsurrender。
Now，inthisdemocracyfoundedonthepreponderanceofnumbers，intowhosehandsamIrequiredtomakethissurrender？—Theoretically，tothecommunity，thatistosay，toacrowdinwhichananonymousimpulseisthesubstituteforindividualjudgment；inwhichactionbecomesimpersonalbecauseitiscollective；inwhichnobodyacknowledgesresponsibility；inwhichIambornealonglikeagrainofsandinawhirlwind；inwhichallsortsofoutragesarecondonedbeforehandforreasonsofstate:practically，tothepluralityofvoicescountedbyheads，toamajoritywhich，over—excitedbythestruggleformastery，willabuseitsvictoryandwrongtheminoritytowhichImaybelong；toaprovisionalmajoritywhich，soonerorlater，willbereplacedbyanother，sothatifIamto—dayoppressorIamsureofbeingoppressedto—morrow；stillmoreparticularly，tosixorsevenhundredrepresentatives，amongwhoIamcalledupontochoosebutone。ToelectthisuniquemandatoryIhavebutonevoteamongtenthousand；andinhelpingtoelecthimIamonlytheten—thousandth；I
donotevencountforaten—thousandthinelectingtheothers。AnditisthesesixorsevenhundredstrangerstometowhoIgivefullpowertodecideforme—notetheexpressionfullpower—whichmeansunlimitedpower，notaloneovermypossessionsandlife，but，again，overmyconscience，withallitspowerscombined；thatistosay，withpowersmuchmoreextensivethanthoseIconferseparatelyontenpersonsinwhomIplacethemostconfidence—tomylegaladviserwholooksaftermyfortune，totheteacherofmychildren，tothephysicianwhocaresformyhealth，totheconfessorwhodirectsmyconscience，tofriendswhoaretoserveasexecutorsofmylastwillandtestament，tosecondsinaduelwhodecideonmylife，onthewasofmybloodandwhoguardmyhonor。Withoutreferencetothedeplorablefarce，sooftenplayedaroundtheballot—box，ortotheforcedanddistortedelectionswhichputacontraryinterpretationonpublicsentiment，ortotheofficialliesbywhich，atthisverymoment，afewfanaticsandmadmen，whorepresentnobodybutthemselves，assumetorepresentthenation，[14]measurewhatdegreeofconfidenceImayhave，evenafterhonestelections，inmandatorieswhoarethuschosen！Frequently，Ihavevotedforthedefeatedcandidate；
inwhichcaseIamrepresentedbytheotherwhoIdidnotwantforarepresentative。Invotingfortheelectedcandidate，IdiditbecauseIknewofnobetterone，andbecausehisopponentseemedtomeworse。
Ihaveonlyseenhimonetimeoutoffourandthenfleetingly，atoddmoment；Iscarcelyknewmoreofhimthanthecolorofhiscoat，thetoneofhisvoice，andthewayhehasofthumpinghisbreast。AllI
knowofhimisthroughhis"platform，"vagueanddeclamatory，througheditorials，andthroughdrawing—room，coffee—house，orstreetgossip。
Histitletomyconfidenceisoftheflimsiestandshallowestkind；
thereisnothingtosubstantiatetomehisintegrityorcompetency；hehasnodiploma，andnoonetoendorsehimashasaprivatetutor；hehasnoguaranteefromthesocietytowhichhebelongs，likethephysician，thepriestorthelawyer。WithreferencesaspoorastheseIshouldhesitatetorecruithimevenasadomestic。AndallthemorebecausetheclassfromwhichIamobligedtotakehimisalmostalwaysthatofpoliticians，asuspiciousclass，especiallyincountriesinwhichuniversalsuffrageprevails。Thisclassisnotrecruitedamongthemostindependent，theablest，andthemosthonest，butamongvoluble，schemingmen，zealouscharlatans，whoforwantofperseverance，havingfailedinprivatecareers，insituationswhereoneiswatchedtoocloselyandtoonicelyweighedinthebalance，haveselectedrolesinwhichthewantofscrupulousnessanddiscretionisaforceinsteadofaweakness；totheirindelicacyandimpudencethedoorsofapubliccareerstandwideopen。—Suchistheaugustpersonageintowhosehands，accordingtothetheory，Iamcalledupontosurrendermywill，mywillinfull；certainly，ifself—renunciationwerenecessary，Ishouldrisklessingivingmyselfuptoakingortoanaristocracy，evenhereditary；forthenwouldmyrepresentativesbeatleastrecommendedbytheirevidentrankandtheirprobablecompetency。—Democracy，initsnatureandcomposition，isasysteminwhichtheindividualawardstohisrepresentativestheleasttrustanddeference；hence，itisthesysteminwhichheshouldentrustthemwiththeleastpower。Conscienceandhonoreverywhereenjoinamantoretainforhimselfsomeportionofhisindependence；butnowhereistheresolittlebeceded。IfamodernconstitutionoughttoclearlydefineandlimitthedomainoftheState，itisinrespectofcontemporarydemocracythatitoughttobethemostrestrictive。
III。
OriginandnatureofthemodernState。—Itsfunctions，rightsandlimits。
Letustrytodefinetheselimits。—Aftertheturmoilofinvasionsandconquest，attheheightofsocialdisintegration，amidstthecombatsdailyoccurringbetweenprivateparties，therearoseineveryEuropeancommunityapublicforce，whichforce，lastingforcenturies，stillpersiststoourday。Howitwasorganized，throughwhatearlystagesofviolenceitpassed，throughwhataccidentsandstruggles，andintowhosehandsitisnowentrusted，whethertemporarilyorforever，whateverthelawsofitstransmission，whetherbyinheritanceorelection，isofsecondaryimportance；themainthingisitsfunctionsandtheirmodeofoperation。Itisessentiallyamightysword，drawnfromitsscabbardandupliftedoverthesmallerbladesaroundit，withwhichprivateindividualsoncecuteachothers’
throats。Menacedbyit，thesmallerbladesreposeintheirscabbards；
theyhavebecomeinert，useless，and，finallyrusty；withfewexceptions，everybodysavemalefactors，hasnowlostboththehabitandthedesiretousethem，sothat，henceforth，inthispacifiedsociety，thepublicswordissoformidablethatallprivateresistancevanishesthemomentitflashes。—Thisswordisforgedoutoftwointerests:itwasnecessarytohaveoneofitsmagnitude，first，againstsimilarbladesbrandishedbyothercommunitiesonthefrontier，andnext，againstthesmallerbladeswhichbadpassionsarealwayssharpeningintheinterior。Peopledemandedprotectionagainstoutsideenemiesandinsideruffiansandmurderers，and，slowlyandpainfully，aftermuchgropingandmuchre—tempering，theagreementbetweenhereditaryforceshasfashionedthesolearmwhichiscapableofprotectinglivesandpropertywithanydegreeofsuccess。—SolongasitdoesnomoreIamindebtedtotheStatewhichholdsthehilt:itgivesmeasecuritywhich，withoutit，Icouldnothaveenjoyed。InreturnforthissecurityIoweit，formyquota，themeansforkeepingthisweaponingoodcondition:hewhoenjoysaserviceisunderanobligationtopayforit。Accordingly，thereisbetweentheStateandmyself，ifnotanexpresscontract，atleastatacitunderstandingequivalenttothatwhichbindsachildtoitsparent，abelievertohischurch，and，onbothsides，thismutualunderstandingisclearandprecise。Thestateengagestolookaftermysecuritywithinandwithout；Iengagetofurnishthemeansforsodoing，whichmeansconsistofmyrespectandgratitude，myzealasacitizen，myservicesasaconscript，mycontributionsasatax—payer，inshort，whateverisnecessaryforthemaintenanceofanarmy，anavy，adiplomaticorganization，civilandcriminalcourts，amilitiaandpolice，centralandlocaladministrations，inshort，aharmonioussetoforgansofwhichmyobedienceandloyaltyconstitutethefood，thesubstanceandtheblood。Thisloyaltyandobedience，whateverI
am，whetherrichorpoor，Catholic，Protestant，Jeworfree—thinker，royalistorrepublican，individualistorsocialist，uponmyhonorandinmyconscienceIowe。ThisbecauseIhavereceivedtheequivalent；
IamdelightedthatIamnotvanquished，assassinated，orrobbed。I
reimbursetheState，exactlybutnotmorethatwhichithasspentonequipmentandpersonnelforkeepingdownbrutalcupidity，greedyappetites，deadlyfanaticism，theentirehowlingpackofpassionsanddesiresofwhich，soonerorlater，Imightbecometheprey，wereitnotconstantlytoextendovermeitsvigilantprotection。Whenitdemandsitsoutlayofmeitisnotmypropertywhichittakesaway，butitsownproperty，whichitcollectsand，inthislight，itmaylegitimatelyforcemetopay。—Oncondition，however，thatitdoesnotexactmorethanmyliabilities，andthisitdoeswhenitoverstepsitsoriginalengagements；
1。whenitundertakessomeextramaterialormoralworkthatIdonotaskfor；
2。whenitconstitutesitselfsectarian，moralist，philanthropist，orpedagogue；
3。whenitstrivestopropagatewithinitsborders，oroutsideofthem，anyreligiousorphilosophicdogma，oranyspecialpoliticalorsocialsystem。
Forthen，itaddsanewarticletotheprimitivepact，forwhicharticlethereisnotthesameunanimousandassuredassentthatexistedforthepact。Weareallwillingtobesecuredagainstviolenceandfraud；outsideofthis，andonalmostanyotherpoint，therearedivergentwills。Ihavemyownreligion，myownopinions，myhabits，mycustoms，mypeculiarviewsoflifeandwayofregardingtheuniverse；now，thisisjustwhatconstitutesmypersonality，whathonorandconscienceforbidmetoalienate，andwhichtheStatehaspromisedmetoprotect。Consequently，when，throughitsadditionalarticle，itattemptstoregulatetheseinacertainway，ifthatwayisnotmyway，itfailstofulfillitsprimordialengagementand，insteadofprotectingme，itoppressesme。Evenifitshouldhavethesupportofamajority，evenifallvoters，lessone，shouldagreetoentrustingitwiththissupererogatoryfunction，werethereonlyonedissenter，hewouldbewronged，andintwoways。—
Firstofall，andinanyevent，theState，tofulfillitsnewtasks，exactsfromhimanextraamountofsubsidyandservice；for，everysupplementaryworkbringsalongwithitsupplementaryexpenses；thebudgetisoverburdenedwhentheStatetakesuponitselftheprocuringofworkforlaborersoremploymentforartists，themaintenanceofanyparticularindustrialorcommercialenterprise，thegivingofalms，andthefurnishingofeducation。Toanexpenditureofmoneyaddanexpenditureoflives，shoulditenteruponawarofgenerosityorofpropaganda。Now，toalltheseexpendituresthatitdoesnotapproveof，theminoritycontributesaswellasthemajoritywhichdoesapproveofthem；somuchtheworsefortheconscriptandthetax—payeriftheybelongtothedissatisfiedgroup。Likeitornot，thecollectorputshishandinthetax—payer’spocket，andthesergeantlayshishandontheconscript’scollar。—
Inthesecondplace，andinmanycircumstances，notonlydoestheStateunjustlytakemorethanitsdue，butitusesthemoneyithasextortedfrommetoapplyunjustlynewconstraintsagainstme。Suchisthecase，*whenitimposesonmeitstheologyorphilosophy；
*whenitprescribesforme，orinterdicts，acult；
*whenitassumestoregulatemywaysandhabits，*whenitassumestolimitmylabororexpenditure，*whenitassumestodirecttheeducationofmychildren，*whenitassumestofixthepricesofmywaresortherateofmywages。
Forthen，toenforceitscommandsandprohibitions，itenactslightorseriouspenaltiesagainsttherecalcitrant，allthewayfrompoliticalorcivilincapacitytofines，imprisonment，exileandtheguillotine。
Inotherwords，themoneyIdonotoweit，andofwhichitrobsme，paysforthepersecutionwhichitinflictsuponme；Iamreducedtopayingoutofmyownpursethewagesofmyinquisitors，myjailerandmyexecutioner。Amoreglaringoppressioncouldnotbeimagined！—
LetuswatchoutfortheencroachmentsoftheStateandnotallowittobecomeanythingmorethanawatch—dog。Whilsttheteethandnailsofotherguestsinthehouseholdhavebeenlosingtheirsharpness，itsfangshavebecomeformidable；itisnowcolossalanditalonestillkeepsupthepracticeoffighting。Letussupplyitwithnourishmentagainstwolves；butneverletittouchpeaceablefolksaroundthetable。Appetitegrowsbyeating；itwouldsoonbecomeawolfitself，andthemostravenouswolfinsidethefold。Theimportantthingistokeepachainarounditsneckandconfineitwithinitsownenclosure。
IV。
Thestateistemptedtoencroach。—Precedentsandreasonsforitspretensions。
Letusgoaroundthefold，whichisanextensiveone，and，throughitsextensions，reachintoalmosteverynookofprivatelife。—Eachprivatedomain，indeed，physicalormoral，offerstemptationsforitsneighborstotrespassonit，and，tokeepthisintact，demandsthesuperiorinterventionofathirdparty。Toacquire，topossess，tosell，togive，tobequeath，tocontractbetweenhusbandandwife，father，motherorchild，betweenmasterordomestic，employeroremployee，eachactandeachsituation，involvesrightslimitedbycontiguousandadverserights，anditistheStatewhichsetsuptheboundarybetweenthem。Notthatitcreatesthisboundary；but，thatthismayberecognized，itdrawsthelineandthereforeenactscivillawswhichitappliesthroughitscourtsandgendarmesinsuchawayastosecuretoeachindividualwhatbelongstohim。TheStatestands，accordingly，asregulatorandcontroller，notaloneofprivatepossessions，butalsoofthefamilyandofdomesticlife；itsauthorityisthuslegitimatelyintroducedintothatreservedcircleinwhichtheindividualwillhasentrencheditself，and，asisthehabitofallgreatpowers，oncethecircleisinvaded，itstendencyistooccupyitfullyandentirely。—Tothisend，itinvokesanewprinciple。Constitutedasamoralpersonality，thesameasachurch，university，orcharitableorscientificbody，isnottheStatebound，likeeverycorporatebodythatistolastforages，toextenditsvisionfarandnearandprefertoprivateinterests，whichareonlylife—interests，thecommoninterest（l’intérêtcommun）whichiseternal？Isnotthisthesuperiorendtowhichallothersshouldbesubordinated，andmustthisinterest，whichissupremeoverall，besacrificedtotwotroublesomeinstinctswhichareoftenunreasonableandsometimesdangerous；toconscience，whichoverflowsinmysticmadness，andtohonor，whichmayleadtostrifeeventomurderousduels？—Certainlynot，andfirstofallwhen，initsgrandestworks，theState，aslegislator，regulatesmarriages，inheritances，andtestaments，thenitisnotrespectforthewillofindividualswhichsolelyguidesit；itdoesnotcontentitselfwithobligingeverybodytopayhisdebts，includingeventhosewhicharetacit，involuntaryandinnate；ittakesintoaccountthepublicinterest；itcalculatesremoteprobabilities，futurecontingencies，allresultssinglyandcollectively。Manifestly，inallowingorforbiddingdivorce，inextendingorrestrictingwhatamanmaydisposeofbytestament，infavoringorinterdictingsubstitutions，itischieflyinviewofsomepolitical，economicalorsocialadvantage，eithertorefineorconsolidatetheunionofthesexes，toimplantinthefamilyhabitsofdisciplineorsentimentsofaffection，toexciteinchildrenaninitiatoryspirit，oroneofconcord，toprepareforthenationastaffofnaturalchieftains，oranarmyofsmallproprietors，andalwaysauthorizedbytheuniversalassent。Moreover，andalwayswiththisuniversalassent，itdoesotherthingsoutsidethetaskoriginallyassignedtoit，andnobodyfindsthatitusurpswhen，*itcoinsmoney，*itregulatesweightsandmeasures，*itestablishesquarantines，*onconditionofanindemnity，itexpropriatesprivatepropertyforpublicutility，*itbuildslighthouses，harbors，dikes，canals，roads，*itdefraysthecostofscientificexpeditions，*itfoundsmuseumsandpubliclibraries；