Itookfinalactionin1903。Duringtheprecedingfifty-threeyearstheGovernmentsofNewGranadaandofitssuccessor，Colombia，hadbeeninaconstantstateofflux；andtheStateofPanamahadsometimesbeentreatedasalmostindependent，inalooseFederalleague，andsometimesasthemerepropertyoftheGovernmentatBogota；andtherehadbeeninnumerableappealstoarms，sometimesofadequate，sometimesforinadequate，reasons。ThefollowingisapartiallistofthedisturbancesontheIsthmusofPanamaduringtheperiodinquestion，asreportedtousbyourconsuls。Itisnotpossibletogiveacompletelist，andsomeofthereportsthatspeakof“revolutions“mustmeanunsuccessfulrevolutions：
　　July，1902——RevolutionTheaboveisonlyapartiallistoftherevolutions，rebellions，insurrections，riots，andotheroutbreaksthatoccurredduringtheperiodinquestion；yettheynumberfifty-threeforthefifty-threeyears，andtheyshowedatendencytoincrease，ratherthandecrease，innumbersandintensity。Oneofthemlastedfornearlythreeyearsbeforeitwasquelled；anotherfornearlyayear。Inshort，theexperienceofoverhalfacenturyhadshownColombiatobeutterlyincapableofkeepingorderontheIsthmus。OnlytheactiveinterferenceoftheUnitedStateshadenabledhertopreservesomuchasasemblanceofsovereignty。HaditnotbeenfortheexercisebytheUnitedStatesofthepolicepowerinherinterest，herconnectionwiththeIsthmuswouldhavebeensunderedlongbeforeitwas。In1856，in1860，in1873，in1885，in1901，andagainin1902，sailorsandmarinesfromUnitedStateswarshipswereforcedtolandinordertopatroltheIsthmus，toprotectlifeandproperty，andtoseethatthetransitacrosstheIsthmuswaskeptopen。In1861，in1862，in1885，andin1900，theColombianGovernmentaskedthattheUnitedStatesGovernmentwouldlandtroopstoprotectColombianinterestsandmaintainorderontheIsthmus。ThepeopleofPanamaduringtheprecedingtwentyyearshadthreetimessoughttoestablishtheirindependencebyrevolutionorsecession——in1885，in1895，andin1899。
　　ThepeculiarrelationsoftheUnitedStatestowardtheIsthmus，andtheacquiescencebyColombiainactswhichwerequiteincompatiblewiththetheoryofherhavinganabsoluteandunconditionedsovereigntyontheIsthmus，areillustratedbythefollowingthreetelegramsbetweentwoofournavalofficerswhoseshipswereattheIsthmus，andtheSecretaryoftheNavyontheoccasionofthefirstoutbreakthatoccurredontheIsthmusafterIbecamePresidentayearbeforePanamabecameindependent：
　　September12，1902。
　　Ranger，Panama：
　　UnitedStatesguaranteesperfectneutralityofIsthmusandthatafreetransitfromseatoseabenotinterruptedorembarrassed……Anytransportationoftroopswhichmightcontravenetheseprovisionsoftreatyshouldnotbesanctionedbyyou，norshoulduseofroadbepermittedwhichmightconvertthelineoftransitintotheaterofhostility。
　　MOODY。
　　COLON，September20，1902。
　　SecretaryNavy，Washington：
　　Everythingisconceded。TheUnitedStatesguardsandguaranteestrafficandthelineoftransit。To-dayIpermittedtheexchangeofColombiantroopsfromPanamatoColon，about1000meneachway，thetroopswithoutarmsintrainsguardedbyAmericannavalforceinthesamemannerasotherpassengers；armsandammunitioninseparatetrain，guardedalsobynavalforceinthesamemannerasotherfreight。
　　MCLEAN。
　　PANAMA，October3，1902。
　　SecretaryNavy，Washington，D。C。：
　　HavesentthiscommunicationtotheAmericanConsulatPanama：
　　“InformGovernor，whiletrainsrunningunderUnitedStatesprotection，Imustdeclinetransportationanycombatants，ammunition，arms，whichmightcauseinterruptiontotrafficorconvertlineoftransitintotheaterhostilities。”
　　CASEY。
　　WhentheGovernmentinnominalcontroloftheIsthmuscontinuallybesoughtAmericaninterferencetoprotectthe“rights“itcouldnotitselfprotect，andpermittedourGovernmenttotransportColombiantroopsunarmed，underprotectionofourownarmedmen，whiletheColombianarmsandammunitioncameinaseparatetrain，itisobviousthattheColombian“sovereignty“wasofsuchacharacterastowarrantourinsistingthatinasmuchasitonlyexistedbecauseofourprotectionthereshouldbeinrequitalasenseoftheobligationsthattheacceptanceofthisprotectionimplied。
　　MeanwhileColombiawasunderadictatorship。In1898M。A。SanclamentewaselectedPresident，andJ。M。MaroquinVice-President，oftheRepublicofColombia。OnJuly31，1900，theVice-President，Maroquin，executeda“coupd’etat“byseizingthepersonofthePresident，Sanclamente，andimprisoninghimataplaceafewmilesoutofBogota。
　　Maroquinthereupondeclaredhimselfpossessedoftheexecutivepowerbecauseof“theabsenceofthePresident“——adelightfultouchofunconscioushumor。Hethenissuedadecreethatpublicorderwasdisturbed，and，uponthatground，assumedtohimselflegislativepowerunderanotherprovisionoftheconstitution；thatis，havinghimselfdisturbedthepublicorder，heallegedthedisturbanceasajustificationforseizingabsolutepower。ThenceforthMaroquin，withouttheaidofanylegislativebody，ruledasadictator，combiningthesupremeexecutive，legislative，civil，andmilitaryauthorities，intheso-calledRepublicofColombia。The“absence“ofSanclamentefromthecapitalbecamepermanentbyhisdeathinprisonintheyear1902。WhenthepeopleofPanamadeclaredtheirindependenceinNovember，1903，noCongresshadsatinColombiasincetheyear1898，exceptthespecialCongresscalledbyMaroquintorejectthecanaltreaty，andwhichdidrejectitbyaunanimousvote，andadjournedwithoutlegislatingonanyothersubject。Theconstitutionof1886hadtakenawayfromPanamathepowerofself-
　　governmentandvesteditinColumbia。The/coupd’etat/ofMaroquintookawayfromColombiaherselfthepowerofgovernmentandvesteditinanirresponsibledictator。
　　ConsiderationoftheabovefactsoughttobeenoughtoshowanyhumanbeingthatwewerenotdealingwithnormalconditionsontheIsthmusandinColombia。Weweredealingwiththegovernmentofanirresponsiblealiendictator，andwithaconditionofaffairsontheIsthmusitselfwhichwasmarkedbyoneuninterruptedseriesofoutbreaksandrevolutions。Asforthe“consentofthegoverned“
　　theory，thatabsolutelyjustifiedouraction；thepeopleontheIsthmuswerethe“governed“；theyweregovernedbyColombia，withouttheirconsent，andtheyunanimouslyrepudiatedtheColombiangovernment，anddemandedthattheUnitedStatesbuildthecanal。
　　Ihaddoneeverythingpossible，personallyandthroughSecretaryHay，topersuadetheColombianGovernmenttokeepfaith。UndertheHay-
　　PauncefoteTreaty，itwasexplicitlyprovidedthattheUnitedStatesshouldbuildthecanal，shouldcontrol，policeandprotectit，andkeepitopentothevesselsofallnationsonequalterms。Wehadassumedthepositionofguarantorofthecanal，including，ofcourse，thebuildingofthecanal，andofitspeacefulusebyalltheworld。
　　Theenterprisewasrecognizedeverywhereasrespondingtoaninternationalneed。ItwasameretravestyonjusticetotreatthegovernmentinpossessionoftheIsthmusashavingtheright——whichSecretaryCassforty-fiveyearsbeforehadsoemphaticallyrepudiated——toclosethegatesofintercourseononeofthegreathighwaysoftheworld。WhenwesubmittedtoColombiatheHay-HerranTreaty，ithadbeensettledthatthetimefordelay，thetimeforpermittinganygovernmentofanti-socialcharacter，orofimperfectdevelopment，tobarthework，hadpassed。TheUnitedStateshadassumedinconnectionwiththecanalcertainresponsibilitiesnotonlytoitsownpeoplebuttothecivilizedworld，whichimperativelydemandedthatthereshouldbenofurtherdelayinbeginningthework。TheHay-HerranTreaty，ifiterredatall，erredinbeingovergeneroustowardColombia。ThepeopleofPanamaweredelightedwiththetreaty，andthePresidentofColombia，whoembodiedinhisownpersontheentiregovernmentofColombia，hadauthorizedthetreatytobemade。ButafterthetreatyhadbeenmadetheColombiaGovernmentthoughtithadthematterinitsownhands；andthefurtherthought，equallywickedandfoolish，cameintotheheadsofthepeopleincontrolatBogotathattheywouldseizetheFrenchCompanyattheendofanotheryearandtakeforthemselvesthefortymilliondollarswhichtheUnitedStateshadagreedtopaythePanamaCanalCompany。
　　PresidentMaroquin，throughhisMinister，hadagreedtotheHay-HerranTreatyinJanuary，1903。Hehadtheabsolutepowerofanunconstitutionaldictatortokeephispromiseorbreakit。Hedeterminedtobreakit。TofurnishhimselfanexcuseforbreakingithedevisedtheplanofsummoningaCongressespeciallycalledtorejectthecanaltreaty。ThistheCongress——aCongressofmerepuppets——did，withoutadissentingvote；andthepuppetsadjournedforthwithwithoutlegislatingonanyothersubject。Thefactthatthiswasameresham，andthatthePresidenthadentirepowertoconfirmhisowntreatyandactonitifhedesired，wasshownassoonastherevolutiontookplace，foronNovember6GeneralReyesofColombiaaddressedtheAmericanMinisteratBogota，onbehalfofPresidentMaroquin，sayingthat“iftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStateswouldlandtroopsandrestoretheColombiansovereignty“theColombianPresidentwould“declaremartiallaw；and，byvirtueofvestedconstitutionalauthority，whenpublicorderisdisturbed，wouldapprovebydecreetheratificationofthecanaltreatyassigned；or，iftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesprefers，wouldcallanextrasessionoftheCongress——withnewandfriendlymembers——nextMaytoapprovethetreaty。”This，ofcourse，isproofpositivethattheColombiandictatorhadusedhisCongressasamereshield，andashamshieldatthat，anditshowshowutterlyuselessitwouldhavebeenfurthertotrusthisgoodfaithinthematter。
　　When，inAugust，1903，IbecameconvincedthatColombiaintendedtorepudiatethetreatymadetheprecedingJanuary，undercoverofsecuringitsrejectionbytheColombianLegislature，Ibegancarefullytoconsiderwhatshouldbedone。Bymydirection，SecretaryHay，personallyandthroughtheMinisteratBogota，repeatedlywarnedColombiathatgraveconsequencesmightfollowherrejectionofthetreaty。ThepossibilityofratificationdidnotwhollypassawayuntilthecloseofthesessionoftheColombianCongressonthelastdayofOctober。Therewouldthenbetwopossibilities。OnewasthatPanamawouldremainquiet。InthatcaseIwaspreparedtorecommendtoCongressthatweshouldatonceoccupytheIsthmusanyhow，andproceedtodigthecanal；andIhaddrawnoutadraftofmymessagetothiseffect。[*]ButfromtheinformationIreceived，IdeemeditlikelythattherewouldbearevolutioninPanamaassoonastheColombianCongressadjournedwithoutratifyingthetreaty，fortheentirepopulationofPanamafeltthattheimmediatebuildingofthecanalwasofvitalconcerntotheirwell-being。CorrespondentsofthedifferentnewspapersontheIsthmushadsenttotheirrespectivepaperswidelypublishedforecastsindicatingthattherewouldbearevolutioninsuchevent。
　　[*]Seeappendixatendofthischapter。
　　Moreover，onOctober16，attherequestofLieutenant-GeneralYoung，CaptainHumphrey，andLieutenantMurphy，twoarmyofficerswhohadreturnedfromtheIsthmus，sawmeandtoldmethattherewouldunquestionablybearevolutionontheIsthmus，thatthepeoplewereunanimousintheircriticismoftheBogotaGovernmentandtheirdisgustoverthefailureofthatGovernmenttoratifythetreaty；andthattherevolutionwouldprobablytakeplaceimmediatelyaftertheadjournmentoftheColombianCongress。TheydidnotbelievethatitwouldbebeforeOctober20，buttheywereconfidentthatitwouldcertainlycomeattheendofOctoberorimmediatelyafterwards，whentheColombianCongresshadadjourned。AccordinglyIdirectedtheNavyDepartmenttostationvariousshipswithineasyreachoftheIsthmus，tobereadytoactintheeventofneedarising。
　　Theseshipswerebarelyintime。OnNovember3therevolutionoccurred。PracticallyeverybodyontheIsthmus，includingalltheColombiantroopsthatwerealreadystationedthere，joinedintherevolution，andtherewasnobloodshed。ButonthatsamedayfourhundrednewColombiantroopswerelandedatColon。Fortunately，thegunboat/Nashville/，underCommanderHubbard，reachedColonalmostimmediatelyafterwards，andwhenthecommanderoftheColombianforcesthreatenedthelivesandpropertyoftheAmericancitizens，includingwomenandchildren，inColon，CommanderHubbardlandedafewscoresailorsandmarinestoprotectthem。Byamixtureoffirmnessandtacthenotonlypreventedanyassaultonourcitizens，butpersuadedtheColombiancommandertoreembarkhistroopsforCartagena。OnthePacificsideaColombiangunboatshelledtheCityofPanama，withtheresultofkillingoneChinaman——theonlylifelostinthewholeaffair。
　　NooneconnectedwiththeAmericanGovernmenthadanypartinpreparing，inciting，orencouragingtherevolution，andexceptforthereportsofourmilitaryandnavalofficers，whichIforwardedtoCongress，nooneconnectedwiththeGovernmenthadanypreviousknowledgeconcerningtheproposedrevolution，exceptsuchaswasaccessibletoanypersonwhoreadthenewspapersandkeptabreastofcurrentquestionsandcurrentaffairs。Bytheunanimousactionofitspeople，andwithoutthefiringofashot，thestateofPanamadeclaredthemselvesanindependentrepublic。Thetimeforhesitationonourparthadpassed。