NowtheSpeenhamlandscaledidnotrepresentsomeeasyandluxuriousstandard
　　ofliving；itrepresentedtheminimumonwhichitwassupposedthataman
　　employedinagriculturecouldsupportlife。Inthirty-fiveyearsthestandard
　　haddropped，accordingtoM’Culloch’sstatement，asmuchasathird，and
　　thisnotbecauseofwarorfamine，forin1826Englandhadhadelevenyears
　　ofpeace，butintheordinarycourseofthelifeofthenation。Issucha
　　declineinthestandardofliferecordedanywhereelseinhistory？
　　Howdidthelabourersliveatallundertheseconditions？Theirlifewas，
　　ofcourse，wretchedandsqualidintheextreme。Cobbettdescribesagroup
　　ofwomenlabourerswhomhemetbytheroadsideinHampshireas’suchanassemblage
　　ofragsasIneversawbeforeevenamongstthehoppersatFarnham。’Ofthe
　　labourersnearCrickladehesaid：’Theirdwellingsarelittlebetterthan
　　pig-beds，andtheirlooksindicatethattheirfoodisnotnearlyequalto
　　thatofapig。Thesewretchedhovelsarestuckuponlittlebedsofground
　　ontheroadsidewherethespacehasbeenwiderthantheroaddemanded。In
　　manyplacestheyhavenottworodstoahovel。Itseemsasiftheyhadbeen
　　sweptoffthefieldsbyahurricane，andhaddroppedandfoundshelterunder
　　thebanksontheroadside。Yesterdaymorningwasasharpfrost，andthis
　　hadsetthepoorcreaturestodigginguptheirlittleplotsofpotatoes。
　　InmywholelifeIneversawhumanwretchednessequaltothis；no，noteven
　　amongstthefreenegroesinAmericawho，onanaverage，donotworkoneday
　　outoffour。’35*Thelabourers’cottagesinLeicestershirehefoundwere
　　’hovelsmadeofmudandstraw，bitsofglassorofoldcast-offwindows，
　　withoutframesorhingesfrequently，andmerelystuckinthemudwall。Enter
　　themandlookatthebitsofchairsorstools，thewretchedboardstacked
　　togethertoserveforatable，thefloorofpebblebrokenorofthebare
　　ground；lookatthethingcalledabed，andsurveytheragsonthebacks
　　oftheinhabitants。’36*ADorsetshireclergyman，awitnessbeforetheCommittee
　　onWagesin1824，saidthatthelabourerslivedalmostentirelyonteaand
　　potatoes；aBedfordshirelabourersaidthatheandhisfamilylivedmainly
　　onbreadandcheeseandwater，andthatsometimesforamonthtogetherhe
　　nevertastedmeat；aSuffolkmagistratedescribedhowalaboureroutofwork，
　　convictedofstealingwood，beggedtobesentatoncetoaHouseofCorrection，
　　wherehehopedtofindfoodandemployment。ifDavieshadwrittenanaccount
　　ofthelabouringclassesin1820or1830，thepicturehedrewin1795would
　　haveseemedbrightincomparison。Buteventhiskindoflifecouldnotbe
　　supportedonsuchprovisionaswasmadebytheparish。How，then，didthe
　　labourersmaintainanykindofexistencewhensocietyceasedtopiecetogether
　　aminimumlivelihoodoutofratesandwages？
　　Fortheanswertothisquestionwemustturntothehistoryofcrimeand
　　punishment；totheReportsoftheParliamentaryCommitteesonLabourers’
　　WagesontheGameLaws，onEmigration1826and1827，
　　onCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsandSecondaryPunishments1827，
　　1828，1831，and1832，andtheevidenceofthosewhowereintouchwiththis
　　sideofvillagelife。Fromthesesourceswelearnthat，rateaidnotbeing
　　sufficienttobringwagestothemaintenancelevel，poaching，smuggling，
　　andultimatelythievingwerecalledintorehabilitatethelabourer’seconomic
　　position。37*Hewasdriventothewagesofcrime。Thehistoryoftheagricultural
　　labourerinthisgenerationiswritteninthecodeoftheGameLaws，the
　　growingbrutalityoftheCriminalLaw，andthepreoccupationoftherich
　　withtheefficacyofpunishment。
　　WeknowfromFieldingwithwhatsortofjusticethemagistratestreated
　　personsaccusedofpoachinginthereignofGeorgeIII’sgrandfather，but
　　whenhewrotehisaccountofSquireWestern，andwhenBlackstonewrotethat
　　theGameLawshadraisedupalittleNimrodineverymanor，thebloodof
　　menandboyshadnotyetbeenspiltforthepleasuresoftherich。itis
　　onlyafterFieldingandBlackstonewerebothintheirgravesthatthispage
　　ofhistorybecamecrimson，andthatthegentlemenofEnglandtooktoguarding
　　theirspecialamusementsbymethodsofwhichaMemberofParliamentdeclared
　　thatthenoblesofFrancehadnotventuredontheirlikeinthedaysoftheir
　　mostsplendidarrogance。ThelittleNimrodswhomadeandapplied。theircode
　　wereasmallandselectclass。Theywerethepersonsqualifiedunderthe
　　lawofCharlesIItoshootgame，i。e。，personswhopossessedafreeholdestate
　　ofatleast£；100ayear，oraleaseholdestateofatleast£；150
　　ayear，orthesonorheir-apparentofanesquireorpersonofhigherdegree。
　　ThelegislationthatoccupiessomuchofEnglishhistoryduringaperiod
　　ofmiseryandfamineisdevotedtotheprotectionofthemonopolyofthis
　　class，comprisinglessthanoneintenthousandofthepeopleofEngland。
　　AMemberofParliamentnamedWarburtonsaidintheHouseofCommonsthat
　　theonlyparalleltothismonopolywastobefoundinMariner’saccountof
　　theTongaIslands，whereratswerepreservedasgame。Anybodymighteatrats
　　there，butnobodywasallowedtokillthemexceptpersonsdescendedfrom
　　godsorkings。
　　Withthegeneralgrowthofupper-classrichesandluxurytherecameover
　　shootingachangecorrespondingwiththechangethatturnedhuntinginto
　　amagnificentandextravagantspectacle。Thehabitsetinofpreservinggame
　　ingreatmasses，oforganisingthebattue，ofmaintainingarmiesofkeepers。
　　Inmanypartsofthecountry，pheasantswerenowintroduCedforthefirst
　　time。Whereasgamehadhithertokeptsomethingofthewildness，andvagrancy，
　　andcarelessfreedomofNature，thewoodswerenowpackedwithtameanddocile
　　birds，whosegayfeatherssparkledamongthetrees，beforetheeyesofthe
　　half-starvedlabourersbreakingstonesontheroadathalfacrownaweek。
　　ThechangeisdescribedbywitnessessuchasSirJamesGrahamandSirThomas
　　Baring，magistratesrespectivelyinCumberlandandHampshire，beforethe
　　SelectCommitteeonCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsin1827。England
　　was，infact，passingthroughaprocesspreciselyoppositetothatwhich
　　hadtakenplaceinFrance：thesportoftherichwasbecomingmoreandmore
　　ofanelaboratesystem，andmoreofavestedinterest。Thisdevelopmentwas
　　markedbythegrowthofanoffensivecombinationamonggamepreservers；in
　　somepartsofthecountrygameassociationswereformed，fortheexpress
　　purposeofpayingthecostsofprosecutions，sothatthepoacherhadagainst
　　himnotmerelyabenchofgamepreservers，butaringofsquires，asort
　　ofHolyAllianceforthepunishmentofsocialrebels，whichdrewitsmeshes
　　notroundaparishbutroundacounty。Simultaneously，aswehaveseen，a
　　generalchangewascomingoverthecircumstancesandpositionofthepoor。
　　Themassofthepeoplewerelosingtheirrightsandindependence；theywere
　　beingforcedintoanabsolutedependenceonwages，andwerelivingonthe
　　brinkoffamine。Thesetwodevelopmentsmustbekeptinmindinwatching
　　thebuildingupofthegamecodeinthelastphaseoftheancientré；gime。
　　TheActsforprotectinggamepassedaftertheaccessionofGeorgeIII
　　areinacrescendooffierceness。ThefirstimportantActwaspassedin1770。
　　UnderthisActanyonewhokilledgameofanykindbetweensunsettingand
　　sunrising，orusedanygun，ordog，snare，net，orotherenginefordestroying
　　gameatnight，was，onconvictionbyonewitnessbeforeoneJusticeofthe
　　Peace，tobepunishedwithimprisonmentfornotlessthanthreemonthsor
　　morethansix。Forasubsequentoffencehewastobeimprisonedfornotmore
　　thantwelvemonthsorlessthansix，andtobewhippedpubliclybetweenthe
　　hoursoftwelveandoneo’clock。Thiswaslightpunishmentcomparedwith
　　themeasuresthatweretofollow。Intheyear1800，theyearofMarengo，
　　whenallEnglandwasbracedupforitsgreatduelwiththecommonenemyof
　　freedomandorder，andthelabourersweretoldeverydaythattheywould
　　bethefirsttosufferifNapoleonlandedinEngland，theEnglishParliament
　　foundtimetopassanotherActtopunishpoachers，andtoteachjusticeto
　　mendherslowpace。BythisActwhentwoormorepersonswerefoundinany
　　forest，chase，park，wood，plantation，paddock，field，meadow，orotheropen
　　orenclosedground，havinganygun，net，engine，orotherinstrument，with
　　theintenttodestroy，take，orkillgame，theyweretobeseizedbykeepers
　　orservants，andonconvictionbeforeaJ。P。，theyweretobetreatedas
　　roguesandvagabondsundertheActof1744，i。e。，theyweretobepunished
　　byimprisonmentwithhardlabour；anincorrigiblerogue，i。e。，asecondoffender，
　　wastobeimprisonedfortwoyearswithwhipping。Further，iftheoffender
　　wasovertwelveyearsofage，themagistratesmightsentencehimtoserve
　　inthearmyornavy。IfanincorrigiblerogueescapedfromtheHouseofCorrection
　　hewastobeliabletotransportationforsevenyears。
　　TwoconsequencesfollowedfromthisAct。Nowthatpunishmentwasmade
　　sosevere，thepoacherhadastrongreasonforviolence：surrendermeant
　　serviceinacondemnedregiment，andhethereforetooktherisksofresistance。
　　Thesecondconsequencewasthepracticeofpoachinginlargegroups。The
　　organisationofpoachinggangswasnotanaturaldevelopmentoftheindustry；
　　itwasadoptedinself-defence。38*ThisActledinevitablytothosebattles
　　betweengamekeepersandlabourersthatbecamesoconspicuousafeatureof
　　Englishlifeatthistime，andin1803LordEllenboroughpassedanActwhich
　　providedthatanypersonswhopresentedagunortried，tostaborcut’with
　　intenttoobstruct，resist，orpreventthelawfulapprehensionordetainer
　　ofthepersonorpersonssostabbingorcutting，orthelawfulapprehension
　　ordetainerofanyofhis，her，ortheiraccomplicesforanyoffencesfor
　　whichhe，she，ortheymayrespectivelybeliablebylawtobeapprehended，
　　imprisoned，ordetained，’shouldsufferdeathasafelon。In1816，whenpeace
　　andthefallofpriceswerebringingnewproblemsintheirtrain，therewent
　　throughParliament，withoutasyllableofdebate，aBillofwhichRomilly
　　saidthatnoparalleltoitcouldbefoundinthelawsofanycountryin
　　theworld。BythatActapersonwhowasfoundatnightunarmed，butwith
　　anetforpoaching，inanyforest，chase，orparkwastobepunishedbytransportation
　　forsevenyears。ThisActRomillyinducedParliamenttorepealinthefollowing
　　year，buttheActthattookitsplaceonlysoftenedthelawtotheextent
　　ofwithdrawingthispunishmentfrompersonsfoundwithnets，butwithout
　　gunsorbludgeons：itenactedthatanypersonsofound，armedwithgun，crossbow，
　　firearms，bludgeon，oranyotheroffensiveweapon，wastobetriedatQuarter
　　Sessions，andifconvicted，tobesentencedtotransportationforsevenyears：
　　ifsuchoffenderweretoreturntoGreatBritainbeforehistimewasover，
　　hewastobetransportedfortherestofhislife。39*
　　ThissavageAct，thoughbynomeansadeadletter，asParliamentaryReturns
　　show，seemstohavedefeateditsownend，forin1828itwasrepealed，because，
　　asLordWharncliffetoldtheHouseofLords，therewasacertainreluctance
　　onthepartofjuriestoconvictaprisoner，whentheyknewthatconviction
　　wouldbefollowedbytransportation。ThenewActof1828，whichalloweda
　　persontobeconvictedbeforetwomagistrates，reservedtransportationfor
　　thethirdoffence，punishingthefirstoffencebythreemonths’，andthe
　　secondbysixmonths’imprisonment。Buttheconvictedpersonhadtofind
　　suretiesafterhisrelease，orelsegobacktohardlabourforanothersix
　　monthsifitwasafirstoffence，oranothertwelvemonthsifitwashis
　　second。Further，ifthreemenwerefoundinawoodandoneofthemcarried
　　agunorbludgeon，allthreewereliabletobetransportedforfourteenyears。40*
　　Althorp’sBillof1831whichabolishedthequalificationsoftheActofCharles
　　II，gavetherighttoshoottoeverylandownerwhotookoutacertificate，
　　andmadethesaleofgamelegal，proposedinitsoriginalformtoalterthese
　　punishments，makingthatforthefirstandsecondoffencesrathermoresevere
　　fourandeightmonths，andthatforthethird，twoyears’imprisonment。
　　InCommitteeintheHouseofCommonsthetwoyearswerereducedtooneyear
　　ontheproposalofOratorHunt。TheHouseofLords，however，restoredthe
　　punishmentsoftheActof1828。