。Eachawaitsyourspecialinstructionstocontributetothepublicgood，torespecttherightsofothers，andevensometimestoexercisehisown。"Consequently，addsNecker，"thegovernmentofFranceiscarriedoninthebureaux……Theclerks，relishingtheirinfluence，neverfailtopersuadetheministerthathecannotseparatehimselffromcommandinasingledetail。"Bureaucraticatthecenter，arbitrariness，exceptionsandfavorseverywhere，suchisasummaryofthesystem。"Sub—delegates，officersofelections，receiversandcomptrollersofthevingtièmes，commissairesandcollectorsofthetailles，officersofthesalt—tax，process—servers，voituriers—buralistes，overseersofthecorvées，clerksoftheexcise，oftheregistry，andofduesreserved，allthesemenbelongingtothetax—
　　service。Eachofthesewill，aidedbyhisfiscalknowledgeandpettyauthority，sooverwhelmtheignorantandinexperiencedtaxpayerthathedoesnotrecognizethatheisbeingcheated。"[35]Arudespeciesofcentralizationwithnocontroloverit，withnopublicity，withoutuniformity，thusinstallsoverthewholecountryanarmyofpettypashaswho，asjudges，decidecausesinwhichtheyarethemselvescontestants，rulingbydelegation，and，tosanctiontheirtheftortheirinsolence，alwayshavingontheirlipsthenameoftheking，whoisobligedtoletthemdoastheyplease。—Inshort，themachine，throughitscomplexity，irregularity，anddimensions，escapesfromhisgrasp。AFrederickII。whorisesatfouro’clockinthemorning，aNapoleonwhodictateshalfthenightinhisbath，andwhoworkseighteenhoursaday，wouldscarcelysufficeforitsneeds。Sucharégimecannotoperatewithoutconstantstrain，withoutindefatigableenergy，withoutinfalliblediscernment，withoutmilitaryrigidity，withoutsuperiorgenius；ontheseconditionsalonecanoneconverttwenty—fivemillionsofmenintoautomatonsandsubstitutehisownwill，lucidthroughout，coherentthroughoutandeverywherepresent，forthewillsofthoseheabolishes。LouisXVlets"thegoodmachine"
　　workbyitself，whilehesettlesdownintoapathy。"Theywouldhaveitso，theythoughtitallforthebest，"[36]ishismannerofspeakingwhenministerialmeasuresproveunsuccessful。"IfIwerealieutenantofthepolice，"hewouldsayagain，"Iwouldprohibitcabs。"Invainisheawareofthemachinebeingdislocated，forhecandonothingandhecausesnothingtobedone。Intheeventofmisfortunehehasaprivatereserve，hispurseapart。"Theking，"saidMme。dePompadour，"wouldsignawayamillionwithoutthinkingofit，buthewouldscarcelybestowahundredlouisoutofhisownlittletreasury。"—
　　LouisXVIstrivesforsometimetoremovesomeofthewheels，tointroducebetteronesandtoreducethefrictionoftherest；butthepiecesaretoorusty，andtooweighty。Hecannotadjustthem，orharmonizethemandkeepthemintheirplaces；hishandfallsbyhissideweariedandpowerless。Heiscontenttopracticeeconomyhimself；
　　herecordsinhisjournalthemendingofhiswatch，andleavestheStatecarriageinthehandsofCalonnetobeloadedwithfreshabusesthatitmayrevertbacktotheoldrutfromwhichitistoissueonlybybreakingdown。
　　Undoubtedlythewrongtheydo，orwhichisdoneintheirname，dissatisfiesthekingsandupsetsthem，but，atthebottom，theirconscienceisnotdisturbed。Theymayfeelcompassionforthepeople，buttheydonotfeelguilty；theyareitssovereignsandnotitsrepresentatives。France，tothem，isasadomaintoitslord，andalordisnotdeprivedofhonorinbeingprodigalandneglectful。Hemerelygamblesawayhisownproperty，andnobodyhasarighttocallhimtoaccount。Foundedonfeudalsociety，royaltyislikeanestate，aninheritance。Itwouldbeinfidelity，almosttreacheryinaprince，inanyeventweakandbase，shouldheallowanyportionofthetrustreceivedbyhimintactfromhisancestorsfortransmissiontohischildren，topassintothehandsofhissubjects。Notonlyaccordingtomedievaltraditionsisheproprietor—commandantoftheFrenchandofFrance，butagain，accordingtothetheoryofthejurists，heis，likeCaesar，thesoleandperpetualrepresentativeofthenation，and，accordingtothetheologicaldoctrine，likeDavid，thesacredandspecialdelegateofGodhimself。Itwouldbeastonishing，if，withallthesetitles，hedidnotconsiderthepublicrevenueashispersonalrevenue，andif，inmanycases，hedidnotactaccordingly。Ourpointofview，inthismatter，issoessentiallyopposedtohis，wecanscarcelyputourselvesinhisplace；butatthattimehispointofviewwaseverybody’spointofview。Itseemed，then，asstrangetomeddlewiththeking’sbusinessastomeddlewiththatofaprivateperson。Onlyattheendoftheyear1788[37]thefamoussalonofthePalais—Royal"withboldnessandunimaginablefolly，assertsthatinatruemonarchytherevenuesoftheStateshouldnotbeatthesovereign’sdisposition；thatheshouldbegrantedmerelyasumsufficienttodefraytheexpensesofhisestablishment，ofhisdonations，andforfavorstohisservantsaswellasforhispleasures，whilethesurplusshouldbedepositedintheroyaltreasurytobedevotedonlytopurposessanctionedbytheNationalAssembly。Toreducethesovereigntoacivillist，toseizenine—tenthsofhisincome，toforbidhimcashondemand，whatanoutrage！Thesurprisewouldbenogreaterifatthepresentdayitwereproposedtodividetheincomeofeachmillionaireintotwoportions，thesmallesttogofortheowner’ssupport，andthelargesttobeplacedinthehandsofagovernmenttobeexpendedinworksofpublicutility。Anoldfarmer—
　　general，anintellectualandunprejudicedman，gravelyattemptstojustifythepurchaseofSaint—Cloudbycallingit"aringforthequeen’sfinger。"Theringcost，indeed，7，700，000francs，but"thekingofFrancethenhadanincomeof447，000，000。Whatcouldbesaidofanyprivateindividualwho，with477，000livresincome，should，foronceinhislife，givehiswifediamondsworth7，000or8，000
　　livres？"[38]Peoplewouldsaythatthegiftismoderate，andthatthehusbandisreasonable。
　　Toproperlyunderstandthehistoryofourkings，letthefundamentalprinciplebealwaysrecognizedthatFranceistheirland，afarmtransmittedfromfathertoson，atfirstsmall，thenslowlyenlarged，and，atlast，prodigiouslyenlarged，becausetheproprietor，alwaysalert，hasfoundmeanstomakefavorableadditionstoitattheexpenseofhisneighbors；attheendofeighthundredyearsitcomprisesabout27，000squareleaguesofterritory。Hisinterestsandhisvanityharmonize，certainly，inseveralareaswithpublicwelfare；
　　heis，allinall，notapooradministrator，and，sincehehasalwaysexpandedhisterritory，hehasdonebetterthanmanyothers。Moreover，aroundhim，anumberofexpertindividuals，oldfamilycouncilors，withdrawnfrombusinessanddevotedtothedomain，withgoodheadsangraybeards，respectfullyremonstratewithhimwhenhespendstoofreely；theyofteninteresthiminpublicimprovements，inroads，canals，homesfortheinvalids，militaryschools，scientificinstitutionsandcharityworkshops；inthecontroloftrust—fundsandfoundations，inthetoleranceofheretics，inthepostponementofmonasticvowstotheageoftwenty—one，inprovincialassemblies，andinotherreformsbywhichafeudaldomainbecomestransformedintoamoderndomain。Nevertheless，thecountry，feudalormodern，remainshisproperty，whichhecanabuseaswellasuse；however，whoeveruseswithfullswayendsbyabusingwithfulllicense。If，inhisordinaryconduct，personalmotivesdonotprevailoverpublicmotives，hemightbeasaintlikeLouisIX，astoiclikeMarcusAurelius，whileremainingaseignior，amanoftheworldlikethepeopleofhiscourt，yetmorebadlybroughtup，worsesurrounded，moresolicited，moretemptedandmoreblindfolded。Attheveryleasthehas，likethem，hisownvanity，hisowntastes，hisownrelatives，hismistress，hiswife，hisfriends，allintimateandinfluentialsolicitorswhomustfirstbesatisfied，whilethenationonlycomesafterthem。—Theresultis，that，forahundredyears，from1672to1774，wheneverhemakeswaritisthroughwoundedpride，throughfamilyinterest，throughcalculationofprivateadvantages，ortogratifyawoman。LouisXVmaintainshiswarsyetworsethaninundertakingthem；"[39]whileLouisXVI，duringthewholeofhisforeignpolicy，findshimselfhemmedinbythemarriagehehasmade。—Athomethekingliveslikeothernobles，butmoregrandly，becauseheisthegreatestlordinFrance；Ishalldescribehiscourtpresently，andfurtheronweshallseebywhatexactionsthispompismadepossible。Inthemeantimeletusnotetwoorthreedetails。Accordingtoauthenticstatements，LouisXVexpendedonMme。dePompadourthirty—sixmillionsoflivres，whichisatleastseventy—twomillionsnowadays[40]Accordingtod’Argenson，[41]in1751，hehas4，000horsesinhisstable，andweareassuredthathishouseholdalone，orhisperson，"costthisyear68，000，000，"almostaquarterofthepublicrevenue。Whybeastonishedifwelookuponthesovereigninthemanneroftheday，thatistosay，asalordofthemanorenjoyingofhishereditaryproperty？Heconstructs，heentertains，hegivesfestivals，hehunts，andhespendsmoneyaccordingtohisstation。Moreover，beingthemasterofhisownfunds，hegivestowhomsoeverhepleases，andallhisselectionsarefavors。
　　AbbédeVermondwritestoEmpressMariaTheresa[42]
　　"YourMajestyknowsbetterthanmyself，that，accordingtoimmemorialcustom，three—fourthsoftheplaceshonorsandpensionsareawardednotonaccountofservicesbutoutoffavorandthroughinfluence。Thisfavorwasoriginallypromptedbybirth，allianceandfortune；thefactisthatitnearlyalwaysisbasedonpatronageandintrigue。Thisprocedureissowellestablished，thatisrespectedasasortofjusticeevenbythosewhosufferthemostfromit。Amanofworthnotabletodazzlebyhiscourtalliances，northroughabrilliantexpenditure，wouldnotdaretodemandaregiment，howeverancientandillustrioushisservices，orhisbirth。Twentyyearsago，thesonsofdukesandministers，ofpeopleattachedtothecourt，oftherelationsandprotégésofmistresses，becamecolonelsattheageofsixteen。M。deChoiseulcausedloudcomplaintsonextendingthisagetotwenty—threeyears。Buttocompensatefavoritismandabsolutismheassignedtothepuregraceoftheking，orrathertothatofhisministers，theappointmenttothegradesoflieutenant—colonelandmajorwhich，untilthattime，belongedofrighttopriorityofservicesinthegovernment；alsothecommandsofprovincesandoftowns。Youareawarethattheseplaceshavebeenlargelymultiplied，andthattheyarebestowedthroughfavorandcredit，liketheregiments。Thecordonbleuandthecordonrougeareinthelikeposition，andabbeysarestillmoreconstantlysubjecttotherégimeofinfluence。Astopositionsinthefinances，Idarenotalludetothem。Appointmentsinthejudiciaryarethemostconditionedbyservicesrendered；andyethowmuchdonotinfluenceandrecommendationaffectthenominationofintendants，firstpresidents"
　　andtheothers？
　　Necker，enteringonhisduties，findstwenty—eightmillionsinpensionspaidfromtheroyaltreasury，and，athisfall，thereisanoutflowofmoneyshoweredbymillionsonthepeopleofthecourt。Evenduringhistermofofficethekingallowshimselftomakethefortunesofhiswife’sfriendsofbothsexes；theCountessdePolignacobtains400，000francstopayherdebts，100，000francsdowryforherdaughter，and，besides，forherself，thepromiseofanestateof35，000livresincome，and，forherlover，theCountdeVaudreil，apensionof30，000livres；thePrincessdeLamballeobtains100，000
　　crownsperannum，asmuchforthepostofsuperintendentofthequeen’shousehold，whichisrevivedonherbehalf，asforapositionforherbrother。[43]Thekingisreproachedforhisparsimony；whyshouldhebesparingofhispurse？Startedonacoursenothisown，hegives，buys，builds，andexchanges；heassiststhosebelongingtohisownsociety，doingeverythinginastylebecomingtoagrandseignior，thatistosay，throwingmoneyawaybyhandfuls。Oneinstanceenablesustojudgeofthis:inordertoassistthebankruptGuéménéefamily，hepurchasesofthemthreeestatesforabout12，500，000livres，whichtheyhadjustpurchasedfor4，000，000；moreover，inexchangefortwodomainsinBrittany，whichproduce33，758livresincome，hemakesovertothemtheprincipalityofDombeswhichproducesnearly70，000livresincome。[44]—WhenwecometoreadtheRedBookfurtheronweshallfind700，000livresofpensionsforthePolignacfamily，mostofthemrevertiblefromonemembertoanother，andnearly2，000，000ofannualbenefitstotheNoaillesfamily。—Thekinghasforgottenthathisfavorsaremortalblows，"thecourtierwhoobtains6，000livrespension，receivingthetailleofsixvillages。"[45]Eachlargessofthemonarch，consideringthestateofthetaxes，isbasedontheprivationofthepeasants，thesovereign，throughhisclerks，takingbreadfromthepoortogivecoachestotherich。—Thecenterofthegovernment，inshort，isthecenteroftheevil；allthewrongsandallthemiseriesstartfromitasfromthecenterofpainandinflammation；hereitisthatthepublicabscesscomestothehead，andherewillitbreak。[46]
　　VI。LatentDisorganizationinFrance。
　　Suchisthejustandfataleffectofprivilegesturnedtoselfishpurposesinsteadofbeingexercisedfortheadvantageofothers。Tohimwhoutterstheword，"SireorSeignior"standsfortheprotectorwhofeeds，theancientwholeads。"[47]Withsuchatitleandforthispurposetoomuchcannotbegrantedtohim，forthereisnomoredifficultormoreexaltedpost。Buthemustfulfillitsduties；
　　otherwiseinthedayofperilhewillbelefttohimself。Already，andlongbeforethedayarrives，hisflockisnolongerhisown；ifitmarchesonwarditisthroughroutine；itissimplyamultitudeofpersons，butnolongeranorganizedbody。WhilstinGermanyandinEnglandthefeudalrégime，retainedortransformed，stillcomposesalivingsociety，inFrance[48]itsmechanicalframeworkenclosesonlysomanyhumanparticles。Westillfindthematerialorder，butwenolongerfindthemoralorderofthings。Alingering，deep—seatedrevolutionhasdestroyedtheclosehierarchicalunionofrecognizedsupremaciesandofvoluntarydeference。Itislikeanarmyinwhichtheattitudesofchiefsandsubordinateshavedisappeared；gradesareindicatedbyuniformsonly，buttheyhavenoholdonconsciences。Allthatconstitutesawell—foundedarmy，thelegitimateascendancyofofficers，thejustifiedtrustofsoldiers，thedailyinterchangeofmutualobligations，theconvictionofeachbeingusefultoall，andthatthechiefsarethemostusefulall，ismissing。Howcoulditbeotherwiseinanarmywhosestaff—officershavenootheroccupationbuttodineout，todisplaytheirepaulettesandtoreceivedoublepay？
　　LongbeforethefinalcrashFranceisinastateofdissolution，andsheisinastateofdissolutionbecausetheprivilegedclasseshadforgottentheircharactersaspublicmen。
　　Notes:
　　[1]。"Rapportdel’agenceduclergé，"from1775to1780，pp。31—
　　34。—Ibid。from1780to1785，p。237。
　　[2]。Lanfrey，"L’Egliseetlesphilosophes，"passim。
　　[3]。Boiteau，"EtatdelaFranceen1789，"pp。205，207。—
　　D’Argenson"Mémoires，"May5，1752，September3，22，25，1753；
　　October17，1753，andOctober26，1775。—Prudhomme，"RésumégénéraldescahiersdesEtats—Généraux，"1789，（RegistersoftheClergy）。——
　　"Histoiredeséglisesdudésert，"parCharlesCoquerel，I。151andthosefollowing。
　　[4]。DeSégur，"Mémoires，"vol。I。pp。16，41。—DeBouillé，"Mémoires，"p。54。—Mme。Campan，"Mémoires，"V。I。p。237，proofsindetail。
　　[5]。Somewhatlikethesocialistsocietiesincludingthewelfarestateswhereacasteofpublicpensionaries，functionaries，civilservantsandpoliticiansweighlikeaheavyburdenonthosewhoactuallydothework……（SR。）
　　[6]。AnantechamberinthepalaceofVersaillesinwhichtherewasaroundorbull’s—eyewindow，wherecourtiersassembledtoawaittheopeningofthedoorintotheking’sapartment。—TR。
　　[7]。"LaFranceecclésiastique，"1788。
　　[8]。GrannierdeCassagnac，"DescausesdelaRèvolutionFran？aise，"III。58。
　　[9]。Marmontel，"Mémoires，"。II。bookXIII。p。221。
　　[10]。Boiteau，"EtatdelaFranceen1789，"pp。55，248。—
　　D’Argenson，"ConsidérationssurlegouvermementdelaFrance，"p。177。
　　DeLuynes，"Journal，"XIII。226，XIV。287，XIII。33，158，162，118，233，237，XV。268，XVI。304。—ThegovernmentofHamisworth11，250
　　livres，thatofAuxerre12，000，thatofBrian？on12，000，thatoftheislandsofSte。Marguerite16，000，thatofSchelestadt15，000，thatofBrisachfrom15to16，000，thatofGravelines18，000。—Theordinanceof1776hadreducedthesevariousplacesasfollows:
　　（Warroquier，II，467）。18generalgovernmentsto60，000livres，21to30，000；114specialgovernments；25to12，000livres，25to10，000and64to8，000；176lieutenantsandcommandantsoftowns，places，etc。，ofwhich35werereducedto16，600and141from2，000to6，000。—Theordinanceof1788established，besidesthese，17commandsinchiefwithfrom20，000to30，000livresfixedsalaryandfrom4，000to6，000
　　amonthforresidence，andcommandsofasecondarygrade。
　　[11]。SomewhatlikeaministerofcultureinoneofourwesternWelfareSocialdemocracies，andwhichsecuresthesupportfortherulingclassofahordeof"artists"ofallsorts。（SR。）
　　[12]。Archivesnationales，H，944，April25，andSeptember20，1780。LettersandMemoirsofFurgole，advocateatToulouse。
　　[13]。Archivesnationales，O1，738（Reportsmadetothebureau—
　　generaloftheking’shousehold，March，1780，byM。MesnarddeChousy）。Augeard，"Mémoires，"97。—Mme。Campan，"Mémoires，"I。291。—
　　D’Argenson，"Mémoires，"February10，December9，1751，—"Essaisurlescapitaineriesroyalesetautres"（1789），p。80。—Warroquier，"EtatdelaFranceen1789，"I。266。
　　[14]。"MarieAntoinette，"byD’ArnethandGeffroy，II。377。
　　[15]。1crown（écu）equals6livresunderLouisXV。（SR。）
　　[16]。Mme。Campan，"Mémoires，"I。296，298，300，301；III。78。—
　　Hippeau，"LeGouvernementdeNormandie，"IV。171（LetterfromParis，December13，1780）。—D’Argenson，"Mémoires，"September5，1755。—
　　Bachaumont，January19，1758。—"Mémoiresurl’impositionterritoriale，"byM。deCalonne（1787），p。54。
　　[17]。D’Argenson，"Mémoires，"December9，1751。"Theexpensetocourtiersoftwonewandmagnificentcoats，eachfortwofêtedays，orderedbytheking，completelyruinsthem。"
　　[18]。DeLuynes，"Journal，"XIV。pp。147—295，XV。36，119。—
　　D’Argenson，"Mémoires，"April8，1752，March30andJuly28，1753，July2，1735，June23，1756。—Hippeau，ibid……IV。p。153（LetterofMay15，1780）。—Necker，"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，"II。pp。
　　265，269，270，271，228。—Augeard，"Mémoires，"p249。
　　[19]。Nicolardot，"JournaldeLouisXVI。，"p。228。AppropriationsintheRedBookof1774to1789:227，985，716livres，ofwhich80，000，000areinacquisitionsandgiftstotheroyalfamily。—Amongothersthereare14，600，000totheComted’Artoisand14，450，000toMonsieur。—7，726，253aregiventotheQueenforSaint—Cloud。—
　　8，70，000fortheacquisitionofIle—Adam。
　　[20]。Cf。"Comptegénéraldesrevenusetdépensesfixesau1erMai，1789"（Imprimerieroyale，1789，in4to）。EstateofIle—Dieu，acquiredin1783oftheDucdeMortemart，1，000，000；estateofViviers，acquiredofthePrincedeSoubisein1784，1，500，000。—
　　EstatesofSt。PriestandofSt。Etienne，acquiredin1787ofM。
　　GilbertdesVoisins，1，335，935。—TheforestsofCamorsandofFloranges，acquiredoftheDucdeLiancourtin1785，1，200，000。—ThecountyofMontgommery，acquiredofM。ClementdeBasvillein1785，3，306，604。
　　[21]。"LePresidentdesBrosses，"byFoisset。（RemonstrancestothekingbytheParliamentofDijon，Jan。19，1764）。
　　[22]。LucasdeMontigny，"MémoiresdeMirabeau。"Letterofthebailiff，May26，1781。—D’Argenson，"Mémoires，"VI。156，157，160，76；VI。p。320。—MarshalMarmont，"Mémoires，"I。9。—DeFerrières，"Mémoires，"preface。See，onthedifficultyinsucceeding，theMemoirsofDumourier。Chateaubriand’sfatherislikewiseoneofthediscontented，"apoliticalfrondeur，andveryinimicaltothecourt。"
　　（I。206）。—RecordsoftheStates—Generalof1789，ageneralsummarybyPrud’homme，II。passim。
　　[23]。"Ephéméridesducitoyen，"II。202，203。—Voltaire，"Dictionnairephilosophique，"article"CurédeCampagne。"—Abbé
　　Guettée，"Histoiredel’EglisedeFrance，"XII。130。
　　[24]。Thoseentitledtotithesincereals。—TR。
　　[25]。Acurate’ssalaryatthepresentday（1875）is，attheminimum，900francswithahouseandperquisites。
　　[26]。ThérondeMontaugé，"L’Agriculturelesclassesrurale，danslepaysToulousain，"p。86。
　　[27]。Périn，"laJeunessedeRobespierre，"grievancesoftheruralparishesofArtois，p。320。——Boivin—Champeaux，ibid……pp。65，68。—
　　Hippeau，ibid……VI。p。79，etVII。177。—LetterofM。Sergent，curateofVallers，January27，1790。（Archivesnationales，DXIX。portfolio24。）LetterofM。Briscard，curateofBeaumont—la—Roger，dioceseofEvreux，December19，1789。（ibid……DXIX。portfolio6。）"TableaumoralduclergédeFrance"（1789），p。2。
　　[28]。Hewhohastherightofreceivingthefirstyear’sincomeofaparishchurchafteravacancycausedbydeath。—TR。
　　[29]。Onewhoperformsmassesforthedeadatfixedepochs。—TR。
　　[30]。GrievancesontheadditionalburdenswhichtheThird—Estatehavetosupport，byGautierdeBianzat（1788），p237。
　　[31]。Hippeau，ibid。VI。164。（LetteroftheCurateofMarollesandofthirteenothers，。LetterofthebishopofEvreux，March20，1789。
　　Letteroftheabbéd’Osmond，April2，1789）。—Archivesnationales，manuscriptdocuments（proces—verbeaux）oftheStates—General，V。148。
　　pp。245—47。RegistersofthecuratesofToulouse，t。150，p。282，intherepresentationsoftheDijonchapter。
　　[32]。DeToqueville，bookII。ThiscapitaltruthasbeenestablishedbyM。deTocquevillewithsuperiordiscernment。
　　[33]。AtermindicatingacertaindivisionofthekingdomofFrancetofacilitatethecollectionoftaxes。Eachgeneralshipwassubdividedintoelections，inwhichtherewasatribunalcalledthebureauoffinances。（TR。）
　　[34]。RemonstrancesofMalesherbes；RegistersbyTurgotandNeckertotheking，（Laboulaye，"Del’administrationfran？aisesousLouisXVI，Revuedescourslittéraires，IV。423，759，814。）
　　[35]。Financiershavebeenknowntotellcitizens:"Theferme（
　　revenue—agency）oughttobeabletograntyoufavors，yououghttobeforcedtocomeandaskforthem。—Hewhopaysneverknowswhatheowes。Thefermierissovereignlegislatorinmattersrelatingtohispersonalinterest。Everypetition，inwhichtheinterestsofaprovince，orthoseofthewholenationareconcerned，isregardedaspenalfoolhardinessifitissignedbyapersoninhisprivatecapacity，andasillicitassociationifitbesignedbyseveral。"
　　Malesherbes，ibid……
　　[36]。Mme。Campan，"Mémoires，"I。p。13。—Mme。duHausset，"Mémoires，"p。114。
　　[37]。"GustaveIII。etlacourdeFrance，"byGeffroy。II。474。
　　（"ArchivesdeDresde，"FrenchCorrespondence，November20，1788。）
　　[38]。Augeard，"Mémoires，"p。135。
　　[39]。Mme。dePompadour，writingtoMarshald’Estrées，inthearmy，aboutthecampaignoperations，andtracingforhimasortofplan，hadmarkedonthepaperwithmouches（face—patches），thedifferentplaceswhichsheadvisedhimtoattackordefend。"Mme。deGenlis，"SouvenirsdeFélicie，"p。329。NarrativebyMme。dePuisieux，themother—in—lawofMarshald’Estrées。
　　[40]。AccordingtothemanuscriptregisterofMme。dePompadour’sexpenses，inthearchivesofthepréfectureofVersailles，shehadexpended36，327，268livres。（GranierdeCassagnac，I。91。）
　　[41]。D’Argenson，"Mémoires，"VI。398（April24，1751）。—"M。duBarrydeclaredopenlythathehadconsumed18，000，000belongingtotheState。"（CorrespondencebyMétra，I。27）。
　　[42]。"MarieAntoinette，"byd’ArnethandGeffroy，vol。II。p。168
　　（June5，1774）。
　　[43]。"MarieAntoinette，"ibid……vol。II。p。377；vol。III。p。391。
　　[44]。Archivesnationales，H，1456，MemoirforM。BouretdeVezelay，syndicforthecreditors。
　　[45]。MarquisdeMirabeau，"Traitédelapopulation，"p。81。
　　[46]Today，ourso—calledpopulardemocracieshavebecomecompletelyirresponsiblesincetheelected，whohavefullaccesstothecoffersofthenation，presentandfuture，andwho，throughalternationandshortdurationoftenure，areencouragedtobecomeirresponsible，willuselargeamountstobefavorablyexposedinthemediaandtoavoidanykindofmudslinging。Theyseemtogoverntheircountriesaccordingtothedevise:"Aftermethedeluge。"（SR。）
　　[47]。Lord，inOldSaxon，signifies"hewhoprovidesfood；"
　　seignior，intheLatinofthemiddleages，signifies"theancient，"
　　theheadorchiefoftheflock。
　　[48]。Around1780。（SR。）
　　BOOKSECOND。MORALSANDCHARACTERS。
　　CHAPTERI。MORALPRINCIPLESUNDERTHEANCIENTREGIME。
　　TheCourtandalifeofpompandparade。
　　Amilitarystaffonfurloughforacenturyandmore，aroundacommander—in—chiefwhogivesfashionableentertainment，istheprincipleandsummaryofthehabitsofsocietyundertheancientrégime。Hence，ifweseektocomprehendthemwemustfirststudythemattheircenterandtheirsource，thatistosay，inthecourtitself。
　　Likethewholeancientrégimethecourtistheemptyform，thesurvivingadornmentofamilitaryinstitution，thecausesofwhichhavedisappearedwhiletheeffectsremain，customsurvivingutility。
　　Formerly，intheearlytimesoffeudalism，inthecompanionshipandsimplicityofthecampandthecastle，thenoblesservedthekingwiththeirownhands。Oneprovidingforhishouse，anotherbringingadishtohistable，anotherdisrobinghimatnight，andanotherlookingafterhisfalconsandhorses。Stilllater，underRichelieuandduringtheFronde，[1]amidthesuddenattacksandtherudeexigenciesofconstantdangertheyconstitutethegarrisonofhislodgings，forminganarmedescortforhim，andaretinueofever—readyswordsmen。Nowasformerlytheyareequallyassiduousaroundhisperson，wearingtheirswords，awaitingaword，andeagertohisbidding，whilethoseofhighestrankseeminglyperformdomesticserviceinhishousehold。
　　Pompousparade，however，hasbeensubstitutedforefficientservice；
　　theyareelegantadornmentsonlyandnolongerusefultools；theyactalongwiththekingwhoishimselfanactor，theirpersonsservingasroyaldecoration。
　　I。Versailles。
　　ThePhysicalaspectandthemoralcharacterofVersailles。
　　Itmustbeadmittedthatthedecorationissuccessful，and，thatsincethefêtesoftheItalianRenaissance，moremagnificentdisplayshavenotbeenseen。Letusfollowthefileofcarriageswhich，fromParistoVersailles，rollssteadilyalonglikeariver。Certainhorsescalled"desenragés，"fedinaparticularway，goandcomeinthreehours。[2]Onefeels，atthefirstglance，asifhewereinacityofaparticularstamp，suddenlyerectedandatonestroke，likeaprize—
　　medalforaspecialpurpose，ofwhichonlyoneismade，itsformbeingathingapart，aswellasitsoriginanduse。Invainisitoneofthelargestcitiesofthekingdom，withitspopulationof80，000souls；[3]
　　itisfilled，peopled，andoccupiedbythelifeofasingleman；itissimplyaroyalresidence，arrangedentirelytoprovideforthewants，thepleasures，theservice，theguardianship，thesociety，thedisplayofaking。Hereandthere，incornersandaroundit，areinns，stalls，taverns，hovelsforlaborersandfordrudges，fordilapidatedsoldiersandaccessorymenials。Thesetenementsnecessarilyexist，sincetechniciansareessentialtothemostmagnificentapotheosis。Therest，however，consistsofsumptuoushotelsandedifices，sculpturedfa？ades，cornicesandbalustrades，monumentalstairways，seigniorialarchitecture，regularlyspacedanddisposed，asinaprocession，aroundthevastandgrandiosepalacewhereallthisterminates。Herearethefixedabodesofthenoblestfamilies；totherightofthepalacearetheh？telsdeBourbon，d’Ecquervilly，delaTrémoille，deCondé，deMaurepas，deBouillon，d’Eu，deNoailles，dePenthièvre，deLivry，duComtedelaMarche，deBroglie，duPrincedeTingry，d’Orléans，deChatillon，deVillerry，d’Harcourt，deMonaco；ontheleftarethepavilionsd’Orléans，d’Harcourt，theh？telsdeChevreuse，deBabelle，del’H？pital，d’Antin，deDangeau，dePontchartrain—noendtotheirenumeration。AddtothesethoseofParis，allthosewhich，tenleaguesaround。AtSceaux，atGénevilliers，atBrunoy，atIle—Adam，atRancy，atSaint—Ouen，atColombes，atSaint—Germain，atMarly，atBellevue，incountlessplaces，theyformacrownofarchitecturalflowers，fromwhichdailyissueasmanygildedwaspstoshineandbuzzaboutVersailles，thecenterofalllusterandaffluence。Aboutahundredoftheseare"presentedeachyear，menandwomen，whichmakesabout2or3，000inall；[4]thisformstheking’ssociety，theladieswhocourtesybeforehim，andtheseigniorswhoaccompanyhiminhiscarriage；theirhotelsarenearby，orwithinreach，readytofillhisdrawingroomorhisantechamberatallhours。
　　Adrawingroomlikethiscallsforproportionatedependencies；thehotelsandbuildingsatVersaillesdevotedtotheprivateserviceofthekingandhisattendantscountbyhundreds。NohumanexistencesincethatoftheCaesarshassospreaditselfoutinthesunshine。IntheRuedesReservoirswehavetheoldhotelandthenewoneofthegovernorofVersailles，thehotelofthetutortothechildrenoftheComted’Artois，theward—robeofthecrown，thebuildingforthedressing—roomsandgreen—roomsoftheactorswhoperformatthepalace，withthestablesbelongingtoMonsieur。—IntheRuedesBon—Enfantsarethehotelofthekeeperofthewardrobe，thelodgingsforthefountain—men，thehoteloftheofficersoftheComtessedeProvence。IntheRuedelaPompe，thehotelofthegrand—provost，theDukeofOrleans’sstables，thehoteloftheComted’Artois’sguardsmen，thequeen’sstables，thepaviliondesSources。—IntheRueSatorytheComtessed’Artois’sstables，Monsieur’sEnglishgarden，theking’sice—houses，theriding—halloftheking’slight—horse—
　　guards，thegardenbelongingtothehotelofthetreasurersofthebuildings。—Judgeofotherstreetsbythesefour。Onecannottakeahundredstepswithoutencounteringsomeaccessoryofthepalace:thehotelofthestaffofthebody—guard，thehotelofthestaffoflight—
　　horse—guards，theimmensehotelofthebody—guarditself，thehotelofthegendarmesoftheguard，thehotelofthegrandwolf—huntsman，ofthegrandfalconer，ofthegrandhuntsman，ofthegrand—master，ofthecommandantofthecanal，ofthecomptroller—general，ofthesuperintendentofthebuildings，andofthechancellor；buildingsdevotedtofalconry，andthevoldecabinet，toboar—hunting，tothegrandkennel，tothedauphinkennel，tothekennelforuntraineddogs，tothecourtcarriages，toshopsandstorehousesconnectedwithamusements，tothegreatstableandthelittlestables，tootherstablesintheRuedeLimoges，intheRueRoyale，andintheAvenueSaint—Cloud；totheking’svegetablegarden，comprisingtwenty—ninegardensandfourterraces；tothegreatdwellingoccupiedby2，000
　　persons，withothertenementscalled"Louises"inwhichthekingassignedtemporaryorpermanentlodgings，—wordsonpaperrendernophysicalimpressionofthephysicalenormity。—AtthepresentdaynothingremainsofthisoldVersailles，mutilatedandappropriatedtootheruses，butfragments，which，nevertheless，oneshouldgoandsee。
　　Observethosethreeavenuesmeetinginthegreatsquare。Twohundredandfortyfeetbroadandtwenty—fourhundredlong，andnottoolargeforthegatheringcrowds，thedisplay，theblindingvelocityoftheescortsinfullspeedandofthecarriagesrunning"atdeath’sdoor。"[5]Observethetwostablesfacingthechateauwiththeirrailingsonehundredandninety—twofeetlong。In1682theycostthreemillions，thatistosay，fifteenmillionstoday。Theyaresoampleandbeautifulthat，evenunderLouisXIVhimself，theysometimesservedasacavalcadecircusfortheprinces，sometimesasatheater，andsometimesasaball—room。Thenlettheeyefollowthedevelopmentofthegiganticsemi—circularsquarewhich，fromrailingtorailingandfromcourttocourt，ascendsandslowlydecreases，atfirstbetweenthehotelsoftheministersandthenbetweenthetwocolossalwings，terminatingintheostentatiousframeofthemarblecourtwherepilasters，statues，pediments，andmultipliedandaccumulatedornaments，storyabovestory，carrythemajesticregularityoftheirlinesandtheoverchargedmassoftheirdecorationuptothesky。
　　AccordingtoaboundmanuscriptbearingthearmsofMansart，thepalacecost153million，thatistosay，about750millionfrancsoftoday；[6]whenakingaimsatimposingdisplaythisisthecostofhislodging。Nowturntheeyetotheotherside，towardsthegardens，andthisself—displaybecomesthemoreimpressive。Theparterresandtheparkare，again，adrawingroomintheopenair。Thereisnothingnaturalofnaturehere；sheisputinorderandrectifiedwhollywithaviewtosociety；thisisnoplacetobealoneandtorelaxoneself，butaplaceforpromenadesandtheexchangeofpolitesalutations。
　　Thoseformalgrovesarewallsandhangings；thoseshavenyewsarevasesandlyres。Theparterresarefloweringcarpets。Inthosestraight，rectilinearavenuestheking，withhiscaneinhishand，groupsaroundhimhisentireretinue。Sixtyladiesinbrocadedresses，expandingintoskirtsmeasuringtwenty—fourfeetincircumference，easilyfindroomonthestepsofthestaircases。[7]Thoseverdantcabinetsaffordshadeforaprincelycollation。Underthatcircularportico，alltheseigniorsenjoyingtheprivilegeofenteringitwitnesstogethertheplayofanewjetd’eau。Theircounterpartsgreetthemeveninthemarbleandbronzefigureswhichpeoplethepathsandbasins，inthedignifiedfaceofanApollo，inthetheatricalairofaJupiter，intheworldlyeaseorstudiednonchalanceofaDianaoraVenus。Thestampofthecourt，deepenedthroughthejointeffortsofsocietyforacentury，issostrongthatitisgravenoneachdetailasonthewhole，andonmaterialobjectsasonmattersoftheintellect。
　　II。TheKing’sHousehold。
　　Itsofficialsandexpenses。—Hismilitaryfamily，hisstable，kennel，chapel，attendants，table，chamber，wardrobe，outhouses，furniture，journeys。
　　Theforegoingisbuttheframework；before1789itwascompletelyfilledup。"Youhaveseennothing，"saysChateaubriand，"ifyouhavenotseenthepompofVersailles，evenafterthedisbandingoftheking’shousehold；LouisXIVwasalwaysthere。"[8]Itisaswarmofliveries，uniforms，costumesandequipagesasbrilliantandasvariedasinapicture。Ishouldbegladtohavelivedeightdaysinthissociety。Itwasmadeexpresslytobepainted，beingspeciallydesignedforthepleasureoftheeye，likeanoperaticscene。Buthowcanweoftodayimaginepeopleforwhomlifewaswhollyoperatic？Atthattimeagrandeewasobligedtoliveingreatstate；hisretinueandhistrappingsformedapartofhispersonality；hefailsindoinghimselfjusticeifthesearenotasampleandassplendidashecanmakethem；
　　hewouldbeasmuchmortifiedatanyblankinhishouseholdaswewithaholeinourcoats。Shouldhemakeanycurtailmenthewoulddeclineinreputation；onLouisXVIundertakingreformsthecourtsaysthatheactslikeabourgeois。Whenaprinceorprincessbecomesofageahouseholdisformedforthem；whenaprincemarries，ahouseholdisformedforhiswife；andbyahouseholditmustbeunderstoodthatitisapompousdisplayoffifteenortwentydistinctservices:stables，ahunting—train，achapel，asurgery，thebedchamberandthewardrobe，achamberforaccounts，atable，pantry，kitchen，andwine—cellars，afruitery，afourrière，acommonkitchen，acabinet，acouncil；[9]shewouldfeelthatshewasnotaprincesswithoutallthis。Thereare274
　　appointmentsinthehouseholdoftheDucd’Orléans，210inthatofMesdames，68inthatofMadameElisabeth，239inthatoftheComtessed’Artois，256inthatoftheComtessedeProvence，and496inthatoftheQueen。WhentheformationofahouseholdforMadameRoyale，onemonthold，isnecessary，"thequeen，"writestheAustrianambassador，"desirestosuppressabanefulindolence，auselessaffluenceofattendants，andeverypracticetendingtogivebirthtosentimentsofpride。InspiteofthesaidretrenchmentthehouseholdoftheyoungprincessistoconsistofnearlyeightypersonsdestinedtothesoleserviceofherRoyalHighness。"[10]ThecivilhouseholdofMonsieurcomprises420appointments，hismilitaryhousehold，179；thatoftheComted’Artois237andhiscivilhousehold456。—Three—fourthsofthemarefordisplay；withtheirembroideriesandlaces，theirunembarrassedandpoliteexpression，theirattentiveanddiscreetair，theireasywayofsaluting，walkingandsmiling，theyappearwellinanantechamber，placedinlines，orscatteredingroupsinagallery；
　　Ishouldhavelikedtocontemplateeventhestableandkitchenarray，thefiguresfillingupthebackgroundofthepicture。Bythesestarsofinferiormagnitudewemayjudgeofthesplendoroftheroyalsun。
　　Thekingmusthaveguards，infantry，cavalry，body—guards，Frenchguardsmen，Swissguardsmen，CentSuisses，light—horseguards，gendarmesoftheguard，gate—guardsmen，inall，9，050men，[11]costingannually7，681，000livres。FourcompaniesoftheFrenchguard，andtwooftheSwissguard，paradeeverydayinthecourtoftheministersbetweenthetworailings，andwhenthekingissuesinhiscarriagetogotoParisorFontainebleauthespectacleismagnificent。Fourtrumpetersinfrontandfourbehind，theSwissguardsononesideandtheFrenchguardsontheother，formalineasfarasitcanreach。[12]TheCentSuissesmarchaheadofthehorsemeninthecostumeofthesixteenthcentury，wearingthehalberd，ruff，plumedhat，andtheampleparti—coloredstripeddoublet；alongsideofthesearetheprovost—guardwithscarletfacingsandgoldfrogs，andcompaniesofyeomanrybristlingwithgoldandsilver。Theofficersofthevariouscorps，thetrumpetersandthemusicians，coveredwithgoldandsilverlace，aredazzlingtolookat；thekettledrumsuspendedatthesaddle—
　　bow，overchargedwithpaintedandgildedornaments，isacuriosityforaglasscase；theNegrocymbal—playeroftheFrenchguardsresemblesthesultanofafairy—tale。Behindthecarriageandalongsideofittrotthebody—guards，withswordandcarbine，wearingredbreeches，highblackboots，andabluecoatsewnwithwhiteembroidery，allofthemunquestionablegentlemen；thereweretwelvehundredoftheseselectedamongthenoblesandaccordingtosize；amongthemaretheguardsdelamanche，stillmoreintimate，whoatchurchandonceremonialoccasions，inwhitedoubletsstarredwithsilverandgoldspangles，holdingtheirdamascenepartisansintheirhands，alwaysremainstandingandturnedtowardstheking"soastoseehispersonfromallsides。"Thusishisprotectionensured。Beingagentlemanthekingisacavalier，andhemusthaveasuitablestable，[13]1，857
　　horses，217vehicles，1，458menwhomheclothes，theliveriescosting540，000francsayear；besidesthesetherewere20tutorsandsub—
　　tutors，almoners，professors，cooks，andvaletstogovern，educateandservethepages；andagainaboutthirtyphysicians，apothecaries，nursesforthesick，intendants，treasurers，workmen，andlicensedandpaidmerchantsfortheaccessoriesoftheservice；inallmorethan1，500men。Horsestotheamountof250，000francsarepurchasedyearly，andtherearestock—stablesinLimousinandinNormandytodrawonforsupplies。287horsesareexerciseddailyinthetworiding—halls；thereare443saddle—horsesinthesmallstable，437inthelargeone，andthesearenotsufficientforthe"vivacityoftheservice。"Thewholecost4，600，000livresin1775，whichsumreaches6，200，000livresin1787。[14]Stillanotherspectacleshouldbeseenwithone’sowneyes，—thepages，[15]thegrooms，thelacedpupils，thesilver—buttonpupils，theboysofthelittleliveryinsilk，theinstrumentalistsandthemountedmessengersofthestable。Theuseofthehorseisafeudalart；noluxuryismorenaturaltoamanofquality。ThinkofthestablesatChantilly，whicharepalaces。Toconveyanideaofawell—educatedandgenteelmanhewasthencalledanaccomplishedcavalier；"infacthisimportancewasfullymanifestonlywhenhewasinthesaddle，onablood—horselikehimself。—
　　Anothergenteeltaste，aneffectofthepreceding，isthechase。Itcoststhekingfrom1，100，000to1，200，000livresayear，andrequires280horsesbesidesthoseofthetwostables。Amorevariedormorecompleteequipmentcouldnotbeimagined:apackofhoundsfortheboar，anotherforthewolfanotherfortheroe—buck，acast（ofhawks）
　　forthecrow，acastforthemagpie，acastformerlins，acastforhares，acastforthefields。In1783，179，194livresareexpendedforfeedinghorses，and53，412livresforfeedingdogs。[16]Theentireterritory，tenleaguesaroundParis，isagame—preserve；"notaguncouldbefiredthere；[17]accordinglytheplainsareseencoveredwithpartridgesaccustomedtoman，quietlypickingupthegrainandneverstirringashepasses。"Addtothistheprinces’captaincies，extendingasfarasVillers—CotteretsandOrleans；theseformanalmostcontinuouscirclearoundParis，thirtyleaguesincircumference，wheregame，protected，replacedandmultiplied，swarmsforthepleasureoftheking。TheparkofVersaillesaloneformsanenclosureofmorethantenleagues。TheforestofRambouilletembraces25，000arpents（30，000acres）。Herdsofseventy—fiveandeightystagsareencounteredaroundFontainebleau。Notruehuntercouldreadtheminute—bookofthechasewithoutfeelinganimpulseofenvy。Thewolf—
　　houndsruntwiceaweek，andtheytakefortywolvesayear。Between1743and1744LouisXVrunsdown6，400stags。LouisXVIwrites，August30th，1781:"Killed460headtoday。"In1780hebringsdown20，534
　　head；in1781，20，291；infourteenyears，189，251head，besides1，254
　　stags，whileboarsandbucksareproportionate；anditmustbenotedthatthisisalldonebyhisownhand，sincehisparksapproachhishouses。—Such，infine，isthecharacterofa"well—appointedhousehold，"thatistosay，providedwithitsdependenciesandservices。Everythingiswithinreach；itisacompleteworldinitselfandself—sufficient。Oneexaltedbeingattachestoandgathersaroundit，withuniversalforesightandminutenessofdetail，everyappurtenanceitemploysorcanpossiblyemploy。—Thus，eachprince，eachprincesshasaprofessionalsurgeryandachapel；[18]itwouldnotanswerforthealmonerwhosaysmassorthedoctorwholooksaftertheirhealthtobeobtainedoutside。Somuchstrongeristhereasonthatthekingshouldhaveministrantsofthisstamp；hischapelembracesseventy—fivealmoners，chaplains，confessors，mastersoftheoratory，clerks，announcers，carpet—bearers，choristers，copyists，andcomposersofsacredmusic；hisfacultyiscomposedofforty—eightphysicians，surgeons，apothecaries，oculists，operators，bone—setters，distillers，chiropodistsandspagyrists（aspeciesofalchemists）。Wemuststillnotehisdepartmentofprofanemusic，consistingofonehundredandtwenty—eightvocalists，dancers，instrumentalists，directorsandsuperintendents；hislibrarycorpsofforty—threekeepers，readers，interpreters，engravers，medallists，geographers，bindersandprinters；thestaffofceremonialdisplay，sixty—twoheralds，sword—bearers，ushersandmusicians；thestaffofhousekeepers，consistingofsixty—eightmarshals，guidesandcommissaries。Iomitotherservicesinhastetoreachthemostimportant，—thatofthetable；afinehouseandgoodhousekeepingbeingknownbythetable。
　　Therearethreesectionsofthetableservice；[19]thefirstforthekingandhisyoungerchildren；thesecond，calledthelittleordinary，forthetableofthegrand—master，thegrand—chamberlainandtheprincesandprincesseslivingwiththeking；thethird，calledthegreatordinary，forthegrand—master’ssecondtable，thatofthebutlersoftheking’shousehold，thealmoners，thegentlemeninwaiting，andthatofthevalets—de—chambre，inallthreehundredandeighty—threeofficersofthetableandonehundredandthreewaiters，atanexpenseof2，177，771livres；besidesthisthereare389，173
　　livresappropriatedtothetableofMadameElisabeth，and1，093，547
　　livresforthatofMesdames，thetotalbeing3，660，491livresforthetable。Thewine—merchantfurnishedwinetotheamountof300，000
　　francsperannum，andthepurveyorgame，meatandfishatacostof1，000，000livres。OnlytofetchwaterfromVille—d’Avray，andtoconveyservants，waitersandprovisions，requiredfiftyhorseshiredattherateof70，591francsperannum。Theprivilegeoftheroyalprincesandprincesses"tosendtothebureauforfishonfastdayswhennotresidingregularlyatthecourt，"amountsin1778to175，116
　　livres。OnreadingintheAlmanachthetitlesoftheseofficialsweseeaGargantua’sfeastspreadoutbeforeus。Theformalhierarchyofthekitchens，somanygrandofficialsofthetable，—thebutlers，comptrollersandcomptroller—pupils，theclerksandgentlemenofthepantry，thecup—bearersandcarvers，theofficersandequerriesofthekitchen，thechiefs，assistantsandhead—cooks，theordinaryscullions，turnspitsandcellarers，thecommongardenersandsaladgardeners，laundryservants，pastry—cooks，plate—changers，table—
　　setters，crockery—keepers，andbroach—bearers，thebutlerofthetableofthehead—butler，—anentireprocessionofbroad—braidedbacksandimposingroundbellies，withgravecountenances，which，withorderandconviction，exercisetheirfunctionsbeforethesaucepansandaroundthebuffets。
　　Onestepmoreandweenterthesanctuary，theking’sapartment。Twoprincipaldignitariespresideoverthis，andeachhasunderhimaboutahundredsubordinates。Ononesideisthegrandchamberlainwithhisfirstgentlemenofthebedchamber，thepagesofthebedchamber，theirgovernorsandinstructors，theushersoftheantechamber，withthefourfirstvalets—de—chambreinordinary，sixteenspecialvaletsservinginturn，hisregularandspecialcloak—bearers，hisbarbers，upholsterers，watch—menders，waitersandporters；ontheotherhandisthegrand—masterofthewardrobe，withthemastersofthewardrobeandthevaletsofthewardroberegularandspecial，theordinarytrunk—
　　carriers，mail—bearers，tailors，laundryservants，starchers，andcommonwaiters，withthegentlemen，officersandsecretariesinordinaryofthecabinet，inall198personsfordomesticservice，like50manydomesticutensilsforeverypersonalwant，orassumptuouspiecesoffurnitureforthedecorationoftheapartment。Someofthemfetchthemallandtheballs，othersholdthemantleandcane，otherscombtheking’shairanddryhimoffafterabath，othersdrivethemuleswhichtransporthisbed，otherswatchhispetgreyhoundsinhisroom，othersfold，putonandtiehiscravat，andothersfetchandcarryoffhiseasychair。[20]Sometherearewhosesolebusinessitistofillacornerwhichmustnotbeleftempty。Certainly，withrespecttoeaseofdeportmentandappearancethesearethemostconspicuousofall；beingsoclosetothemastertheyareunderobligationtoappearwell；insuchproximitytheirbearingmustnotcreateadiscord。—
　　Suchistheking’shousehold，andIhaveonlydescribedoneofhisresidences；hehasadozenofthembesidesVersailles，greatandsmall，Marly，thetwoTrianons，laMuette，Meudon，Choisy，Saint—
　　Hubert，Saint—Germain，Fontainebleau，Compiègne，Saint—Cloud，Rambouillet，[21]withoutcountingtheLouvre，theTuileriesandChambord，withtheirparksandhunting—grounds，theirgovernors，inspectors，comptrollers，concierges，fountaintenders，gardeners，sweepers，scrubbers，mole—catchers，wood—rangers，mountedandfoot—
　　guards，inallmorethanathousandpersons。Naturallyheentertains，plansandbuilds，and，inthiswayexpends3or4millionsperannum。[22]Naturally，also，herepairsandrenewshisfurniture；in1778，whichisanaverageyear，thiscostshim1，936，853livres。
　　Naturally，also，hetakeshisguestsalongwithhimanddefraystheirexpenses，theyandtheirattendants；atChoisy，in1780，therearesixteentableswith345seatsbesidesthedistributions；atSaint—
　　Cloud，in1785，therearetwenty—sixtables；"anexcursiontoMarlyoftwenty—onedaysisamatterof120，000livresextraexpense；"theexcursiontoFontainebleauhascostasmuchas400，000and500，000
　　livres。Hisremovals，ontheaverage，costhalfamillionandmoreperannum。[23]—Tocompleteourideaofthisimmenseparaphernaliaitmustbeborneinmindthattheartisansandmerchantsbelongingtothesevariousofficialbodiesareobliged；throughtheprivilegestheyenjoy，tofollowthecourt"onitsjourneysthatitmaybeprovidedonthespotwithapothecaries，armorers，gunsmiths，sellersofsilkenandwoollenhosiery，butchers，bakers，embroiderers，publicans，cobblers，belt—makers，candle—makers，hatters，pork—dealers，surgeons，shoemakers，curriers，cooks，pinkers，gildersandengravers，spur—
　　makers，sweetmeat—dealers，furbishers，old—clothesbrokers，glove—
　　perfumers，watchmakers，booksellers，linen—drapers，wholesaleandretailwine—dealers，carpenters，coarse—jewelryhaberdashers，jewellers，parchment—makers，dealersintrimmings，chicken—roasters，fish—dealers，purveyorsofhay，strawandoats，hardware—sellers，saddlers，tailors，gingerbreadandstarch—dealers，fruiterers，dealersinglassandinviolins。"[24]Onemightcallitanorientalcourtwhich，tobesetinmotion，movesanentireworld:"whenitistomoveonemust，ifonewantstotravelanywhere，takethepostinwellinadvance。"Thetotalisnear4，000personsfortheking’scivilhousehold，9，000to10，000forhismilitaryhousehold，atleast2，000
　　forthoseofhisrelatives，inall15，000individuals，atacostofbetweenfortyandfiftymillionlivres，whichwouldbeequaltodoubletheamounttoday，andwhich，atthattime，constitutedone—tenthofthepublicrevenue。[25]Wehaveherethecentralfigureofthemonarchicalshow。Howevergrandandcostlyitmaybe，itisonlyproportionatetoitspurpose，sincethecourtisapublicinstitution，andthearistocracy，withnothingtodo，devotesitselftofillinguptheking’sdrawing—room。
　　III。THEKING’SASSOCIATES。
　　Thesocietyoftheking。—Officersofthehousehold。—Invitedguests。
　　Twocausesmaintainthisaffluence，onethefeudalformstillpreserved，andtheotherthenewcentralizationjustintroduced；oneplacingtheroyalserviceinthehandsofthenobles，andtheotherconvertingthenoblesintoplace—hunters。—Throughthedutiesofthepalacethehighestnobilitylivewiththeking，residingunderhisroof；thegrand—almonerisM。deMontmorency—Laval，bishopofMetz；
　　thefirstalmonerisM。deBussuéjouls，bishopofSenlis；thegrand—
　　masterofFranceisthePrincedeCondé；thefirstroyalbutieristheComted’Escars；thesecondistheMarquisdeMontdragon；themasterofthepantryistheDukedeBrissac；thechiefcup—beareristheMarquisdeVemeuil；thechiefcarveristheMarquisdelaChesnaye；thefirstgentlemenofthebedchamberaretheDucsdeRichelieu，deDurfort，deVillequier，anddeFleury；thegrand—masterofthewardrobeistheDucdelaRochefoucauld—Liancourt；themastersofthewardrobearetheComtedeBoisgelinandtheMarquisdeChauvelin。ThecaptainofthefalconryistheChevalierduForget；thecaptainoftheboar—huntistheMarquisd’Ecquevilly；thesuperintendentofedificesistheComted’Angevillier；thegrand—equerryisthePrincedeLambesc；themasterofthehoundsistheDucdePenthièvre；thegrand—masterofceremoniesistheMarquisdeBrèze；thegrand—masterofthehouseholdistheMarquisdelaSuze；thecaptainsoftheguardsaretheDucsd’Agen，deVillery，deBrissac，d’Aguillon，anddeBiron，thePrincesdePoix，deLuxembourganddeSoubise。TheprovostofthehotelistheMarquisdeTourzel；thegovernorsoftheresidencesandcaptainsofthechasearetheDucdeNoailles，MarquisdeChampcenetz，BarondeChamplost，DucdeCoigny，ComtedeModena，ComtedeMontmorin，DucdeLaval，ComtedeBrienne，Ducd’Orléans，andtheDucdeGèsvres。[26]Alltheseseigniorsaretheking’snecessaryintimates，hispermanentandgenerallyhereditaryguests，dwellingunderhisroof；incloseanddailyintercoursewithhim，fortheyare"hisfolks"（gens）[27]andperformdomesticserviceabouthisperson。Addtothesetheirequals，asnobleandnearlyasnumerous，dwellingwiththequeen，withMesdames，withMme。Elisabeth，withtheComteandComtessedeProvenceandtheComteandComtessed’Artois。—Andtheseareonlytheheadsoftheservice；if；belowtheminrankandoffice，Icountthetitularnobles，Ifind，amongothers，68almonersorchaplains，170gentlemenofthebedchamberorinwaiting，117gentlemenofthestableorofthehunting—train，148pages，114titledladiesinwaiting，besidesalltheofficers，eventothelowestofthemilitaryhousehold，withoutcounting1，400ordinaryguardswho，verifiedbythegenealogist，areadmittedbyvirtueoftheirtitletopaytheircourt。[28]Suchisthefixedbodyofrecruitsfortheroyalreceptions；thedistinctivetraitofthisrégimeistheconversionofitsservantsintoguests，thedrawingroombeingfilledfromtheanteroom。
　　Notthatthedrawingroomneedsallthattobefilled。Beingthesourceofallprefermentandofeveryfavor，itisnaturalthatitshouldoverflow[29]。Itisthesameinourlevelingsociety（in1875），wherethedrawingroomofaninsignificantdeputy，amediocrejournalist，orafashionablewoman，isfullofcourtiersunderthenameoffriendsandvisitors。Moreover，here，tobepresentisanobligation；itmightbecalledacontinuationofancientfeudalhomage；thestaffofnoblesismaintainedastheretinueofitsborngeneral。Inthelanguageoftheday，itiscalled"payingone’sdutytotheking。"Absence，inthesovereign’seyes，wouldbeasignofindependenceaswellasofindifference，whilesubmissionaswellasregularattentionishisdue。Inthisrespectwemuststudytheinstitutionfromthebeginning。TheeyesofLouisXIVgotheirroundsateverymoment，"onarisingorretiring，onpassingintohisapartments，inhisgardens，……nobodyescapes，eventhosewhohopedtheywerenotseen；itwasademeritwithsome，andthemostdistinguished，nottomakethecourttheirordinarysojourn，tootherstocometoitbutseldom，andcertaindisgracetothosewhonever，ornearlynever，came。"[30]Henceforth，themainthing，forthefirstpersonagesinthekingdom，menandwomen，ecclesiasticsandlaymen，thegrandaffair，thefirstdutyinlife，thetrueoccupation，istobeatallhoursandineveryplaceundertheking’seye，withinreachofhisvoiceandofhisglance。"Whoever，"saysLaBruyère，"considersthattheking’scountenanceisthecourtier’ssupremefelicity，thathepasseshislifelookingonitandwithinsightofit，willcomprehendtosomeextenthowtoseeGodconstitutesthegloryandhappinessofthesaints。"Therewereatthistimeprodigiesofvoluntaryassiduityandsubjection。TheDucdeFronsac，everymorningatseveno’clock，inwinterandinsummer，stationedhimself，athisfather’scommand，atthefootofthesmallstairwayleadingtothechapel，solelytoshakehandswithMme。deMaintenononherleavingforSt。Cyr。[31]"Pardonme，Madame，"writestheDucdeRichelieutoher，"thegreatlibertyItakeinpresumingtosendyoutheletterwhichIhavewrittentotheking，begginghimonmykneesthathewilloccasionallyallowmetopaymycourttohimatRuel，forIwouldratherdiethanpasstwomonthswithoutseeinghim。"Thetruecourtierfollowstheprinceasashadowfollowsitsbody；such，underLouisXIV，wastheDucdelaRochefoucauld，themasterofthehounds。"Henevermissedtheking’srisingorretiring，bothchangesofdresseveryday，thehuntsandthepromenades，likewiseeveryday，fortenyearsinsuccession，neversleepingawayfromtheplacewherethekingrested，andyetonafootingtodemandleave，butnottostayawayallnight，forhehadnotsleptoutofParisonceinfortyyears，buttogoanddineawayfromthecourt，andnotbepresentonthepromenade。"
　　—If；later，andunderlessexactingmasters，andinthegenerallaxityoftheeighteenthcentury，thisdisciplineisrelaxed，theinstitutionneverthelesssubsists；[32]indefaultofobedience，tradition，interestandamour—propresufficeforthepeopleofthecourt。Toapproachtheking，tobeadomesticinhishousehold，anusher，acloak—bearer，avalet，isaprivilegethatispurchased，evenin1789，forthirty，forty，andahundredthousandlivres；somuchgreaterthereasonwhyitisaprivilegetoformapartofhissociety，themosthonorable，themostuseful，andthemostcovetedofall。—Inthefirstplace，itisaproofofnoblebirth。Aman，tofollowthekinginthechase，andawoman，tobepresentedtothequeen，mustpreviouslysatisfythegenealogist，andbyauthenticdocuments，thathisorhernobilitygoesbacktotheyear1400。—Inthenextplace，itensuresgoodfortune。Thisdrawingroomistheonlyplacewithinreachofroyalfavors；accordingly，upto1789，thegreatfamiliesneverstirawayfromVersailles，anddayandnighttheylieinambush。ThevaletoftheMarshaldeNoailllessaystohimonenightonclosinghiscurtains，"AtwhathourwillMonseigneurbeawakened？""Atteno’clock，ifnoonediesduringthenight。"[33]
　　Oldcourtiersarestillfoundwho，"attheageofeighty，havepassedforty—fiveontheirfeetintheantechambersoftheking，oftheprinces，andoftheministers……
　　Youhaveonlythreethingstodo，"saysoneofthemtoadebutant，"speakwellofeverybody，askforeveryvacancy，andsitdownwhenyoucan。"
　　Hence，thekingalwayshasacrowdaroundhim。TheComtesseduBarrysays，onpresentinghernieceatcourt，thefirstofAugust，1773，"thecrowdissogreatatapresentation，onecanscarcelygetthroughtheantechambers。"[34]InDecember，1774，atFontainebleau，whenthequeenplaysatherowntableeveryevening，"theapartment，thoughvast，isneverempty……Thecrowdissogreatthatonecantalkonlytothetwoorthreepersonswithwhomoneisplaying。"Thefourteenapartments，atthereceptionsofambassadorsarefulltooverflowingwithseigniorsandrichlydressedwomen。OnthefirstofJanuary，1775，thequeen"countedovertwohundredladiespresentedtohertopaytheircourt。"In1780，atChoisy，atableforthirtypersonsisspreadeverydayfortheking，anotherwiththirtyplacesfortheseigniors，anotherwithfortyplacesfortheofficersoftheguardandtheequerries，andonewithfiftyfortheofficersofthebedchamber。Accordingtomyestimate，theking，ongettingupandonretiring，onhiswalks，onhishunts，atplay，hasalwaysaroundhimatleastfortyorfiftyseigniorsandgenerallyahundred，withasmanyladies，besideshisattendantsonduty。AtFontainebleau，in1756，although"therewereneitherfêtesnorballetsthisyear，onehundredandsixladieswerecounted。"Whenthekingholdsa"grandapartement，"whenplayordancingtakesplaceinthegalleryofmirrors，fourorfivehundredguests，theelectofthenoblesandofthefashion，rangethemselvesonthebenchesorgatheraroundthecardandcavanoletables。[35]Thisisaspectacletobeseen，notbytheimagination，orthroughimperfectrecords，butwithourowneyesandonthespot，tocomprehendthespirit，theeffectandthetriumphofmonarchicalculture。Inanelegantlyfurnishedhouse，thedrawingroomistheprincipalroom；andneverwasonemoredazzlingthanthis。
　　Suspendedfromthesculpturedceilingpeopledwithsportingcupids，descend，bygarlandsofflowersandfoliage，blazingchandeliers，whosesplendorisenhancedbythetailmirrors；thelightstreamsdowninfloodsongilding，diamonds，andbeaming，archphysiognomies，onfinebusts，andonthecapacious，sparklingandgarlandeddresses。Theskirtsoftheladiesrangedinacircle，orintiersonthebenches，"formarichespaliercoveredwithpearls，gold，silver，jewels，spangles，flowersandfruits，withtheirartificialblossoms，gooseberries，cherries，andstrawberries，"agiganticanimatedbouquetofwhichtheeyecanscarcelysupportthebrilliancy。Therearenoblackcoats，asnowadays，todisturbtheharmony。Withthehairpowderedanddressed，withbucklesandknots，withcravatsandrufflesoflace，insilkcoatsandvestsofthehuesoffallenleaves，orofadelicaterosetint，orofcelestialblue，embellishedwithgoldbraidandembroidery，themenareaselegantasthewomen。Menandwomen，eachisaselection；theyallareoftheaccomplishedclass，giftedwitheverygracewhichgoodblood，education，fortune，leisureandcustomcanbestow；theyareperfectoftheirkind。Thereisnotoilet，nocarriageofthehead，notoneofthevoice，noexpressioninlanguagewhichisnotamasterpieceofworldlyculture，thedistilledquintessenceofallthatisexquisitelyelaboratedbysocialart。
　　PolishedasthehighsocietyofParismaybe，itdoesnotapproachthis；[36]comparedwiththecourt，itseemsprovincial。ItissaidthatahundredthousandrosesarerequiredtomakeanounceoftheuniqueperfumeusedbyPersiankings；suchisthisdrawing—room，thefrailvialofcrystalandgoldcontainingthesubstanceofahumanvegetation。Tofillit，agreataristocracyhadtobetransplantedtoahot—houseandbecomesterileinfruitandflowers，andthen，intheroyalalembic，itspuresapisconcentratedintoafewdropsofaroma。
　　Thepriceisexcessive，butonlyatthispricecanthemostdelicateperfumesbemanufactured。
　　IV。EVERYDAYLIFEINCOURT。
　　Theking’soccupations。—Risinginthemorning，mass，dinner，walks，hunting，supper，play，eveningreceptions。—Heisalwaysonparadeandincompany。
　　Anoperationofthiskindabsorbshimwhoundertakesitaswellasthosewhoundergoit。Anobilityforusefulpurposesisnottransformedwithimpunityintoanobilityforornament；[37]onefallshimselfintotheostentationwhichissubstitutedforaction。Thekinghasacourtwhichheiscompelledtomaintain。Somuchtheworseifitabsorbsallhistime，hisintellect，hissoul，themostvaluableportionofhisactiveforcesandtheforcesoftheState。Tobethemasterofahouseisnotaneasytask，especiallywhenfivehundredpersonsaretobeentertained；onemustnecessarilypassone’slifeinpublicandallthetimebeingonexhibition。Strictlyspeakingitisthelifeofanactorwhoisonthestagetheentireday。Tosupportthisload，andworkbesides，requiredthetemperamentofLouisXIV，thevigorofhisbody，theextraordinaryfirmnessofhisnerves，thestrengthofhisdigestion，andtheregularityofhishabits；hissuccessorswhocomeafterhimgrowwearyorstaggerunderthesameload。Buttheycannotthrowitoff；anincessant，dailyperformanceisinseparablefromtheirpositionanditisimposedonthemlikeaheavy，gilded，ceremonialcoat。Thekingisexpectedtokeeptheentirearistocracybusy，consequentlytomakeadisplayofhimself，topaybackwithhisownperson，atallhours，eventhemostprivate，evenongettingoutofbed，andeveninhisbed。Inthemorning，atthehournamedbyhimselfbeforehand，[38]theheadvaletawakenshim；
　　fiveseriesofpersonsenterinturntoperformtheirduty，and，"althoughverylarge，therearedayswhenthewaiting—roomscanhardlycontainthecrowdofcourtiers。"—Thefirstadmittanceis"l’entréefamilière，"consistingofthechildrenofFrance，theprincesandprincessesoftheblood，and，besidesthese，thechiefphysician，thechiefsurgeonandotherserviceablepersons。[39]Next，comesthe"grandeentrée；’whichcomprisesthegrand—chamberlain，thegrand—
　　masterandmasterofthewardrobe，thefirstgentlemenofthebedchamber，theDucsd’OrleansanddePenthièvre，someotherhighlyfavoredseigniors，theladiesofhonorandinwaitingofthequeen，Mesdamesandotherprincesses，withoutenumeratingbarberstailorsandvariousdescriptionsofvalets。Meanwhilespiritsofwinearepouredontheking’shandsfromaserviceofplate，andheisthenhandedthebasinofholywater；hecrosseshimselfandrepeatsaprayer。Thenhegetsoutofbedbeforeallthesepeopleandputsonhisslippers。Thegrand—chamberlainandthefirstgentlemanhandhimhisdressing—gown；
　　heputsthisonandseatshimselfinthechairinwhichheistoputonhisclothes。Atthismomentthedooropensandathirdgroupenters，whichisthe"entréedesbrevets；"theseigniorswhocomposethisenjoy，inaddition，thepreciousprivilegeofassistingatthe"petitecoucher，"while，atthesamemomentthereentersadetachmentofattendants，consistingofthephysiciansandsurgeonsinordinary，theintendantsoftheamusements，readersandothers，andamongthelatterthosewhopresideoverphysicalrequirements；thepublicityofaroyallifeissogreatthatnoneofitsfunctionscanbeexercisedwithoutwitnesses。Atthemomentoftheapproachoftheofficersofthewardrobetodresshimthefirstgentleman，notifiedbyanusher，advancestoreadtothekingthenamesofthegrandeeswhoarewaitingatthedoor:thisisthefourthentrycalled"lachambre，"andlargerthanthoseprecedingit；for，nottomentionthecloak—bearers，gun—